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PHP Programming with MySQL, 2nd Edition 2-2

Lecture Notes

Chapter Overview
In this chapter, students will study how to use functions to organize their PHP code. They will
also learn about variable scope, nested control structures, and conditional coding: if, if…else,
and switch statements and while, do…while, for, and foreach looping statements.
Students will also be introduced to the include and require statements.

Chapter Objectives
In this chapter, students will:

 Study how to use functions to organize your PHP code

 Learn about variable scope
 Make decisions using if, if…else, and switch statements
 Repeatedly execute code using while, do…while, for, and foreach statements
 Learn about include and require statements

Instructor Notes
In PHP, groups of statements that you can execute as a single unit are called functions. Functions
are often made up of decision-making and looping statements. These are two of the most
fundamental statements that execute in a program.

Mention to your students that functions are like paragraphs in writing

Teaching language. Remember a paragraph is a group of related sentences that make up
Tip one idea. A function is a group of related statements that make up a single task.

Working with Functions

PHP has two types of functions: built–in (internal) and user-defined (custom) functions. PHP has
over 1000 built-in library functions that can be used without declaring them. You can also your
own user-defined functions to perform specific tasks.
PHP Programming with MySQL, 2nd Edition 2-3

Defining Functions

To begin writing a function, you first need to define it. The syntax for the function definition is:

function name of _function(parameters) {

statements;
}

Parameters are placed within the parentheses that follow the function name. The parameter
receives its value when the function is called. When you name a variable within parentheses, you
do not need to explicitly declare and initialize the parameter as you do with a regular variable.

Following the parentheses that contain the function parameters is a set of curly braces, called
function braces, which contain the function statements. Function statements are the statements
that do the actual work of the function and must be contained within the function braces. For
example:

function displayCompanyName($Company1) {

echo "<p>$Company1</p>";
}

Remind your students that functions, like all PHP code, must be contained with
<?php...?> tags. Stress that the function name should be descriptive of the
task that the function will perform.

Ask students to add this to their list of PHP “Best Coding Practices.”

Teaching Illustrate to students that in a function:

Tip  There is no space between the function name and the opening parentheses
 The opening curly brace is on the same line as the function name
 The function statements are indented five spaces
 The closing curly brace is on a separate line

Ask students to add this to their list of PHP “Best Coding Practices.”
PHP Programming with MySQL, 2nd Edition 2-4

Calling Functions

A function definition does not execute automatically. Creating a function definition only names
the function, specifies its parameters (if any), and organizes the statements it will execute.

Teaching Refer to the textbook example on page 77, which defines a function and calls it
Tip passing a literal value to the function argument.

Returning Values

Some functions return a value, which may be displayed or passed as an argument to another
function. A calculator function is a good example of a return value function. A return statement
is a statement that returns a value to the statement that called the function.

Use the textbook example on page 78 to illustrate how a calling statement calls a
Teaching function and sends the multiple values as arguments of the function. The
Tip function then performs a calculation and returns the value to the calling
statement.

Passing Parameters by Reference

Usually, the value of a variable is passed as the parameter of a function, which means that a local
copy of the variable is created to be used by the function. When the value is returned to the
calling statement, any changes are lost. If you want the function to change the value of the
parameter, you must pass the value by reference, so the function works on the actual value
instead of a copy. Any changes made by the function statements remain after the function ends.

Use the textbook example on pages 80 and 81 to illustrate the difference of

passing a parameter by value or by reference.

Teaching Explain to students that a function definition should be placed above any calling
Tip statements. As of PHP4, this is not required, but is considered a good
programming practice.

Ask students to add this to their list of PHP “Best Coding Practices.”
PHP Programming with MySQL, 2nd Edition 2-5

Understanding Variable Scope

When you use a variable in a PHP program, you need to be aware of the variable's scope—that
is, you need to think about where in your program a declared variable can be used. A variable's
scope can be either global or local. Global variables are declared outside a function and are
available to all parts of the programs. Local variables are declared inside a function and are only
available within the function in which they are declared.

The global Keyword

Unlike many programming languages that make global variables automatically available to all
parts of your program, in PHP, you must declare a global variable with the global keyword
inside a function for the variable to be available within the scope of that function. When you
declare a global variable with the global keyword, you do not need to assign a value, as you
do when you declare a standard variable. Instead, within the declaration statement you only need
to include the global keyword along with the name of the variable, as in:

global $variable_name;

Teaching Demonstrate the syntax of declaring a global variable within a function using the
Tip textbook example on page 83.

Quick Quiz 1

1. In PHP, groups of statements that you can execute as a single unit are called
_________________________.
ANSWER: functions

2. A _________________________ is a statement that returns a value to the statement that

called the function.
ANSWER: return statement

3. _________________________ are declared inside a function and are only available

within the function in which they are declared.
ANSWER: Local variables

4. A _________________________is a variable that is declared outside a function and is

available to all parts of your program.
ANSWER: global variable
PHP Programming with MySQL, 2nd Edition 2-6

Making Decisions
In any programming language, the process of determining the order in which statements execute
in the program is called decision making or flow control. The special types of PHP statements
used for making decision are called decision-making statements or control structures.

if Statements

The if statement is used to execute specific programming code if the evaluation of a

conditional expression returns a value of TRUE. The syntax for a simple if statement is as
follows:

if (conditional expression)// condition evaluates to 'TRUE'

statement;

You should insert a space after the conditional keyword if before the opening
parenthesis of the conditional expression. This will help you see a visual
difference between a structure and a function. Using a line break and
indentation to enter the statements to execute makes it easier for the
programmer to follow the flow of the code.

Ask students to add the space and indentation to their list of PHP “Best Coding
Teaching Practices.”
Tip
Explain to students that if there is only one statement, they do not need to use
curly braces. If there are multiple statements, the statements should be
enclosed within beginning and ending curly braces. ({...}).

Ask students to add the use of curly braces to their list of PHP “Best Coding
Practices.”

You can use a command block to construct a decision-making structure using multiple if
statements. A command block is a group of statements contained within a set of braces, similar to
the way function statements are contained within a set of braces. When an if statement
evaluates to TRUE, the statements in the command block execute.

if...else Statements

Should you want to execute one set of statements when the condition evaluates to FALSE, and
another set of statements when the condition evaluates to TRUE, you need to add an else
clause to the if statement.
PHP Programming with MySQL, 2nd Edition 2-7

if (conditional expression) {
statements; //condition evaluates to 'TRUE'
}
else {
statements; //condition evaluates to 'FALSE'
}

Nested if and if...else Statements

When one decision-making statement is contained within another decision-making statement,

they are referred to as nested decision-making structures. An if statement contained within an
if statement or within an if...else statement is called a nested if statement. Similarly, an
if...else statement contained within an if or if…else statement is called a nested
if...else statement. You use nested if and if...else statements to perform conditional
evaluation that must be executed after the original conditional evaluation.

switch Statements

The switch statement controls program flow by executing a specific set of statements,
depending on the value of the expression. The switch statement compares the value of an
expression to a value contained within a special statement called a case label. A case label
represents a specific value and contains one or more statements that execute if the value of the
case label matches the value of the switch statement’s expression. The syntax for the switch
statement is a follows:
PHP Programming with MySQL, 2nd Edition 2-8

switch (expression) {
case label:
statement(s);
break;
case label:
statement(s);
break;
...
default:
statement(s);
break;
}

Another type of label used within switch statements is the default label. The default
label contains statements that execute when the value returned by the switch statement does
not match a case label. A default label consists of the keyword default followed by a
colon. In a switch statement, execution does not automatically end when a matching label is
found. A break statement is used to exit a control structures before it reaches the closing brace
(}). A break statement is also used to exit while, do...while, and for looping
statements.

The break statement after the default case is optional; however, it is good
Teaching programming practice to include it.
Tip
Ask the students to add this to their list of PHP “Best Coding Practices.”
PHP Programming with MySQL, 2nd Edition 2-9

Quick Quiz 2

1. The process of determining the order in which statements execute in a program is called
_________________________.
ANSWER: decision-making or flow control

2. When one decision-making statement is contained within another decision-making

statement, they are referred to as _________________________.
ANSWER: nested decision-making structures

3. The _________________________ statement is used to execute specific programming

code if the evaluation of a conditional expression returns a value of TRUE.
ANSWER: if

4. The _________________________ statement controls program flow by executing a

specific set of statements, depending on the value of the expression.
ANSWER: switch

Repeating Code

Conditional statements allow you select only a single branch of code to execute and then
continue to the statement that follows. If you need to perform the same statement more than
once, however, you need a use a loop statement, a control structure that repeatedly executes a
statement or a series of statements while a specific condition is TRUE or until a specific
condition becomes TRUE. In an infinite loop, a loop statement never ends because its conditional
expression is never FALSE.

while Statements

The while statement is a simple loop statement that repeats a statement or series of statements
as long as a given conditional expression evaluates to TRUE. The syntax for the while statement
is as follows:

while (conditional expression) {

statement(s);
}

Each repetition of a looping statement is called an iteration. The loop ends and the next
statement, following the while statement executes only when the conditional statement
evaluates to FALSE. You normally track the progress of the while statement evaluation, or
any other loop, with a counter. A counter is a variable that increments or decrements with each
iteration of a loop statement.
PHP Programming with MySQL, 2nd Edition 2-10

Programmers often name counter variables $Count, $Counter, or

something descriptive of its purpose. The letters i, j, k, l, x, y, z are also
Teaching commonly used as counter names. Using a variable name such as count or the
Tip letter i (for iteration) helps you remember (and informs other programmers)
that the variable is being used as a counter.

do...while Statements

The do...while statement executes a statement or statements once, then repeats the execution
as long as a given conditional expression evaluates to TRUE The syntax for the do...while
statement is as follows:

do {
statements(s);
} while (conditional expression);

for Statements

The for statement is used for repeating a statement or series of statements as long as a given
conditional expression evaluates to TRUE. The syntax of the for statement is as follows:

for (counter declaration and initialization; condition;

update statement) {
statement(s);
}

foreach Statements

The foreach statement is used to iterate or loop through the elements in an array. With each
loop, a foreach statement moves to the next element in an array. The basic syntax of the
foreach statement is as follows:

foreach ($array_name as $variable_name) {

statement(s);
}
PHP Programming with MySQL, 2nd Edition 2-11

Most of the conditional statements (such as the if, if...else, while,

do...while, and for) are probably familiar to students, but the foreach
Teaching statement, which iterates through elements of an array may not be as familiar.
Tip
Illustrate the syntax of the foreach statement using the basic and advanced
forms shown on pages 105 – 107 of the textbook.

Quick Quiz 3

1. Each repetition of a looping statement is called a(n) _________________________.

ANSWER: iteration

2. A _________________________ is a variable that increments or decrements with each

iteration of a loop statement.
ANSWER: counter

3. The foreach statement is used to iterate or loop through the elements in a(n)
_________________________.
ANSWER: array

Discussion Questions
 When is it better to use a global variable in programming? When is it better to use a local
variable?

 Why are conditional statements important in programming?

 Explain the difference between a while statement and a do…while statement.

PHP Programming with MySQL, 2nd Edition 2-12

Key Terms
 break statement: Used to exit control structures.
 case label: In a switch statement, represents a specific value and contains one or more
statements that execute if the value of the case label matches the value of the switch
statement’s expression.
 command block: A group of statements contained within a set of braces, similar to the way
function statements are contained within a set of braces.
 counter: A variable that increments or decrements with each iteration of a loop statement.
 decision making (or flow control): The process of determining the order in which
statements execute in a program.
 default label: Contains statements that execute when the value returned by the switch
statement expression does not match a case label.
 do…while statement: Executes a statement or statements once, then repeats the execution
as long as a given conditional expression evaluates to TRUE.
 for statement: Used for repeating a statement or series of statements as long as a given
conditional expression evaluates to TRUE.
 function definition: Line of code that make up a function.
 functions: Groups of statements that execute as a single unit.
 global variable: A variable declared outside a function and available to all parts of the
program.
 if statement: Used to execute specific programming code if the evaluation of a conditional
expression returns a value of TRUE.
 if…else statement: if statement with an else clause that is implemented when the
condition returns a value of FALSE.
 infinite loop: A loop statement never ends because its exit condition is never met.
 iteration: The repetition of a looping statement.
 local variable: A variable declared inside a function and only available with the function in
which it is declared.
 loop statement: A control structure that repeatedly executes a statement or a series of
statements while a specific condition is TRUE or until a specific condition becomes TRUE.
 nested decision-making structures: One decision-making statement contained within
another decision-making statement.
 parameter: A variable that is passed to a function from the calling statement.
 return statement: A statement that returns a value to the statement that called the function.
 switch statement: Controls program flow by executing a specific set of statements,
depending on the value of an expression.
 variable scope: The context in which a variable is accessible (such as local or global).
 while statement: Repeats a statement or a series of statements as long as a given conditional
expression evaluates to TRUE.
PHP Programming with MySQL, 2nd Edition 2-13

Best Coding Practices – Chapter 2

Topic Best Practice
Formatting code Format code consistently within a program
Indent code five spaces for readability
Writing PHP code blocks Use the Standard Script Delimiters <?php … ?>
Using the echo statement Use the echo construct exclusively
Use lowercase characters for the echo keyword
Coding the echo statement Do not use parentheses with the echo statement
Adding comments to PHP script Add both line and block comments to your PHP code
Adding a line comment Use the two forward slashes (//) to begin a line comment
Displaying array elements with built-in Enclose the print_r(), var_export(), and
functions var_dump() functions in beginning and ending <pre> tags
Writing a user-defined function The name of a user-defined function should be descriptive of the
task it will perform
Writing a function definition Do NOT space between the function name and the opening
parenthesis
Key the opening curly brace on the same line as the function
name
Indent the function statements five spaces
Key the closing curly brace on a separate line
Calling a function Place the function definition above the calling statement
Writing a control structure To differentiate a control structure from a function, space once
after the conditional keyword before the parenthesis i.e. if
(...) or else (...)
Indent the statements to make them easier for the programmer to
follow the flow
Use curly braces around the statements to execute in a control
structure if there is more than one statement.
Coding a switch statement Include the optional break statement after the default case
label in a switch statement
Naming a counter variable If appropriate, name your counter variable $Count or
$Counter or use the letters ( i, j, k, l, x, y , z)
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