NOTES - CHAPTER 1 ( CELL)

CLASS - 9TH
SUBJECT - BIOLOGY

History of cell -
 Robert Hooke discovered cell in a cork slice with self designed microscope in
1665.
 Cork is a substance obtained from the bark of a tree.
 He observed honey comb like structures named them cell.
 In Latin Cell means “little room”.
 Robert Hooke published his work in his book “Micrographia”.
 With a better microscope, Anton von Leeuwenhoek observed free-living cells in
pond water for the first time in 1674.
 J. E. Purkinje created the name "protoplasm" for the cell's fluid portion in 1839.
 In 1866, Haeckel established that nucleus was responsible for storing and
transmitting hereditary characters.
Cell theory -
 first presented by Jakob Matthias Schleiden [German Botanist] in 1838 and
Theodor Schwann [German Zoologist] in 1839 states that all plants and animals
are made up of cells.
 The cell theory was refined further in 1855 by R. Virchow.
 ‘Omnis cellulae e cellula’. It means cell arises from pre - existing cells.
Thus, the cell theory comprises of the following -
1. All metabolic reactions takes place in cells. Thus, cells are structural and functional
unit of life.
2. All organisms are composed of cells.
3. Every organisms starts its life as a single cell. Viruses are an exception.
4. All cells arises from pre - existing cells.

Types of organisms -
 On the basis of number of cells, organisms are of two types -
(i) Unicellular organisms - these organisms are single celled which perform all the
functions.
Example - Amoeba, Paramecium, Bacteria.
(ii) Multicellular organisms - many cells grouped together to perform different
functions in the body and also form various body parts.
Example - Fungi, plants, animals.

 On the basis of type of organisation cells are of two kind -

(i) Prokaryotic cell
(ii) Eukaryotic cell
Cell shape -
 Spherical - eggs of many animals
 Polyhedral
 Spindled shape - smooth muscle fibre
 Discoidal - RBCs etc..

Cell size -
 Prokaryotic cell usually range between 1 to 10 µm.
 Eukaryotic cell are larger in size ( 10 to 100 µm).
 Largest cell - Ostrich egg I.e 15 - 18 cm.
 Smallest cell - Mycoplasma I.e o.1 µm.
 Largest cell in the human body - ovum (female gamete) I.e 1mm in diameter.
 Longest cell in the human body - nerve cell 1m.
 Smallest cell in the human body - sperm I.e 4 µm.
Components of cell -
 There is an occurrence of division of labour within a eukaryotic cell as they all
got certain specific components called ‘ cell organelles’. each of them performs a
specific functions.
Three basic components of all the cells are -
 Plasma membrane
 Nucleus
 Cytoplasm
 Cytoplasm
Plasma membrane - The plasma membrane, also known as the cell membrane, is
the cell's outermost layer, which separates the cell's contents from its surroundings.
 It is a living, thin, delicate and selectively permeable membrane. It is 7 nm thick.
 It is made up pf phospholipids, proteins, cholestrol.
 In 1972 Singer and Nicolson suggested a model, called fluid mosaic model.
 According to them, it is made up of a bilayer of phospholipids, two protein
molecules intrinsic and extrinsic.
 It has been described as “a number of protein icebergs floating in the sea of
lipids”.
Functions -
1. The plasma membrane allows or permits the entry and exit of some materials in
and out of the cell.
2. It prevents movements of some other materials not required for the cell as it acts
like selectively permeable membrane.
Movement of substances takes place in out of a cell -
1. Diffusion -
The spontaneous movement of a substance from a region of high concentration to
the region of low concentration.
Some substance like carbon dioxide or oxygen can move across the cell membrane
by a process called diffusion.
Cell also obtain nutrition from its environment.

2. Osmosis -
The movement of water molecules through selectively permeable membrane along
the concentration gradient is called osmosis.
 Name of the solution Condition Result
Hypotonic solution Medium surrounding cell Cell will gain water by
has higher water osmosis and likely to
concentration than cell swell up
Isotonic solution Medium has exactly same Water crosses the cell
water concentration as membrane in both
the cell directions.
Cell will stay the same
size.
Hypertonic solution Medium has lower Water crosses the cell in
concentration of water both directions, but more
than the cell water leaves the cell than
enters it.

3. Endocytosis - it is the ingestion of material by the cells through the plasma

membrane. It is a collective term that describes three similar process - phagocytosis
(cell eating), potocytosis (cell drinking) and receptor mediated endocytosis.
4. Exocytosis - the membrane of a vesicle can fuse with the plasma membrane and
extrude its contents to the surrounding medium.
 This process is called cell vomiting.
Cell wall -
 It is non - living, freely permeable and secreted by the cell itself for the
protection.
 It is made up of cellulose (polysacchride).
 Found only in plant cells.
 It consist of tiny cellulose called micro fibrils.
 The cell wall of adjacent cells are glued together by middle lamella.
Functions -
1. It permits the plant cell to become turgid.
2. It provides mechanical strength to support the cell.
3. It is freely permeable to water and substances in solution.
 NOTE - when a living plant cell loses water through osmosis there is a
shrinkage of the protoplasm away from the cell wall. This phenomenon is
called plasmolysis.

Nucleus -
 It is called the brain of the cell as it controls all the activities of cell.
 The nucleus is large, centrally located.
 It is bounded by two nuclear membrane, both forming a nuclear envelope.
 The nuclear membrane has pores which allow the transfer of material from
inside the nucleus to cytoplasm.
 It encloses the liquid substance called nucleoplasm.
 Nucleolus may be one or more, known as factory of ribosomes
 The nucleus contains chromosomes which are visible as rod shaped structures
only when the cell is about to divide.
 Chromosomes contain information for inheritance of features from parents to
next generation in the form of DNA (Deoxy ribo nucleic acid).
 Chromosomes are composed of DNA and proteins.
 Functional segments of DNA are called genes.
 Chromatin material is visible as entangled mass of thread like structures.
Whenever the cells is about to divide, the chromatin material gets organized
into chromosomes and perform cell division.
Function -
1. It regulates the cell cycle.
2. It controls all the metabolic activities of the cell. If the nucleus is removed from a
cell, protoplasm dries up and dies.
3. It is concerned with the transmission of hereditary traits from the parents to
offspring.
Cytoplasm -
 It is the fluid content inside the plasma membrane.
 It also contains many specialised cell organelles. Each of these organelles
performs a specific function for the cell.
Functions -
1. It act as store of vital chemicals such as amino acids, glucose, vitamins and iron.
2. It is the site of certain metabolic pathways such as glycolysis.
3. It helps in exchange of material between cell organelles.
Endoplasmic reticulum - Discovered by Keith R. Porter and Thomson in 1945.
 It is a large network of membrane - bound tubes and sheets.
 ER occur in three forms :
(i) Cisternae (closed, fluid - filled sacs)
(ii) Vesicles
(iii) Tubules

It is of two types -
(i) Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) - Ribosomes attached on its surface for
synthesizing proteins.
(ii) Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) - Without ribosomes and is meant for
secreting lipids.
NOTE - ER absent in red blood cells of mammals.
Functions -
1. It forms supporting skeletal framework of the cell.
2. Certain enzymes present in SER synthesize fats, steroids and cholesterol.
3. It provides a pathway for the distribution of nuclear material from one cell to the
other.
4. In the liver cells of vertebrates , SER plays a crucial role in detoxifying many poison
and drugs.
5. Some other proteins and lipid function as enzymes and hormones.
6. Some of these proteins and lipids help in building the cell membrane. This process
is known as membrane bio genesis.
Ribosomes - Discovered by George E. Palade in 1955
 Ribosomes are dense, spherical occur freely in the matrix (cytosol) or remain
attached to the RER.
 No membrane bound organelle.
 The major constituents of ribosomes are the ribo nucleic acid (RNA).
 They are present in both, prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
It play an important role in the synthesis of proteins.

Golgi apparatus - Discovered by Camillo Golgi in 1898.

 It is also called the post office of the cell. They package and transport the
proteins across the cytoplasm.
 It consist of a system of membrane bound vesicles arranged approximately
parallel to each other in stacks called cisterns.
 Cisternae are formed at one end of the stack called cis face of Golgi.
 They are budded off as vesicles at the other face of Golgi apparatus called trans
face of Golgi.
NOTE - Absent in bacteria, blue green algae, mature sperms,
and red blood cells of mammals.
Functions -
1. Its main function is secretory. It produces vacuoles or secretory vesicles contain
cellular secretions e.g. enzymes, proteins, melanin pigment etc.
2. It is also involved in the formation of lysosomes, cell wall, plasma membrane.
3. Its function include the storage, modification and packaging of products in
vesicles.
Lysosomes - discovered by Christain de Duve in 1955
 Lysosomes are a kind of waste disposal system of the cell.
 It help to keep the cell clean by digesting any foreign material as well as worn -
out cell organelles.
 Lysosomes have membrane bounded structure whose sacs are filled with
digestive enzymes.

Functions of lysosomes -
1. Lysosomes break foreign materials entering the cell, such as bacteria or food as
well as old organelles into small pieces.
2. They contain powerful digestive enzymes which are made in RER which is capable
of breaking down all organic material in RER.
3. During the disturbance in cellular metabolism such as when the cell gets damaged,
lysosomes may burst and the enzymes digest their own cell. Therefore, lysosomes
are also known as the ‘suicide bags’ of a cell.
Mitochondria - discovered by Albert von Kolliker
 Known as the powerhouses of the cell.
Structure -
 Mitochondria have two membrane coverings.
 The outer membrane is very porous while the inner membrane is deeply folded.
 These folds create a large surface area for ATP generating chemical reactions.
Functions -
1. The energy required for various chemical activities needed for life is released by
mitochondria in the form of ATP (Adenosine tri phosphate) molecules.
2. ATP is known as the energy currency of the cell. The body uses energy stored in
ATP for making new chemical compounds and for mechanical work.
3. Mitochondria have their own DNA and ribosomes. Therefore, mitochondria are
able to make some of their own proteins.
Plastids - discovered by Ernst Haeckel in 1866.
 Plastids are present only in plant cells and green algae.
 There are three types of plastids -
(i) Chromoplasts (colored plastids)
(ii) Leucoplasts (white or colorless plastids)
(iii) Chloroplasts (contain the pigment chlorophyll)

Structure of plastids -
 Grana are stacks of membrane - bounded, flattened discoid sacs (called
thylakoids).
 The internal organisation of the plastids consists of numerous membrane layers
embedded in a material called stroma.
 Granum is the site of light reaction, while stroma is the site for dark reaction.
Plastids also have their own DNA and ribosomes like mitochondria and similar to its
structure.
Functions -
1. Chloroplasts are important for photosynthesis in plants.
2. Chromoplasts impart various colors to flowers to attract insects for pollination.
3. Leucoplasts store food such as starch (Amyloplasts), fats (Elaioplasts) and proteins
(Aleuroplasts).

Vacuoles - discovered by Leeuwenhoek in 1676.

 Vacuoles are fluid - filled or solid filled and membrane bounded spaces.
 They are small sized in animal cells while plant cells have very large vacuoles.
 The central vacuole of some plant cells may occupy 50 - 90% of the cell volume.

Functions -
1. In plant cells vacuoles are full of cell sap and provide turgidity and rigidity to the
cell.
2. In single celled organisms like Amoeba, the food vacuole contains the food items
that the Amoeba has consumed.
3. In some unicellular organisms, specialised vacuoles also play important roles in
expelling excess water and some wastes from the cell.
4. Many important substance in the life of the plant cell are stored in vacuoles which
include amino acids, sugars, various organic acids and some proteins.