Unit 3

Computer System Hardware

3.1 Introduction and Components of CPU

The CPU, or Central Processing Unit, serves as the brain of a computer, executing
instructions and performing calculations necessary for the functioning of software
applications. It is comprised of several key components that work together to process data.
The CPU is often considered the most critical component of a computer system. It
interprets instructions fetched from memory, executes arithmetic and logical operations,
and coordinates the activities of other hardware components. The CPU's performance
directly impacts the overall speed and responsiveness of the system.
CPU stands for Central Processing Unit. It is the soul of a computer system. The CPU
along with the memory and the I/O sub-systems establish a strong computer system.
A CPU includes small layers of hundreds of transistors. Transistors are microscopic bits of
substances that block electricity at one voltage (non-conductor) and enable electricity to
move through them at multiple voltages (conductor).
These slight bits of substantial are the semiconductors that create two electronic inputs and
create multiple outputs when one or both inputs are turned on.
CPU is the most significant in a computer system. It is the component that regulates all
internal and external devices and implements arithmetic and logic operations to perform
the set of instructions saved in the computer’s memory.
Components of CPU
A CPU includes three major components that are as follows −
Register Set: The register set contrasts from one system to another. The register set
includes several registers which contain general-purpose registers and special-purpose
registers. The general-purpose registers do not implement any particular function. They
save the temporary information that is needed by a program. The special-purpose registers
execute various functions for the CPU.
ALU: The ALU implements all the arithmetic, logical, and shift operations by supporting
important circuitry that provides these evaluations.
Control Unit: The control unit fetches the instructions from the main memory, decodes
the instructions, and then executes them.

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The CPU interacts with the main memory and input/output devices. The CPU reads and
writes data to and from the memory system and transfers data to and from the I/O devices.
An elementary execution cycle in the CPU can be defined as follows −
• The CPU fetches the instruction to be implemented from the main memory and
saves it in the Instruction Register (IR).
• The instruction is decoded.
• The operands are fetched from the memory system and stored in the CPU
registers.
• The instructions are then executed.
• The results are transferred from the CPU registers to the memory system.
If there are more instructions to be executed, the execution cycle repeats. Some pending
interrupts are also tested during the execution cycle.
Example − The interrupts including I/O device request, arithmetic overflow, or pages are
tested during the execution cycle.
The procedures of the CPU are represented by the micro-orders issued by the control unit.
The micro-orders are the control signals, which are transfer over-determined control lines.
CPU is the main component of a computer system. It can give out each instruction of a
program to implement primary arithmetical, logical, and input/output operations.

The following components work together seamlessly to execute instructions, process

data, and perform calculations, enabling the computer to perform a wide range of
tasks efficiently:

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a. Control Unit (CU): The Control Unit manages the operations of the CPU. It fetches
instructions from memory, decodes them, and coordinates the execution of these
instructions. The CU also controls the flow of data within the CPU and between other
hardware components.
b. Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): The Arithmetic Logic Unit performs arithmetic and
logical operations on data. It can perform tasks like addition, subtraction, multiplication,
division, and comparisons. The ALU processes data according to the instructions provided
by the Control Unit.
c. Registers: Registers are small, high-speed memory units located within the CPU. They
store data that the CPU is actively processing or about to process. Some common types of
registers include:
• Instruction Register (IR): Holds the currently fetched instruction.
• Program Counter (PC): Keeps track of the memory address of the next
instruction to be fetched.
• Memory Address Register (MAR): Holds the memory address of data
being accessed.
• Memory Data Register (MDR): Contains data fetched from or being sent
to memory.
d. Cache Memory: Cache memory is a small, high-speed memory unit located within or
near the CPU. It stores frequently accessed data and instructions, allowing the CPU to
quickly retrieve them without accessing the slower main memory (RAM). Cache memory
helps improve the overall performance of the CPU by reducing memory access latency.
e. Bus Interface Unit (BIU): The Bus Interface Unit manages the communication between
the CPU and other components of the computer system via the system bus. It coordinates
the transfer of data and instructions between the CPU, memory, and other peripheral
devices.
f. Clock Generator: The Clock Generator produces electrical signals that synchronize the
operations of different components within the CPU. The clock speed, measured in Hertz
(Hz), determines how many instructions the CPU can execute per second.

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 Fig: CPU

3.2 Anatomy of Computer Hardware

The anatomy of computer hardware refers to the physical components that make up a
computer system. These components work together to enable the computer to process
data, perform tasks, and execute programs. Here are the key components:
(a) Motherboard
A motherboard is a circuit board inside computers that stores electrical components
and helps them communicate.
• A motherboard is a circuit board inside general-purpose computing systems,
including personal computers, smart televisions, smart monitors, and other similar
devices, which supports communication between different electrical components
and houses components such as the CPU, memory, etc.
• It is typically made of fiberglass and copper.
• This article defines a motherboard and explains its components and functions.
A computer’s motherboard is typically the largest printed circuit board in a machine’s
chassis. It distributes electricity and facilitates communication between and to the central
processing unit (CPU), random access memory (RAM), and any other component of the
computer’s hardware. There is a broad range of motherboards, each of which is intended
to be compatible with a specific model and size of the computer.
Since different kinds of processors and memories are intended to function best with certain
types of motherboards, it is difficult to find a motherboard that is compatible with every

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type of CPU and memory. Hard drives, on the other hand, are generally compatible with a
wide variety of motherboards and may be used with most brands and types.
A computer motherboard may be found inside a computer casing, which is the point of
connection for most of the computer’s elements and peripherals. When it comes to tower
computers, one may look for a motherboard on either the right or left side of the tower; the
circuit board is the most significant.
The earliest motherboards for personal computers included relatively fewer real
components. Only a CPU and some card ports were included on the very first IBM PC
motherboard. Users inserted various components, including memory and controllers for
floppy drives, into the slots provided.
Compaq became the first company to utilize a motherboard that was not based on a design
created by IBM. The new architecture utilized a CPU made by Intel. When Compaq’s sales
began to take off, other businesses quickly followed suit, even though several companies
in the industry believed it was a risky move.
But by the 1990s, Intel had a dominant share of the market for personal computer
motherboards. Asus, Gigabyte Technology, and Micro-Star International (MSI) are the
three most influential companies in this industry. However, Intel remains one of the ten
best motherboard manufacturers in the world, even though Asus is now the largest
motherboard maker on the planet.

Motherboards come in various types and form factors, each designed for specific purposes
and applications. Here are some common types of motherboards:

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 1. ATX (Advanced Technology eXtended):
• Standard ATX: The most common form factor for desktop computers. It
typically measures 12 x 9.6 inches and provides multiple expansion slots
and connectors.
• MicroATX (mATX): A smaller version of the ATX form factor, measuring
9.6 x 9.6 inches. MicroATX motherboards usually have fewer expansion
slots but can fit into smaller cases.
• Extended ATX (EATX): Larger than standard ATX, EATX motherboards
are designed for high-performance systems and often include additional
expansion slots and features.
2. Mini-ITX:
• Mini-ITX: A compact form factor measuring 6.7 x 6.7 inches. Mini-ITX
motherboards are suitable for small form factor (SFF) and compact systems,
such as HTPCs (Home Theater PCs) or small gaming rigs.
3. MicroBTX:
• MicroBTX: A less common form factor designed to improve airflow and
component layout compared to MicroATX. MicroBTX motherboards have
a maximum size of 10.4 x 10.4 inches.
4. Nano-ITX:
• Nano-ITX: An even smaller form factor, measuring 4.7 x 4.7 inches. Nano-
ITX is often used in embedded systems and applications with strict size
constraints.
5. FlexATX:
• FlexATX: Similar to MicroATX but with a reduced length, measuring 9 x
7.5 inches. FlexATX motherboards are compact and suitable for small
cases.
6. Mini-STX (Mini Socket Technology Extended):
• Mini-STX: A form factor developed by Intel for ultra-compact systems.
Mini-STX motherboards are smaller than Mini-ITX, measuring 5.8 x 5.5
inches.
7. ATX-ITX:
• ATX-ITX: An uncommon form factor that combines elements of ATX and
Mini-ITX. It is designed to provide a balance between compact size and
expansion options.

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 8. BTX (Balanced Technology eXtended):
• BTX: An older form factor that aimed to improve system cooling and
component layout. However, it never gained widespread adoption, and
ATX remains the dominant standard.
9. Pico-ITX:
• Pico-ITX: The smallest standard motherboard form factor, measuring only
3.9 x 2.8 inches. Pico-ITX is often used in applications with extremely
limited space, such as embedded systems and IoT devices.
Each form factor has its own advantages and is suited to different types of computer builds.
When choosing a motherboard, it's essential to consider factors like the intended use,
available space, and desired features.
How does a motherboard work?
When you turn your computer on, the power supply transfers electricity to the motherboard
to be used by the computer. Data is transported between the chipset components via data
buses and travels between the southbridge and northbridge sections.
The data connections to the CPU, RAM, or PCIe are made through the northbridge
component. The operations performed by the RAM are first “interpreted” by the CPU as
being output after the RAM begins to deliver inputs to the CPU. After being written to the
PCIe, the data is either copied or moved to the expansion card, based on the kind of card
you have.
The data connection to the basic input/output system (BIOS), the universal serial bus
(USB), the serial advanced technology attachment (SATA), and the PCI bus are managed
by the southbridge component. Your computer can start up because of signals sent to the
BIOS, and the data sent to the SATA “awakens” your optical, hard disc, and solid-state
drives. The video card, network card, and sound card receive power from the information
stored on the SATA.
The remaining components interact via an electrical signal, which serves as a hub for them.
These data buses pass via a microchip’s northbridge or southbridge elements, which then
branch off to other components like the CPU, RAM, PCI, and PCIe, amongst other
elements.
The information sent over buses will be encoded using a programming language (1 and 0).
When a signal is sent to a motherboard from one of its components, the motherboard will
process it and translate it into a language the other component can comprehend. On most
of today’s computing systems, all of this will occur in a split second, and there is almost
no delay between the input and the output.
12 Key Components of a Motherboard
The following are the key components of a motherboard:

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1. Mouse and keyboard connectors
Computer motherboards must have two separate connectors that allow users to connect
their external mouse and keyboard. These connectors are responsible for sending
instructions and receiving responses from the computer. There are two keyboard and mouse
connectors, the PS/2 and the USB. The personal system/2(PS/2) port is a mini-DIN plug
that contains six pins and connects the mouse or keyboard to an IBM-compatible computer.
Other computers use the USB port to connect the mouse or keyboard.
2. Universal serial bus (USB)
The USB is a computer interface that connects computers to other devices, such as phones.
The USB port is a significant part of a motherboard that allows users to connect external
peripheral devices such as printers, scanners, and pen drives to the computer. Moreover, it
enables users to transfer data between the device and the computer. A USB port allows
users to connect peripheral devices without restarting the system. Types of USB include
USB-A, USB-B, USB-mini, micro-USB, USB-C, and USB-3.
3. CPU
The central processing unit (CPU) is commonly referred to as the computer’s brain. The
CPU controls all the functions of a computer. CPUs are available in different form factors,
each requiring a particular slot on the motherboard. A CPU can contain one or multiple
cores. A CPU with a single core can only perform a single task at a time, while those with
multiple cores can execute multiple tasks simultaneously.
4. RAM memory

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RAM slots connect the random access memory (RAM) to the motherboard. RAM allows
the computer to temporarily store files and programs that are being accessed by the CPU.
Computers with more RAM capacity can hold and process larger files and programs, thus
enhancing performance. However, RAM contents are erased when the computer is shut
down. A computer usually has two RAM slots. However, some computers have up to four
RAM slots in the motherboard to increase the available memory.
5. Basic input/output (BIOS) system
The BIOS contains the firmware of the motherboard. It consists of instructions about what
to do when the computer is turned on. It is responsible for initializing the hardware
components and loading the computer’s operating system. The BIOS also allows the
computer’s operating system to interact and respond with input and output devices such as
a mouse and keyboard.
In some motherboards, the legacy BIOS is replaced by the modern extensible firmware
interface (EFI) or the unified extensible firmware interface (UEFI). UEFI and EFI allow
the computer to boot faster, provide more diagnostic and repair tools, and provide a more
efficient interface between the operating system and computer components.
6. Chipsets
The chipsets of a computer control how the computer hardware and buses interact with the
CPU and other components. Chipsets also determine the amount of memory users can add
to a motherboard and the type of connectors that the motherboard can have.
The first type of chipset is the northbridge chipset. The northbridge manages the speed at
which the CPU communicates with the components. It also controls the processor, the AGP
video slot, and the RAM.
The second type of chipset is the southbridge chipset. The southbridge chipset controls the
rest of the components connected to the computer, including communication between the
processor and expansion ports such as USB ports and sound cards.
7. Cooling fans
The heat generated when electric current flows between components can make a computer
run slowly. If too much heat is left to build up unchecked, it could damage computer
components. Thus, a computer performs better when kept cool. Cooling fans increase the
airflow, which helps to remove heat from the computer. Some elements, such as video
adapter cards, have dedicated cooling fans.
8. Adapter cards and expansion slots
Adapter cards are integrated into the motherboard to enhance a computer’s functionality.
Examples include sound and video adapters. The expansion slots allow users to install
compatible adapter cards. Examples of expansion slots include the peripheral component

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interconnect (PCI) slot, the AGP slot (which enables the insertion of video cards), the PCI
Express serial bus slot, and the PCI-extended slot.
9. CMOS battery
The CMOS battery is a small round battery found on the motherboard of every computer.
It provides power to the complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS) chip. The
CMOS chip stores BIOS information and computer settings, even when powered down.
The CMOS battery allows users to skip resetting BIOS configurations, such as boot order,
date, and time settings, each time they power on their computer.
10. Storage devices
Storage drives store data permanently or retrieve data from a media disk. The storage
devices can either be installed in the computer as hard drives or in removable drives that
can connect to the computer through the USB ports. Hard disk drives(HDD) or solid-state
drives (SSD) are computers’ primary storage drives. Computers with SSDs execute tasks
much faster and perform better than HDDs. Users can also use optical drives such as
compact discs to store information.

11. Front panel connectors

Front panel connectors connect the light-emitting diode (LED) lights on the front of the
case to the hard drive, the power button, the reset button, and the internal speaker for
testing. Some USB and audio devices also have LED lights.
These front panel connectors are usually plugged into small pins on the motherboard.
Although the pins are grouped and color-coded, their layout structure varies depending on
the model of the motherboard.
12. Power connector
The power connector provides an electric supply to the computer to function as intended.
The power supply connector has 20 pins and converts 110-V AC power into +/-12-Volt,
+/-5-Volt, and 3.3-Volt direct current (DC) power.

Some Other Components

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Functions of a Motherboard
The following are seven functions of a motherboard:

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1. Manages data flow
The BIOS component of the motherboard ensures that the operating system interacts well
with input and output devices, such as the keyboard and mouse, to process instructions.
This ensures that the data sent to the computer moves as expected to perform the intended
purpose. It also manages data flow through its USB ports, allowing for data transfer
between devices. Additionally, it ensures the processor can access information from the
RAM to boost efficiency.
2. Conserves resources
The motherboard saves consumers time, energy, and money by connecting all the computer
connects. The motherboard provides a platform on which manufacturers can connect all
the necessary components to ensure that the computer functions. Thus, saving consumers’
time and energy as they do not have to assemble and connect different parts manually.
Moreover, collecting the individual components can prove costly as consumers would be
forced to incur additional transport and other miscellaneous costs.
3. Optimizes power distribution
The motherboard provides and distributes power optimally. Computers require electricity
to function. The motherboard has a power connector plug that connects the computer to a
power source and converts it into a form of electrical power that the computer can use.
After that, the motherboard ensures that the electric current is distributed optimally to
different system components.
The motherboard has an integrated circuit technology with pre-defined connections that
ensure each element gets the necessary power. Moreover, the circuits ensure less energy is
consumed to make the computer an energy-efficient machine.
4. Drives communication
The motherboard makes communication between different components easier. For a
computer to process a particular set of instructions, sometimes it may require several
components to communicate and work together to complete the task. In such scenarios, the
motherboard relies on its circuit technology to enable communication between these
components. The motherboard may also depend on some of its components, such as the
CPU, BIOS, expansion ports, and USB ports, to interact with the computer’s operating
system.
5. Enhances performance
The motherboard boosts the capabilities of a computer. Motherboards often transform the
capabilities of a computer. For instance, they have additional features and functionalities,
such as built-in sound and video capabilities that can enhance the computer’s output.
Motherboards also allow users to connect peripheral devices such as printers, enabling

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computers to perform additional tasks such as printing documents. Additionally, users can
expand and upgrade factory-made motherboard parts such as memory slots or hard disks
to boost the capabilities of their computers.
6. Improves reliability
A good motherboard boosts the overall reliability of the computer. A high-quality
motherboard provides a stable foundation for its components to operate on. A good
motherboard has proper cooling, and its integrated circuit technology is set in place. These
factors enable it to control the computer’s hardware efficiently by ensuring that each
element functions as expected and communicates with the other components. A reliable
computer performs tasks efficiently and thus enhances the user experience.
7. Enables productivity
The motherboard reduces effort duplication and simplifies work for computer users. While
traditional computers came pre-installed with BIOS, modern ones are pre-installed with
EFI and UEFI. BIOS, EFI, and UEFI enable computers to boot without requiring users to
reconfigure basic settings, time, and date. They also load the operating system into the
memory. Therefore, these motherboard components allow users to focus on other
productive tasks.

(b) CPU
The CPU, or Central Processing Unit, is often considered the "brain" of a computer system.
It's a critical component responsible for executing instructions and performing calculations
required to run software applications and manage system operations. Here's a detailed
explanation of the CPU:
Functionality: The primary function of the CPU is to execute instructions stored in the
computer's memory. These instructions could involve arithmetic operations, logic
operations, data movement, and control flow operations.
Architecture: CPUs are designed based on specific architectures, such as x86, ARM,
MIPS, PowerPC, and others. These architectures determine the CPU's instruction set,
which is a specific set of commands that the CPU can execute.
Components:
• ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit): This component performs arithmetic operations
(addition, subtraction, multiplication, division) and logical operations (AND, OR,
NOT, XOR) required by program instructions.
• Control Unit: The control unit manages the execution of instructions by fetching
them from memory, decoding them, and then executing them sequentially.

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 • Registers: Registers are small, high-speed storage units within the CPU that hold
data temporarily during processing. Registers include the instruction register (IR),
program counter (PC), and various general-purpose registers.
• Cache Memory: CPUs often have small but fast memory caches that store
frequently accessed data and instructions. This helps improve performance by
reducing the time needed to access data from the main memory.
• Pipeline: Many modern CPUs use pipeline architecture, where multiple
instructions are processed simultaneously in different stages of execution. This
allows for increased throughput and faster overall processing.
• Clock Generator: The CPU relies on a clock signal to synchronize its operations.
The clock generator produces a steady rhythm of electrical pulses that regulate the
timing of instructions and data flow within the CPU.
Performance: CPU performance is measured by factors such as clock speed (measured in
gigahertz, GHz), number of cores, and architectural efficiency. Higher clock speeds and
more cores generally result in better performance, but other factors like cache size,
instruction set optimization, and memory bandwidth also play important roles.
Thermal Management: CPUs generate heat during operation due to the electrical current
flowing through their circuits. Adequate cooling solutions such as heat sinks, fans, and
liquid cooling systems are necessary to prevent overheating and maintain optimal
performance.
Compatibility: The CPU must be compatible with the motherboard's socket type and
chipset. Different CPU architectures and generations may require specific motherboard
support.
Overall, the CPU's role is fundamental to the operation of a computer system, and its
performance and capabilities significantly impact the system's overall speed and efficiency.
(c) RAM
RAM, which stands for Random Access Memory, is a crucial component in computers and
other digital devices. It serves as temporary storage for data and instructions that the CPU
(Central Processing Unit) needs to access quickly during program execution. Here's a
detailed explanation of RAM:

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Functionality: RAM is used to store data and instructions that are actively being used by
the CPU and other hardware components. Unlike storage devices like hard drives and
SSDs, RAM is volatile memory, meaning that it requires a constant power supply to retain
its data. When the computer is turned off, the data stored in RAM is lost.
Access Speed: RAM is much faster to access than storage devices such as hard drives or
SSDs. This is because RAM chips are integrated directly into the computer's motherboard
and use electrical circuits to store and retrieve data quickly.
Data Storage: RAM stores data in binary form (1s and 0s) using electronic switches called
transistors. Each transistor represents a single bit of data. RAM is organized into cells, with
each cell capable of storing a certain number of bits (usually 8 bits, or 1 byte). The capacity
of RAM is measured in gigabytes (GB) or terabytes (TB).
Types of RAM:
• DRAM (Dynamic RAM): This is the most common type of RAM used in
computers. It requires periodic refreshing of the stored data to maintain its integrity.
• SRAM (Static RAM): SRAM is faster and more expensive than DRAM. It doesn't
require refreshing, which makes it suitable for use in CPU cache memory.
• DDR SDRAM (Double Data Rate Synchronous DRAM): DDR SDRAM is a type
of DRAM that transfers data on both the rising and falling edges of the clock signal,
effectively doubling the data transfer rate compared to traditional SDRAM.
Memory Hierarchy: In modern computer systems, memory is organized into a hierarchy
based on access speed and capacity. RAM sits between the CPU and the long-term storage
devices (hard drives, SSDs) in this hierarchy. Registers and CPU cache memory are even
faster but have limited capacity compared to RAM.
Role in System Performance: The amount and speed of RAM in a computer can
significantly impact its overall performance. Having an adequate amount of RAM allows
the system to run multiple programs simultaneously without slowing down due to data
swapping between RAM and storage devices (a process known as paging or swapping).
Memory Modules: RAM is typically installed in the form of memory modules, which are
small circuit boards containing multiple RAM chips. These modules are inserted into slots
on the computer's motherboard, with each slot corresponding to a specific type of RAM
(e.g., DDR4, DDR5).
Upgradeability: Many computers allow users to upgrade the amount of RAM by adding
additional modules or replacing existing ones with higher-capacity modules. This can be a
cost-effective way to improve system performance without replacing the entire computer.
In summary, RAM plays a critical role in computer systems by providing fast, temporary
storage for data and instructions that the CPU needs to access quickly during program
execution. Its speed, capacity, and efficiency are essential factors in determining the overall
performance and responsiveness of a computer.

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(d) Storage Device
The storage unit is a part of the computer system which is employed to store the information
and instructions to be processed. A storage device is an integral part of the computer
hardware which stores information/data to process the result of any computational work.
Without a storage device, a computer would not be able to run or even boot up. Or in other
words, we can say that a storage device is hardware that is used for storing, porting, or
extracting data files. It can also store information/data both temporarily and permanently.
Types of Computer Memory
1. Primary Memory
2. Secondary Memory
3. Tertiary Memory
1. Primary Memory: It is also known as internal memory and main memory. This is a
section of the CPU that holds program instructions, input data, and intermediate results. It
is generally smaller in size. RAM (Random Access Memory) and ROM (Read Only
Memory) are examples of primary storage.
2. Secondary Memory: Secondary storage is a memory that is stored external to the
computer. It is mainly used for the permanent and long-term storage of programs and data.
Hard Disks, CDs, DVDs, Pen/Flash drives, SSD, etc, are examples of secondary storage.
3. Tertiary Memory: Tertiary Memory is a type of Memory that is rarely used in personal
computers and due to this, tertiary memory is not considered to be an important one.
Tertiary memory works automatically without human intervention.

Types of Computer Storage Devices

Now we will discuss different types of storage devices available in the market. These
storage devices have their own specification and use. Some of the commonly used storage
devices are:
1. Primary Storage Devices
2. Magnetic Storage Devices
3. Flash memory Devices
4. Optical Storage Devices
5. Cloud and Virtual Storage
1. Primary Storage Devices
• RAM: It stands for Random Access Memory. It is used to store information that is
used immediately or we can say that it is a temporary memory. Computers bring

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 the software installed on a hard disk to RAM to process it and to be used by the
user. Once, the computer is turned off, the data is deleted. With the help of RAM,
computers can perform multiple tasks like loading applications, browsing the web,
editing a spreadsheet, experiencing the newest game, etc. It allows you to modify
quickly among these tasks, remembering where you’re in one task once you switch
to a different task. It is also used to load and run applications, like your spreadsheet
program, answers commands, like all edits you made within the spreadsheet, or
toggle between multiple programs, like once you left the spreadsheet to see the
email. Memory is nearly always actively employed by your computer. It ranges
from 1GB – 32GB/64GB depending upon the specifications. There are different
types of RAM, and although they all serve the same purpose, the most common
ones are :
• SRAM: It stands for Static Random Access Memory. It consists of circuits
that retain stored information as long as the power supply is on. It is also
known as volatile memory. It is used to build Cache memory. The access
time of SRAM is lower and it is much faster as compared to DRAM but in
terms of cost, it is costly as compared to DRAM.
• DRAM: It stands for Dynamic Random Access Memory. It is used to store
binary bits in the form of electrical charges that are applied to capacitors.
The access time of DRAM is slower as compared to SRAM but it is cheaper
than SRAM and has a high packaging density.
• SDRAM: It stands for Synchronous Dynamic Random Access Memory. It
is faster than DRAM. It is widely used in computers and others. After
SDRAM was introduced, the upgraded version of double data rate RAM,
i.e., DDR1, DDR2, DDR3, and DDR4 was entered into the market and
widely used in home/office desktops and laptops.
• ROM: It stands for Read-Only Memory. The data written or stored in these devices
are non-volatile, i.e, once the data is stored in the memory cannot be modified or
deleted. The memory from which will only read but cannot write it. This type of
memory is non-volatile. The information is stored permanently during manufacture
only once. ROM stores instructions that are used to start a computer. This operation
is referred to as bootstrap. It is also used in other electronic items like washers and
microwaves. ROM chips can only store a few megabytes (MB) of data, which
ranges between 4 and 8 MB per ROM chip. There are two types of ROM:
• PROM: PROM is Programmable Read-Only Memory. These are ROMs
that can be programmed. A special PROM programmer is employed to enter
the program on the PROM. Once the chip has been programmed,
information on the PROM can’t be altered. PROM is non-volatile, that is
data is not lost when power is switched off.

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 • EPROM: Another sort of memory is the Erasable Programmable Read-
Only Memory. It is possible to erase the info which has been previously
stored on an EPROM and write new data onto the chip.
• EEPROM: EEPROM is Electrically erasable programmable read-only
memory. Here, data can be erased without using ultraviolet light, with the
use of just applying the electric field.

Fig: Primary Storage Devices

2. Magnetic Storage Devices
• Floppy Disk: Floppy Disk is also known as a floppy diskette. It is generally
used on a personal computer to store data externally. A Floppy disk is made up
of a plastic cartridge and secured with a protective case. Nowadays floppy disk
is replaced by new and effective storage devices like USB, etc.
• Hard Disk: Hard Disk is a storage device (HDD) that stores and retrieves data
using magnetic storage. It is a non-volatile storage device that can be modified
or deleted n number of times without any problem. Most computers and laptops
have HDDs as their secondary storage device. It is actually a set of stacked
disks, just like phonograph records. In every hard disk, the data is recorded
electromagnetically in concentric circles or we can say track present on the hard
disk, and with the help of a head just like a phonograph arm(but fixed in a
position) to read the information present on the track. The read-write speed of
HDDs is not so fast but decent. It ranges from a few GBs to a few and more TB.
• Magnetic Card: It is a card in which data is stored by modifying or rearranging
the magnetism of tiny iron-based magnetic particles present on the band of the
card. It is also known as a swipe card. It is used like a passcode(to enter the
house or hotel room), credit card, identity card, etc.

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 • Tape Cassette: It is also known as a music cassette. It is a rectangular flat
container in which the data is stored in an analog magnetic tape. It is generally
used to store audio recordings.
• SuperDisk: It is also called LS-240 and LS-120. It is introduced by Imation
Corporation and it is popular with OEM computers. It can store data up to 240
MB.

3. Flash Memory Devices

It is a cheaper and more portable storage device. It is the most commonly used device to
store data because is more reliable and efficient as compared to other storage devices.
Some of the commonly used flash memory devices are:
• Pen Drive: It is also known as a USB flash drive that includes flash memory with
an integrated USB interface. We can directly connect these devices to our
computers and laptops and read/write data into them in a much faster and more
efficient way. These devices are very portable. It ranges from 1GB to 256GB
generally.
• SSD: It stands for Solid State Drive, a mass storage device like HDD. It is more
durable because it does not contain optical disks inside like hard disks. It needs
less power as compared to hard disks, is lightweight, and has 10x faster read and
writes speed as compared to hard disks. But, these are costly as well. While SSDs
serve an equivalent function as hard drives, their internal components are much
different. Unlike hard drives, SSDs don’t have any moving parts and thus they’re
called solid-state drives. Instead of storing data on magnetic platters, SSDs store
data using non-volatile storage. Since SSDs haven’t any moving parts, they do
not need to “spin up”. It ranges from 150GB to a few more TB.
• SD Card: It is known as a Secure Digital Card. It is generally used with electronic
devices like phones, digital cameras, etc. to store larger data. It is portable and the
size of the SD card is also small so that it can easily fit into electronic devices. It
is available in different sizes like 2GB, 4GB, 8GB, etc.

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 • Memory Card: It is generally used in digital cameras. printers, game consoles,
etc. It is also used to store large amounts of data and is available in different sizes.
To run a memory card on a computer you require a separate memory card reader.
• Multimedia Card: It is also known as MMC. It is an integrated circuit that is
generally used in-car radios, digital cameras, etc. It is an external device to store
data/information.

4. Optical Storage Devices

Optical Storage Devices is also secondary storage device. It is a removable storage device.
Following are some optical storage devices:
• CD: It is known as Compact Disc. It contains tracks and sectors on its surface to
store data. It is made up of polycarbonate plastic and is circular in shape. CD can
store data up to 700MB. It is of two types:
• CD-R: It stands for Compact Disc read-only. In this type of CD, once the
data is written can not be erased. It is read-only.
• CD-RW: It stands for Compact Disc Read Write. In this type of CD, you
can easily write or erase data multiple times.
• DVD: It is known as Digital Versatile Disc. DVDs are circular flat optical discs
used to store data. It comes in two different sizes one is 4.7GB single-layer discs
and another one is 8.5GB double-layer discs. DVDs look like CDs but the storage
capacity of DVDs is more than as compared to CDs. It is of two types:
• DVD-R: It stands for Digital Versatile Disc read-only. In this type of DVD,
once the data is written can not be erased. It is read-only. It is generally used
to write movies, etc.
• DVD-RW: It stands for Digital Versatile Disc Read Write. In this type of
DVD, you can easily write or erase data multiple times.

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 • Blu-ray Disc: It is just like CD and DVD but the storage capacity of blu ray is up
to 25GB. To run a Blu-ray disc you need a separate Blu-ray reader. This Blu-ray
technology is used to read a disc from a blue-violet laser due to which the
information is stored in greater density with a longer wavelength.
5. Cloud and Virtual Storage
Nowadays, secondary memory has been upgraded to virtual or cloud storage devices. We
can store our files and other stuff in the cloud and the data is stored for as long as we pay
for the cloud storage. There are many companies that provide cloud services largely
Google, Amazon, Microsoft, etc. We can pay the rent for the amount of space we need and
we get multiple benefits out of it. Though it is actually being stored in a physical device
located in the data centers of the service provider, the user doesn’t interact with the physical
device and its maintenance. For example, Amazon Web Services offers AWS S3 as a type
of storage where users can store data virtually instead of being stored in physical hard drive
devices. These sorts of innovations represent the frontier of where storage media goes.
Characteristics of Computer Storage Devices
• Data stored in the Memory can be changed or replaced in case of a requirement,
because of the mobility of the storage devices.
• Storage Devices validate that saved data can be replaced or deleted as per the
requirements because the storage devices are easily readable, writeable, and
rewritable.
• Storage Devices are easy and convenient to access because they do not require
much skill set to handle these resources.
• The storage capacity of these devices is an extra advantage to the system.
• Storage Devices have better performance and data can be easily transferred
from one device to another.

(e) Other Anatomy of Computer Hardware:

Power Supply Unit (PSU), Graphics Processing Unit (GPU), Cooling System,
Expansion Cards, Input Devices, Output Devices, Networking Hardware, Case, Cables
and Connectors, etc.

3.3 Computer Memory

(a) Introduction and Memory representation

The computer memory stores different kinds of data like input data, output data,
intermediate results, etc., and the instructions. Binary digit or bit is the basic unit of
memory. A bit is a single binary digit, i.e., 0 or 1. A bit is the smallest unit of
representation of data in a computer. However, the data is handled by the computer as a

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combination of bits. A group of 8 bits form a byte. One byte is the smallest unit of data
that is handled by the computer. One byte can store 28, i.e., 256 different combinations of
bits, and thus can be used to represent 256 different symbols. In a byte, the different
combinations of bits fall in the range 00000000 to 11111111. A group of bytes can be
further combined to form a word. A word can be a group of 2, 4 or 8 bytes.
1 bit = 0 or 1
1 Byte (B) = 8 bits
1 Kilobyte (KB) = 210 = 1024 bytes
1 Megabyte (MB) = 220 = 1024KB
1 Gigabyte (GB) = 230 = 1024 MB = 1024 *1024 KB
1 Terabyte (TB) = 240 = 1024 GB = 1024 * 1024 *1024 KB

Memory is logically organized as a linear array of locations. For a processor, the range of
the memory addresses is 0 to the maximum size of memory. Figure shows the
organization of a 16 MB block of memory for a processor with a 32-bit word length.

(b) Memory Hierarchy

The memory is characterized on the basis of two key factors—capacity and access time.
Capacity is the amount of information (in bits) that a memory can store. Access time is
the time interval between the read/ write request and the availability of data. The lesser
the access time, the faster is the speed of memory. Ideally, we want the memory with
fastest speed and largest capacity. However, the cost of fast memory is very high. The
computer uses a hierarchy of memory that is organized in a manner to enable the fastest
speed and largest capacity of memory.

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 The hierarchy of the different memory types

The internal memory and external memory are the two broad categories of memory used
in the computer. The internal memory consists of the CPU registers, cache memory and
primary memory. The internal memory is used by the CPU to perform the computing
tasks. The external memory is also called the secondary memory. The secondary memory
is used to store the large amount of data and the software.
With respect to CPU, the memory is organized as follows —
• Registers are placed inside the CPU (small capacity, high cost, very high speed)
• Cache memory is placed next in the hierarchy (inside and outside the CPU)
• Primary memory is placed next in the hierarchy
• Secondary memory is the farthest from CPU (large capacity, low cost, low speed)
The speed of memories is dependent on the kind of technology used for the memory.
The registers, cache memory and primary memory are semiconductor memories. They do
not have any moving parts and are fast memories. The secondary memory is magnetic or
optical memory, has moving parts and has slow speed.

(c) Types of storage devices

The storage unit is a part of the computer system which is employed to store the information
and instructions to be processed. A storage device is an integral part of the computer
hardware which stores information/data to process the result of any computational work.
Without a storage device, a computer would not be able to run or even boot up. Or in other

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words, we can say that a storage device is hardware that is used for storing, porting, or
extracting data files. It can also store information/data both temporarily and permanently.
Types of Computer Memory
1. Primary Memory
2. Secondary Memory
3. Tertiary Memory
1. Primary Memory: It is also known as internal memory and main memory. This is a
section of the CPU that holds program instructions, input data, and intermediate results. It
is generally smaller in size. RAM (Random Access Memory) and ROM (Read Only
Memory) are examples of primary storage.
2. Secondary Memory: Secondary storage is a memory that is stored external to the
computer. It is mainly used for the permanent and long-term storage of programs and data.
Hard Disks, CDs, DVDs, Pen/Flash drives, SSD, etc, are examples of secondary storage.
3. Tertiary Memory: Tertiary Memory is a type of Memory that is rarely used in personal
computers and due to this, tertiary memory is not considered to be an important one.
Tertiary memory works automatically without human intervention.

Types of Computer Storage Devices

Now we will discuss different types of storage devices available in the market. These
storage devices have their own specification and use. Some of the commonly used storage
devices are:
1. Primary Storage Devices
2. Magnetic Storage Devices
3. Flash memory Devices
4. Optical Storage Devices
5. Cloud and Virtual Storage
1. Primary Storage Devices
• RAM: It stands for Random Access Memory. It is used to store information that is
used immediately or we can say that it is a temporary memory. Computers bring
the software installed on a hard disk to RAM to process it and to be used by the
user. Once, the computer is turned off, the data is deleted. With the help of RAM,
computers can perform multiple tasks like loading applications, browsing the web,
editing a spreadsheet, experiencing the newest game, etc. It allows you to modify
quickly among these tasks, remembering where you’re in one task once you switch

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 to a different task. It is also used to load and run applications, like your spreadsheet
program, answers commands, like all edits you made within the spreadsheet, or
toggle between multiple programs, like once you left the spreadsheet to see the
email. Memory is nearly always actively employed by your computer. It ranges
from 1GB – 32GB/64GB depending upon the specifications. There are different
types of RAM, and although they all serve the same purpose, the most common
ones are :
• SRAM: It stands for Static Random Access Memory. It consists of circuits
that retain stored information as long as the power supply is on. It is also
known as volatile memory. It is used to build Cache memory. The access
time of SRAM is lower and it is much faster as compared to DRAM but in
terms of cost, it is costly as compared to DRAM.
• DRAM: It stands for Dynamic Random Access Memory. It is used to store
binary bits in the form of electrical charges that are applied to capacitors.
The access time of DRAM is slower as compared to SRAM but it is cheaper
than SRAM and has a high packaging density.
• SDRAM: It stands for Synchronous Dynamic Random Access Memory. It
is faster than DRAM. It is widely used in computers and others. After
SDRAM was introduced, the upgraded version of double data rate RAM,
i.e., DDR1, DDR2, DDR3, and DDR4 was entered into the market and
widely used in home/office desktops and laptops.
• ROM: It stands for Read-Only Memory. The data written or stored in these devices
are non-volatile, i.e, once the data is stored in the memory cannot be modified or
deleted. The memory from which will only read but cannot write it. This type of
memory is non-volatile. The information is stored permanently during manufacture
only once. ROM stores instructions that are used to start a computer. This operation
is referred to as bootstrap. It is also used in other electronic items like washers and
microwaves. ROM chips can only store a few megabytes (MB) of data, which
ranges between 4 and 8 MB per ROM chip. There are two types of ROM:
• PROM: PROM is Programmable Read-Only Memory. These are ROMs
that can be programmed. A special PROM programmer is employed to enter
the program on the PROM. Once the chip has been programmed,
information on the PROM can’t be altered. PROM is non-volatile, that is
data is not lost when power is switched off.
• EPROM: Another sort of memory is the Erasable Programmable Read-
Only Memory. It is possible to erase the info which has been previously
stored on an EPROM and write new data onto the chip.

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 • EEPROM: EEPROM is Electrically erasable programmable read-only
memory. Here, data can be erased without using ultraviolet light, with the
use of just applying the electric field.

Fig: Primary Storage Devices

2. Secondary Storage Devices

Fig: Secondary Storage Devices

You know that processor or primary memory is very expensive and has limited
storage capacity because of its volatile nature. If we need to store large amounts
of data or programs permanently, we need a cheaper and permanent
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memory. Secondary memory overcomes this limitation by providing permanent
storage of data in bulk quantity.

A secondary storage device refers to any non-volatile storage device that is

internal or external to the computer. It can be any storage device beyond the
primary storage that enables permanent data storage. A secondary storage device
is also known as an auxiliary storage device, backup storage device, tier 2 storage,
or external storage. These devices store virtually all programs and applications on
a computer, including the operating system, device drivers, applications and
general user data.

The Secondary storage media can be fixed or removable. Fixed Storage media is
an internal storage medium like a hard disk that is fixed inside the computer. A
storage medium that is portable and can be taken outside the computer is termed
removable storage media. The main advantage of using secondary storage devices
is:

o In Secondary storage devices, the stored data might not be under the direct
control of the operating system. For example, many organizations store
their archival data or critical documents on secondary storage drives, which
their main network cannot access to ensure their preservation whenever a
data breach occurs.
o Since these drives do not interact directly with the main infrastructure and
can be situated in a remote or secure site, it is unlikely that a hacker may
access these drives unless they're physically stolen.

Why do we need Secondary Storage?

Computers use main memory such as random access memory (RAM) and cache to
hold data that is being processed. However, this type of memory is volatile, and it
loses its data when the computer is switched off. General-purpose computers, such
as personal computers and tablets, need to store programs and data for later use.

That's why secondary storage is needed to keep programs and data long term.
Secondary storage is non-volatile and able to keep data as long term storage. They
are used for various purposes such as backup data used for future restores or
disaster recovery, long-term archiving of data that is not frequently accessed, and
storage of non-critical data in lower-performing, less expensive drives.

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Without secondary storage, all programs and data would be lost when the
computer is switched off.

Characteristics of Secondary Storage Devices

These are some characteristics of secondary memory, which distinguish it from
primary memory, such as:

o It is non-volatile, which means it retains data when power is switched off

o It allows for the storage of data ranging from a few megabytes to petabytes.
o It is cheaper as compared to primary memory.
o Secondary storage devices like CDs and flash drives can transfer the data
from one device to another.

Types of Secondary Storage Device

Here are the two types of secondary storage devices, i.e., fixed storage and
removable storage.

1. Fixed Storage

Fixed storage is an internal media device used by a computer system to store data.
Usually, these are referred to as the fixed disk drives or Hard Drives.

Fixed storage devices are not fixed. These can be removed from the system for
repairing work, maintenance purposes, and also for an upgrade, etc. But in general,

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this cannot be done without a proper toolkit to open up the computer system to
provide physical access, which needs to be done by an engineer.

Technically, almost all data, i.e. being processed on a computer system, is stored
on some built-in fixed storage device. We have the following types of fixed storage:

o Internal flash memory (rare)

o SSD (solid-state disk) units
o Hard disk drives (HDD)

2. Removable Storage

Removable storage is an external media device that is used by a computer system

to store data. Usually, these are referred to as the Removable Disks drives or the
External Drives. Removable storage is any storage device that can be removed from
a computer system while the system is running. Examples of external devices
include CDs, DVDs, Blu-ray disk drives, and diskettes and USB drives. Removable
storage makes it easier for a user to transfer data from one computer system to
another.

The main benefit of removable disks in storage factors is that they can provide the
fast data transfer rates associated with storage area networks (SANs). We have the
following types of Removable Storage:

o Optical discs (CDs, DVDs, Blu-ray discs)

o Memory cards
o Floppy disks
o Magnetic tapes
o Disk packs
o Paper storage (punched tapes, punched cards)

Classification of Secondary Storage Devices

The following image shows the classification of commonly used secondary storage
devices.

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Sequential Access Storage Device
It is a class of data storage devices that read stored data in a sequence. This is in
contrast to random access memory (RAM), where data can access in any order, and
magnetic tape is the common sequential access storage device.

i. Magnetic tape: It is a medium for magnetic recording, made of a thin,

magnetizable coating on a long, narrow strip of plastic film. Devices that
record and play audio and video using magnetic tape are tape recorders
and videotape recorders. A device that stores computer data on magnetic
tape is known as a tape drive.
It was a key technology in early computer development, allowing
unparalleled amounts of data to be mechanically created, stored for long
periods, and rapidly accessed.

Direct Access Storage Devices

A direct-access storage device (DASD) is another name for secondary storage
devices that store data in discrete locations with a unique address, such as hard
disk drives, optical drives and most magnetic storage devices.

1. Magnetic disks: A magnetic disk is a storage device that uses a magnetization

process to write, rewrite and access data. It is covered with a magnetic coating and
stores data in the form of tracks, spots and sectors. Hard disks, zip disks and floppy
disks are common examples of magnetic disks.

i. Floppy Disk: A floppy disk is a flexible disk with a magnetic coating on it,
and it is packaged inside a protective plastic envelope. These are among the
oldest portable storage devices that could store up to 1.44 MB of data, but
now they are not used due to very little memory storage.
ii. Hard Disk Drive (HDD): Hard disk drive comprises a series of circular disks
called platters arranged one over the other almost ½ inches apart around
a spindle. Disks are made of non-magnetic material like aluminium alloy
and coated with 10-20 nm magnetic material. The standard diameter of
these disks is 14 inches, and they rotate with speeds varying from 4200 rpm
(rotations per minute) for personal computers to 15000 rpm for servers.
Data is stored by magnetizing or demagnetizing the magnetic coating. A

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 magnetic reader arm is used to read data from and write data to the disks.
A typical modern HDD has a capacity in terabytes (TB).

2. Optical Disk: An optical disk is any computer disk that uses optical storage
techniques and technology to read and write data. It is a computer storage disk
that stores data digitally and uses laser beams to read and write data.

i. CD Drive: CD stands for Compact Disk. CDs are circular disks that use
optical rays, usually lasers, to read and write data. They are very cheap as
you can get 700 MB of storage space for less than a dollar. CDs are inserted
in CD drives built into the CPU cabinet. They are portable as you can eject
the drive, remove the CD and carry it with you. There are three types of CDs:
o CD-ROM (Compact Disk - Read Only Memory): The manufacturer
recorded the data on these CDs. Proprietary Software, audio or video
are released on CD-ROMs.
o CD-R (Compact Disk - Recordable): The user can write data once
on the CD-R. It cannot be deleted or modified later.
o CD-RW (Compact Disk - Rewritable): Data can repeatedly be
written and deleted on these optical disks.
ii. DVD Drive: DVD stands for digital video display. DVD is an optical device
that can store 15 times the data held by CDs. They are usually used to store
rich multimedia files that need high storage capacity. DVDs also come in
three varieties - read-only, recordable and rewritable.
iii. Blu Ray Disk: Blu Ray Disk (BD) is an optical storage media that stores high
definition (HD) video and other multimedia files. BD uses a shorter
wavelength laser than CD/DVD, enabling the writing arm to focus more
tightly on the disk and pack in more data. BDs can store up to 128 GB of
data.

3. Memory Storage Devices: A memory device contains trillions of

interconnected memory cells that store data. When switched on or off, these cells
hold millions of transistors representing 1s and 0s in binary code, allowing a
computer to read and write information. It includes USB drives, flash memory
devices, SD and memory cards, which you'll recognize as the storage medium used
in digital cameras.

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 i. Flash Drive: A flash drive is a small, ultra-portable storage device. USB flash
drives were essential for easily moving files from one device to another.
Flash drives connect to computers and other devices via a built-in USB Type-
Aor USB-C plug, making one a USB device and cable combination.
Flash drives are often referred to as pen drives, thumb drives, or jump drives.
The terms USB drive and solid-state drive (SSD) are also sometimes used,
but most of the time, those refer to larger, not-so-mobile USB-based
storage devices like external hard drives.
These days, a USB flash drive can hold up to 2 TB of storage. They're more
expensive per gigabyte than an external hard drive, but they have prevailed
as a simple, convenient solution for storing and transferring smaller files.
Pen drive has the following advantages in computer organization, such as:
o Transfer Files: A pen drive is a device plugged into a USB port of the
system that is used to transfer files, documents, and photos to a PC
and vice versa.
o Portability: The lightweight nature and smaller size of a pen drive
make it possible to carry it from place to place, making data
transportation an easier task.
o Backup Storage: Most of the pen drives now come with the feature
of having password encryption, important information related to
family, medical records, and photos can be stored on them as a
backup.
o Transport Data: Professionals or Students can now easily transport
large data files and video, audio lectures on a pen drive and access
them from anywhere. Independent PC technicians can store work-
related utility tools, various programs, and files on a high-speed 64
GB pen drive and move from one site to another.
ii. Memory card: A memory card or memory cartridge is an electronic data
storage device used for storing digital information, typically using flash
memory. These are commonly used in portable electronic devices, such as
digital cameras, mobile phones, laptop computers, tablets, PDAs, portable
media players, video game consoles, synthesizers, electronic keyboards and
digital pianos, and allow adding memory to such devices without

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 compromising ergonomy, as the card is usually contained within the device
rather than protruding like USB flash drives.

Difference between Primary and Secondary Memory

Below are some main differences between primary and secondary memory in
computer organization.

Primary Memory Secondary Memory

Primary memory is directly accessed Secondary memory is not accessed

by the Central Processing Unit directly by the Central Processing Unit
(CPU). (CPU). Instead, data accessed from a
secondary memory is first loaded into
Random Access Memory (RAM) and then
sent to the Processing Unit.

RAM provides a much faster- Secondary memory is slower in data

accessing speed to data than accessing. Typically primary memory is
secondary memory. Computers can six times faster than secondary memory.
quickly process data by loading
software programs and required
files into primary memory (RAM).

Primary memory is volatile and gets Secondary memory provides a feature of

completely erased when a computer being non-volatile, which means it can
is shut down. hold on to its data with or without an
electrical power supply

3. Cloud and Virtual Storage

Nowadays, secondary memory has been upgraded to virtual or cloud storage devices. We
can store our files and other stuff in the cloud and the data is stored for as long as we pay
for the cloud storage. There are many companies that provide cloud services largely
Google, Amazon, Microsoft, etc. We can pay the rent for the amount of space we need and
we get multiple benefits out of it. Though it is actually being stored in a physical device
located in the data centers of the service provider, the user doesn’t interact with the physical
device and its maintenance. For example, Amazon Web Services offers AWS S3 as a type
of storage where users can store data virtually instead of being stored in physical hard drive
devices. These sorts of innovations represent the frontier of where storage media goes.

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Characteristics of Computer Storage Devices
• Data stored in the Memory can be changed or replaced in case of a requirement,
because of the mobility of the storage devices.
• Storage Devices validate that saved data can be replaced or deleted as per the
requirements because the storage devices are easily readable, writeable, and
rewritable.
• Storage Devices are easy and convenient to access because they do not require
much skill set to handle these resources.
• The storage capacity of these devices is an extra advantage to the system.
• Storage Devices have better performance and data can be easily transferred
from one device to another.
(d) Memory Utilization in Computing
Memory utilization in computing refers to the efficient use of memory resources within
a computer system. Memory utilization is crucial for optimal performance and resource
management, especially in systems where memory is a limited and valuable resource.
It involves managing the allocation, usage, and deallocation of memory to ensure that
applications and processes run smoothly without exhausting available memory.

Here are some key aspects and examples of memory utilization in computing:

Memory Allocation: Memory allocation is the process of reserving a portion of the

computer's memory to be used by a program or application. It involves assigning
memory addresses to variables, data structures, and other program elements. Efficient
memory allocation ensures that memory resources are utilized optimally without
wasting space. For example:

• In programming languages like C/C++, memory can be allocated dynamically

using functions like malloc() and calloc(). It's essential to free dynamically
allocated memory using free() when it's no longer needed to avoid memory
leaks.
• In Java, memory allocation for objects is managed automatically by the Java
Virtual Machine (JVM) through garbage collection. Developers don't directly
allocate or deallocate memory but must be mindful of creating unnecessary
objects to prevent memory overhead.
Memory Usage Monitoring: Monitoring memory usage is essential for identifying
memory-intensive processes or applications that may impact system performance.
Tools like Task Manager (Windows), Activity Monitor (macOS), and top/htop (Linux)
provide real-time information about memory usage by processes and system
components.

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 Memory Optimization Techniques: Various techniques are employed to optimize
memory utilization and enhance system performance:

• Memory pooling: Reusing a pool of pre-allocated memory blocks to minimize

overhead associated with dynamic memory allocation and deallocation.
• Caching: Storing frequently accessed data in memory caches to reduce disk
I/O operations and improve application responsiveness.
• Memory compression: Compressing memory pages to conserve memory
space and accommodate more data within available memory.
• Memory deduplication: Identifying and eliminating duplicate memory pages
to reduce memory footprint and improve resource utilization.

Virtual Memory Management: Virtual memory allows the operating system to use
disk storage as an extension of physical memory. Memory pages are swapped in and
out of physical memory as needed to accommodate running processes. Efficient virtual
memory management ensures that frequently accessed pages remain in physical
memory while less frequently used pages are swapped to disk.

Memory Leaks: Memory leaks occur when a program fails to release memory that it
no longer needs, leading to memory depletion over time. Memory leaks can result from
programming errors such as failing to deallocate dynamically allocated memory or
losing references to objects. Continuous monitoring and debugging are essential to
identify and fix memory leaks to prevent performance degradation and system
instability.

In summary, memory utilization in computing involves effectively managing memory

resources to ensure optimal performance, efficient resource allocation, and minimal
memory wastage. By employing memory allocation techniques, monitoring memory
usage, optimizing memory management, and addressing memory leaks, developers and
system administrators can enhance system reliability and performance.

3.4 I/O devices

An I/O (Input/Output) device is any hardware component of a computer system that allows
users to interact with and exchange data between the computer and the outside world. These
devices facilitate the input of data into the computer for processing and the output of
processed information to users or other systems.
a. Types of Input devices

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Input devices are peripherals that allow users to input data or commands into a computer
system. Here are 12 types of input devices along with examples and details for each:
1. Keyboard:
• Description: A keyboard is one of the most common input devices,
consisting of a set of keys arranged in a specific layout, typically the
QWERTY layout.
• Example: Standard computer keyboards, ergonomic keyboards, gaming
keyboards.
• Details: Keyboards are used to input alphanumeric characters, symbols,
and commands into the computer by pressing keys.
2. Mouse:
• Description: A mouse is a pointing device that translates physical
movements of the hand into corresponding movements of the cursor on
the screen.
• Example: Optical mice, laser mice, trackball mice.
• Details: Mice are used for navigating graphical user interfaces, selecting
objects, and interacting with software through clicking, dragging, and
scrolling actions.
3. Touchpad:
• Description: A touchpad, also known as a trackpad, is a flat surface that
detects finger movements to control the cursor on a display screen.
• Example: Built-in touchpads on laptops, external touchpads.
• Details: Touchpads are commonly found on laptops and portable devices,
providing a compact alternative to mice for cursor control and gesture-
based input.
4. Touchscreen:
• Description: A touchscreen is a display screen that detects touch input
from users, allowing direct interaction with the displayed content.
• Example: Capacitive touchscreens, resistive touchscreens.
• Details: Touchscreens are used in smartphones, tablets, kiosks, ATMs, and
interactive digital signage for intuitive navigation and input.
5. Digitizer/Graphics Tablet:

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 • Description: A graphics tablet, also known as a drawing tablet, is a flat
surface with a stylus that allows users to draw or write directly onto the
surface. A digitizer, also known as a digitizing tablet or graphics
tablet, is an input device used to convert analog signals, such as hand-
drawn images or sketches, into digital data that can be processed by a
computer.
• Digitizers consist of a flat surface on which the user can draw or write
using a stylus or a special pen-like device. The tablet detects the position
of the stylus on the surface and records the movements as digital data,
which is then transmitted to the computer.
• Digitizers are commonly used by artists, graphic designers, architects, and
other professionals who require precise input for creating digital artwork,
illustrations, and diagrams. They offer greater control and precision
compared to using a mouse or trackpad for drawing and designing tasks.
Additionally, some digitizers support pressure sensitivity, allowing users
to vary the thickness and opacity of lines based on the pressure applied
with the stylus.
• Example: Wacom Intuos, Huion H610 Pro.
• Details: Graphics tablets are popular among artists, designers, and
illustrators for creating digital artwork with precision and control.
6. Scanner:
• Description: A scanner is a device that converts physical documents,
images, or objects into digital format for storage or processing.
• Example: Flatbed scanners, document scanners, handheld scanners.
• Details: Scanners are used for digitizing printed documents, photographs,
and artwork, enabling electronic archiving and manipulation.
7. Webcam:
• Description: A webcam is a camera device that captures video or images
in real-time and transmits them to a computer for viewing or recording.
• Example: Built-in webcams on laptops, external USB webcams.
• Details: Webcams are commonly used for video conferencing, live
streaming, video calls, and surveillance applications.
8. Microphone:
• Description: A microphone is a transducer that converts sound waves into
electrical signals, allowing users to input audio into a computer system.

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 • Example: Headset microphones, desktop microphones, built-in laptop
microphones.
• Details: Microphones are used for voice input, audio recording, speech
recognition, and communication applications.
9. Barcode Reader:
• Description: A barcode reader is a device that scans and decodes barcode
symbols, providing input data to a computer system.
• Example: Laser barcode scanners, CCD barcode scanners, handheld
barcode scanners.
• Details: Barcode readers are widely used in retail, inventory management,
shipping, and logistics for rapid and accurate data capture.
10. Joystick:
• Description: A joystick is a handheld input device with a stick or lever that
allows users to control the movement of objects or characters in video
games and simulations.
• Example: Game controllers, flight sticks, arcade joysticks.
• Details: Joysticks provide intuitive control for gaming, flight simulation,
robotics, and industrial applications.
11. Trackball:
• Description: A trackball is a pointing device consisting of a movable ball
that users can rotate with their fingers to control the cursor on a screen.
• Example: Logitech Trackman Marble, Kensington Expert Mouse.
• Details: Trackballs offer an alternative to mice for cursor control,
especially in situations where space is limited or precise control is
required.
12. Digital Camera:
• Description: A digital camera is a device that captures still images or
videos in digital format, allowing users to transfer and edit them on a
computer.
• Example: DSLR cameras, point-and-shoot cameras, action cameras.
• Details: Digital cameras are used for photography, videography,
multimedia content creation, and documentation purposes.
13. Light Pen:

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 • Description: A light pen is a handheld input device that detects light emitted by a
display screen, allowing users to interact with graphical user interfaces. A light pen
is a computer input device that resembles a pen in shape and size. It's typically used with
a cathode-ray tube (CRT) display, which was common in older computer systems. The
light pen works by detecting the light emitted by the CRT display when the electron
beam sweeps across the screen.
Here's how it generally works:
Detection of Light: When the electron beam of the CRT display reaches the
location pointed to by the light pen, the screen emits a brief flash of light. The
light pen detects this light.
Timing and Positioning: The computer's hardware is synchronized with the CRT
display's scanning process. By knowing the timing of the display's raster scan and
the moment the light pen detects the light, the computer can determine the exact
position on the screen where the pen is pointing.
Input Recognition: Once the computer determines the position of the light pen, it
can interpret this as user input. This input can be used for various purposes, such
as selecting objects on the screen, drawing, or interacting with graphical user
interfaces.
Light pens were popular in the 1970s and 1980s, especially in early graphical user
interfaces and computer-aided design (CAD) applications. However, they have
largely been replaced by other input devices such as mice, trackballs,
touchscreens, and styluses due to technological advancements and changes in user
preferences.
• Example: Pegasus light pen, Nintendo Wii Remote (with light pen functionality).
• Details: Light pens were popular in the early days of computing for selecting
objects on CRT displays, drawing, and interacting with graphical interfaces.
14. Biometric Scanner:
• Description: A biometric scanner is a device that analyzes unique biological traits,
such as fingerprints, iris patterns, or facial features, for user identification and
authentication.
• Example: Fingerprint scanners, iris scanners, facial recognition systems.
• Details: Biometric scanners are used for access control, authentication, and
identity verification in security-sensitive environments and electronic devices.
15. Gamepad Controller:
• Description: A gamepad controller is a handheld input device designed
specifically for playing video games on gaming consoles, computers, or mobile
devices.
• Example: PlayStation DualShock, Xbox Wireless Controller, Nintendo Switch
Pro Controller.
• Details: Gamepad controllers feature buttons, triggers, analog sticks, and
directional pads for precise control and gameplay interaction.

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16. Numeric Keypad:
• Description: A numeric keypad, also known as a number pad, is a separate set of
keys with numeric digits and mathematical symbols arranged in a grid layout.
• Example: External USB numeric keypads, integrated numeric keypads on
keyboards.
• Details: Numeric keypads are used for numeric data entry, calculations,
spreadsheet manipulation, and other tasks that require frequent input of numbers.
17. Gesture Recognition Sensor:
• Description: A gesture recognition sensor is a device that detects and interprets
hand movements, gestures, or body motions as input commands for controlling
computers or electronic devices.
• Example: Microsoft Kinect, Leap Motion Controller, Google Soli radar.
• Details: Gesture recognition sensors enable hands-free interaction with devices,
virtual reality applications, gaming consoles, and smart home systems by
interpreting gestures such as waving, pointing, or swiping.
These input devices play essential roles in facilitating user interaction with computer
systems and enabling various tasks and applications across different domains and
industries.

b. Types of Output devices

Output devices are hardware components that allow computers to communicate
information to users or other devices. They take digital data from the computer and convert
it into a form that humans can perceive or understand. Here are some types of output
devices along with explanations of their different subtypes:
1. Display Devices:
• Monitors: Monitors are the most common display devices used with
computers. They come in various types including:
• Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) Display:
Technology: CRT displays work by emitting electrons from a
cathode at the back of the tube. These electrons are accelerated and
focused into a beam, which strikes a phosphorescent coating on the
inside surface of the screen. This causes the phosphors to glow,
producing the images that users see.
Construction: A CRT display consists of a large glass tube that is
typically curved outward at the front, forming the screen. Inside the
tube, there are electron guns at the back that emit the electron beams,

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 along with magnetic coils and control circuits to manipulate the
beams and create the desired images.
Resolution and Refresh Rate: CRT displays are capable of various
resolutions and refresh rates, although they generally have lower
resolutions and refresh rates compared to modern display
technologies like LCD and LED.
Color Representation: CRT displays can produce color by using
phosphors that emit different colors when struck by the electron
beam. By controlling the intensity of the electron beams and the
phosphors, CRT displays can create a wide range of colors.
Advantages: CRT displays were known for their high contrast
ratios, excellent color reproduction, and wide viewing angles
compared to early flat-panel displays.
Disadvantages: CRT displays are bulky and heavy compared to
modern flat-panel displays. They also consume more power and
produce more heat. Additionally, CRT displays are susceptible to
flicker, which can cause eye strain, and they emit low levels of
electromagnetic radiation.
Types of CRT Displays:
Monitors: CRT monitors were widely used as computer displays
before the advent of flat-panel LCD monitors. They came in various
sizes, ranging from small monitors for personal computers to large
displays for professional use.
Television Sets: CRT technology was also used in traditional
television sets, which were common in households for many
decades before being largely replaced by flat-panel TVs.
Despite their obsolescence in modern computing and television,
CRT displays played a significant role in the history of display
technology and remained in widespread use for several decades.
However, they have largely been replaced by more energy-efficient
and space-saving flat-panel display technologies such as LCD, LED,
and OLED.
• LCD (Liquid Crystal Display): LCD monitors use liquid crystal
technology to display images. They are thin, energy-efficient, and
offer good image quality.
• LED (Light-Emitting Diode): LED monitors use light-emitting
diodes for backlighting. They are energy-efficient and often have
better contrast ratios compared to LCD monitors.

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 • OLED (Organic Light-Emitting Diode): OLED monitors use
organic compounds that emit light when an electric current is
applied. They offer superior color reproduction and contrast
compared to LCD and LED monitors.
• Projectors: Projectors display images or videos on a large screen or
surface. They are commonly used for presentations, home theaters, and
classrooms.
2. Printers:
• Inkjet Printers: Inkjet printers spray droplets of ink onto paper to create
images or text. They are suitable for printing high-quality photos and
documents.
• Laser Printers: Laser printers use a laser beam to transfer toner onto paper,
which is then fused using heat. They are known for their fast printing speeds
and high-quality text output.
• Dot Matrix Printers: Dot matrix printers use a matrix of pins to strike
against an ink ribbon, producing characters or images. They are often used
for printing multipart forms and invoices.

Here's a comparison table outlining the differences between various types of

printers:

Feature Inkjet Printers Laser Printers Dot Matrix Printers

Inkjet technology
Printing sprays ink onto Laser technology uses Dot matrix printers use
Technology paper. toner and a laser beam. pins to strike an ink ribbon.
Good for color High-quality text and Suitable for basic text
Quality photos and graphics. graphics. printing.
Slower compared to Slower compared to inkjet
Speed laser printers. Faster printing speeds. and laser printers.
Higher cost per page Lower cost per page
compared to laser Lower cost per page in compared to inkjet
Cost per Page printers. the long run. printers.
Generally lower initial
Initial Cost cost. Higher initial cost. Lower initial cost.
Prone to clogging if Minimal maintenance Ribbon replacement
Maintenance not used regularly. required. required.
Size Compact size. Larger footprint. Compact size.
Quieter compared to dot Can be noisy due to
Noise Level Generally quieter. matrix printers. impact printing.

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Feature Inkjet Printers Laser Printers Dot Matrix Printers
Higher resolution Lower resolution
Resolution measured compared to dot matrix compared to inkjet and
Resolution in DPI (dots per inch). printers. laser printers.
Ideal for office Used in environments
Suitable for home environments with high requiring multipart forms
Use Cases and small office use. printing volumes. and invoices.

This table provides a brief overview of the key differences between inkjet, laser,
and dot matrix printers, considering factors such as printing technology, quality,
speed, cost, maintenance, size, noise level, resolution, and typical use cases. Each
type of printer has its own advantages and disadvantages, making them suitable
for different printing needs and environments.

Other types of Printers:

3D Printers: 3D printers create three-dimensional objects by depositing

successive layers of material, such as plastic filament or resin, based on a
digital model. They are used in various fields, including manufacturing,
prototyping, healthcare, and education, to produce prototypes, custom
parts, and even medical implants.

Dye-Sublimation Printers: Dye-sublimation printers use heat to transfer

dye onto various materials, such as paper, plastic, or fabric. The dye
sublimation process produces high-quality, durable prints with vibrant
colors, making these printers popular for producing photographs, ID cards,
and promotional items like mugs and T-shirts.

Thermal Printers: Thermal printers use heat to transfer ink onto paper,
eliminating the need for ink cartridges or ribbons. There are two main types
of thermal printers: direct thermal and thermal transfer. Direct thermal
printers use heat-sensitive paper and are commonly used for printing
receipts and labels. Thermal transfer printers use a heated ribbon to transfer
ink onto paper and are used for applications requiring more durable prints,
such as shipping labels and barcode labels.

LED Printers: LED printers work similarly to laser printers but use an array
of light-emitting diodes (LEDs) instead of a laser to create the image on the
drum. They offer fast printing speeds and high-quality output and are often
more compact and energy-efficient than traditional laser printers. LED

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 printers are commonly used in office environments and for producing
marketing materials.

3. Audio Output Devices:

• Speakers: Speakers produce sound output from computers, allowing users
to listen to music, videos, and other audio content.
• Headphones/Earphones: Headphones or earphones provide audio output
for individual users, offering privacy and immersive listening experiences.
• Sound Cards: Sound cards are internal or external components that process
audio data and convert it into analog signals for output through speakers or
headphones.
4. Multifunction Devices:
• All-in-One Printers: All-in-one printers combine printing, scanning,
copying, and sometimes faxing functionalities into a single device. They are
space-saving and convenient for home and office use.
• Smart TVs: Smart TVs integrate various output functionalities, including
displays and audio output, along with smart features such as internet
connectivity and streaming capabilities.
5. Other Output Devices:
• Plotter: Plotters are used to produce large-scale drawings, designs, and
diagrams. They use pens or inkjet cartridges to draw on paper or other
media.
• Braille Embossers: Braille embossers produce tactile output by embossing
raised dots onto paper, allowing visually impaired individuals to read
printed text through touch.
• Haptic Devices: Haptic devices provide tactile feedback to users by
simulating the sense of touch. They are used in virtual reality systems,
gaming peripherals, and medical training simulators.
Each type of output device serves specific purposes and offers unique features and
capabilities, catering to various user requirements and preferences.

c. Input/output Ports and its working

Input/output ports, commonly known as I/O ports, are physical interfaces on a computer or
electronic device that allow communication with external peripherals, devices, or
networks. They facilitate the exchange of data, signals, and power between the device and

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external components. Here's an explanation of how input/output ports work along with
examples:
1. Input Ports: Input ports are used to receive data or signals from external devices
or sources and transmit them to the computer or electronic device for processing.
Examples of input ports include:
• USB (Universal Serial Bus) Port: USB ports are versatile and widely used
for connecting a variety of peripherals such as keyboards, mice, external
hard drives, printers, and smartphones to computers and other devices.
• PS/2 Port: PS/2 ports are used primarily for connecting keyboards and mice
to computers. While less common today, some legacy systems still include
PS/2 ports.
• HDMI (High-Definition Multimedia Interface) Port: HDMI ports are
used for transmitting high-definition audio and video signals from devices
such as computers, gaming consoles, Blu-ray players, and set-top boxes to
displays such as monitors, TVs, and projectors.
• Audio Jacks (3.5mm): Audio jacks are used for connecting headphones,
microphones, speakers, and other audio devices to computers, smartphones,
and audio equipment.
• Ethernet Port: Ethernet ports are used for connecting computers, routers,
switches, and other network devices to wired Ethernet networks for data
communication.
2. Output Ports: Output ports are used to transmit data, signals, or power from the
computer or electronic device to external peripherals, displays, or networks.
Examples of output ports include:
• VGA (Video Graphics Array) Port: VGA ports are used for transmitting
analog video signals from computers to displays such as monitors and
projectors.
• DVI (Digital Visual Interface) Port: DVI ports transmit digital video
signals from computers to displays, providing higher image quality
compared to VGA ports.
• DisplayPort: DisplayPort is a digital display interface used for transmitting
audio and video signals from computers to monitors, TVs, and other display
devices.
• Thunderbolt Port: Thunderbolt ports support high-speed data transfer,
video output, and power delivery, allowing users to connect various
peripherals and displays to computers and laptops.

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 • Power Port: Power ports are used for connecting power adapters or
chargers to electronic devices to supply them with electrical power.
3. How Input/Output Ports Work: Input/output ports typically consist of physical
connectors or sockets on the device's chassis or motherboard. These ports are
designed to match specific connector types, such as USB Type-A, HDMI, or
Ethernet. When a peripheral device is connected to an input/output port, the device
and the computer or electronic device establish communication protocols and
exchange data or signals as per the requirements of the connected devices.
For example, when a USB flash drive is connected to a USB port on a computer, the
operating system recognizes the drive and allows the user to read, write, or manage files
stored on the drive. Similarly, when an HDMI cable is connected between a computer and
a monitor, the monitor displays the video output from the computer.
Input/output ports play a crucial role in enabling connectivity and interoperability
between computers, electronic devices, and peripherals, allowing users to expand the
functionality and capabilities of their devices through external connections.

Fig: I/O Ports

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