Chapter 5

Network Layer:
The Control Plane

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Network Layer: Control Plane 5-1
Chapter 5: network layer control plane
chapter goals: understand principles behind network
control plane
§ traditional routing algorithms
§ SDN controllers
§ Internet Control Message Protocol
§ Simple Network Management Protocol

and their instantiation, implementation in the Internet:

§ OSPF, BGP, OpenFlow, ODL and ONOS
controllers, ICMP, SNMP

Network Layer: Control Plane 5-2

Chapter 5: outline
5.1 introduction 5.5 The SDN control plane
5.2 routing protocols 5.6 ICMP: The Internet
§ link state Control Message
§ distance vector Protocol
5.3 intra-AS routing in the 5.7 Network management
Internet: OSPF and SNMP
5.4 routing among the ISPs:
BGP

Network Layer: Control Plane 5-3

Network-layer functions
Recall: two network-layer functions:
§ forwarding: move packets
from router s input to data plane
appropriate router output
§ routing: determine route
taken by packets from source control plane
to destination

Two approaches to structuring network control plane:

§ per-router control (traditional)
§ logically centralized control (software defined networking)

Network Layer: Control Plane 5-4

Per-router control plane
Individual routing algorithm components in each and every
router interact with each other in control plane to compute
forwarding tables

4.1 • OVERVIEW OF NETWORK LAYER 309

Routing
Algorithm
Routing algorithm control
Control plane plane
Data plane

Local forwarding data

table
header output
plane
0100 3
0110 2
0111 2
1001 1

Values in arriving
packet’s header
1
1101

2
3

Network Layer: Control Plane 5-5

Figure 4.2 ♦ Routing algorithms determine values in forward tables
 Logically centralized control plane
A distinct (typically remote) controller interacts with local
control agents (CAs) in routers to compute forwarding tables

Remote Controller

control
plane

data
plane

CA
CA CA CA CA

Network Layer: Control Plane 5-6

Chapter 5: outline
5.1 introduction 5.5 The SDN control plane
5.2 routing protocols 5.6 ICMP: The Internet
§ link state Control Message
§ distance vector Protocol
5.3 intra-AS routing in the 5.7 Network management
Internet: OSPF and SNMP
5.4 routing among the ISPs:
BGP

Network Layer: Control Plane 5-7

Routing protocols

Routing protocol goal: determine “good” paths

(equivalently, routes), from sending hosts to
receiving host, through network of routers
§ path: sequence of routers packets will traverse
in going from given initial source host to given
final destination host
§ “good”: least “cost”, “fastest”, “least
congested”
§ routing: a “top-10” networking challenge!

Network Layer: Control Plane 5-8

Graph abstraction of the network
5
3
v w 5
2
u 2 1 z
3
1 2
graph: G = (N,E)
x 1
y

N = set of routers = { u, v, w, x, y, z }

E = set of links ={ (u,v), (u,x), (v,x), (v,w), (x,w), (x,y), (w,y), (w,z), (y,z) }

aside: graph abstraction is useful in other network contexts, e.g.,

P2P, where N is set of peers and E is set of TCP connections

Network Layer: Control Plane 5-9

Graph abstraction: costs
5
c(x,x ) = cost of link (x,x )
3 e.g., c(w,z) = 5
v w 5
2
u cost could always be 1, or
2
3
1 z inversely related to bandwidth,
1 2 or inversely related to
x 1
y congestion

cost of path (x1, x2, x3,…, xp) = c(x1,x2) + c(x2,x3) + … + c(xp-1,xp)

key question: what is the least-cost path between u and z ?

routing algorithm: algorithm that finds that least cost path

Network Layer: Control Plane 5-10

Routing algorithm classification
Q: global or decentralized Q: static or dynamic?
information?
static:
global:
§ routes change slowly over
§ all routers have complete time
topology, link cost info
dynamic:
§ link state algorithms
§ routes change more
local: quickly
§ router knows physically- • periodic update
connected neighbors, link
costs to neighbors • in response to link
cost changes
§ iterative process of
computation, exchange of
info with neighbors
§ distance vector algorithms
Network Layer: Control Plane 5-11
Chapter 5: outline
5.1 introduction 5.5 The SDN control plane
5.2 routing protocols 5.6 ICMP: The Internet
§ link state Control Message
§ distance vector Protocol
5.3 intra-AS routing in the 5.7 Network management
Internet: OSPF and SNMP
5.4 routing among the ISPs:
BGP

Network Layer: Control Plane 5-12

A link-state routing algorithm
Dijkstra s algorithm notation:
§ net topology, link costs § c(a,b): link cost from
known to all nodes node a to b; = ∞ if not
• accomplished via link state direct neighbors
broadcast § D(d): current value of
• all nodes have same info cost of path from source
§ computes least cost paths to dest. d
from one node (‘source’) § p(d): predecessor node
to all other nodes along path from source to
• gives forwarding table for d
that node § N': set of nodes whose
§ iterative: after k least cost path definitively
iterations, knows least known
cost path to k dest. s

Network Layer: Control Plane 5-13

Dijsktra s algorithm
1 Initialization:
2 N' = {a}
3 for all nodes b
4 if b adjacent to a
5 then D(b) = c(a,b)
6 else D(b) = ∞
7
8 Loop
9 find i not in N' such that D(i) is a minimum
10 add i to N'
11 update D(j) for all j adjacent to i and not in N' :
12 D(j) = min( D(j), D(i) + c(i,j) )
13 /* new cost to j is either old cost to j or known
14 shortest path cost to i plus cost from i to j */
15 until all nodes in N'

Network Layer: Control Plane 5-14

Dijkstra s algorithm: example
D(v) D(w) D(x) D(y) D(z) 1 Initialization:
Step N' p(v) p(w) p(x) p(y) p(z)
2 N' = {a}
0 u 7,u 3,u 5,u ∞ ∞ 3 for all nodes b
1 uw 6,w 5,u 11,w ∞ 4 if b adjacent to a
2 uwx 6,w 11,w 14,x 5 then D(b) = c(a,b)
3 uwxv 10,v 14,x p(b) = a
4 uwxvy 12,y 6 else D(b) = ∞
5 uwxvyz x
9

5 7
notes:
8 Loop 4
9 find i not in N' such that D(i) is a
v construct shortest path tree by 8
minimum
tracing add i to N' nodes
predecessor 3 w z
u y
11 ties
v canD(j)
update exist
for(can
all j be brokento i
adjacent 2
arbitrarily)
and not in N' : 3
D(j) = min( D(j), D(i) + c(i,j) ) 7 4
p(j) = i, if D(i) + c(I,j) smaller
v
15 until all nodes in N'
Network Layer: Control Plane 5-15
Quiz Time

Network Layer: Control Plane 5-16

 Dijkstra s algorithm: another example
Step N' D(v),p(v) D(w),p(w) D(x),p(x) D(y),p(y) D(z),p(z)
0 u

1 Initialization: 5
2 N' = {a}
3 for all nodes b 3
v w 5
4 if b adjacent to a 2
5 then D(b) = c(a,b) u 2 1 z
p(b) = a 3
1 2
6 else D(b) = ∞ x 1
y

Network Layer: Control Plane 5-17

 Dijkstra s algorithm: another example
Step N' D(v),p(v) D(w),p(w) D(x),p(x) D(y),p(y) D(z),p(z)
0 u

1 Initialization: 5
2 N' = {a}
3 for all nodes b 3
v w 5
4 if b adjacent to a 2
5 then D(b) = c(a,b) u 2 1 z
p(b) = a 3
1 2
6 else D(b) = ∞ x 1
y

Network Layer: Control Plane 5-18

 Dijkstra s algorithm: another example
Step N' D(v),p(v) D(w),p(w) D(x),p(x) D(y),p(y) D(z),p(z)
0 u 2,u 5,u 1,u ∞ ∞

8 Loop 5
9 find i not in N' such that D(i) is a
minimum add i to N' 3
v w 5
2
11 update D(j) for all j adjacent to i u 2 1 z
and not in N' : 3
1 2
D(j) = min( D(j), D(i) + c(i,j) ) x 1
y
p(j) = i, if D(i) + c(I,j) smaller
15 until all nodes in N'
Network Layer: Control Plane 5-19
 Dijkstra s algorithm: another example
Step N' D(v),p(v) D(w),p(w) D(x),p(x) D(y),p(y) D(z),p(z)
0 u 2,u 5,u 1,u ∞ ∞
1 ux

8 Loop 5
9 find i not in N' such that D(i) is a
minimum add i to N' 3
v w 5
2
11 update D(j) for all j adjacent to i u 2 1 z
and not in N' : 3
1 2
D(j) = min( D(j), D(i) + c(i,j) ) x 1
y
p(j) = i, if D(i) + c(I,j) smaller
15 until all nodes in N'
Network Layer: Control Plane 5-20
 Dijkstra s algorithm: another example
Step N' D(v),p(v) D(w),p(w) D(x),p(x) D(y),p(y) D(z),p(z)
0 u 2,u 5,u 1,u ∞ ∞
1 ux 2,u 4,x 2,x ∞

8 Loop 5
9 find i not in N' such that D(i) is a
minimum add i to N' 3
v w 5
2
11 update D(j) for all j adjacent to i u 2 1 z
and not in N' : 3
1 2
D(j) = min( D(j), D(i) + c(i,j) ) x 1
y
p(j) = i, if D(i) + c(I,j) smaller
15 until all nodes in N'
Network Layer: Control Plane 5-21
 Dijkstra s algorithm: another example
Step N' D(v),p(v) D(w),p(w) D(x),p(x) D(y),p(y) D(z),p(z)
0 u 2,u 5,u 1,u ∞ ∞
1 ux 2,u 4,x 2,x ∞
2 uxy

8 Loop 5
9 find i not in N' such that D(i) is a
minimum add i to N' 3
v w 5
2
11 update D(j) for all j adjacent to i u 2 1 z
and not in N' : 3
1 2
D(j) = min( D(j), D(i) + c(i,j) ) x 1
y
p(j) = i, if D(i) + c(I,j) smaller
15 until all nodes in N'
Network Layer: Control Plane 5-22
 Dijkstra s algorithm: another example
Step N' D(v),p(v) D(w),p(w) D(x),p(x) D(y),p(y) D(z),p(z)
0 u 2,u 5,u 1,u ∞ ∞
1 ux 2,u 4,x 2,x ∞
2 uxy 2,u 3,y 4,y

8 Loop 5
9 find i not in N' such that D(i) is a
minimum add i to N' 3
v w 5
2
11 update D(j) for all j adjacent to i u 2 1 z
and not in N' : 3
1 2
D(j) = min( D(j), D(i) + c(i,j) ) x 1
y
p(j) = i, if D(i) + c(I,j) smaller
15 until all nodes in N'
Network Layer: Control Plane 5-23
 Dijkstra s algorithm: another example
Step N' D(v),p(v) D(w),p(w) D(x),p(x) D(y),p(y) D(z),p(z)
0 u 2,u 5,u 1,u ∞ ∞
1 ux 2,u 4,x 2,x ∞
2 uxy 2,u 3,y 4,y
3 uxyv

8 Loop 5
9 find i not in N' such that D(i) is a
minimum add i to N' 3
v w 5
2
11 update D(j) for all j adjacent to i u 2 1 z
and not in N' : 3
1 2
D(j) = min( D(j), D(i) + c(i,j) ) x 1
y
p(j) = i, if D(i) + c(I,j) smaller
15 until all nodes in N'
Network Layer: Control Plane 5-24
 Dijkstra s algorithm: another example
Step N' D(v),p(v) D(w),p(w) D(x),p(x) D(y),p(y) D(z),p(z)
0 u 2,u 5,u 1,u ∞ ∞
1 ux 2,u 4,x 2,x ∞
2 uxy 2,u 3,y 4,y
3 uxyv 3,y 4,y

8 Loop 5
9 find i not in N' such that D(i) is a
minimum add i to N' 3
v w 5
2
11 update D(j) for all j adjacent to i u 2 1 z
and not in N' : 3
1 2
D(j) = min( D(j), D(i) + c(i,j) ) x 1
y
p(j) = i, if D(i) + c(I,j) smaller
15 until all nodes in N'
Network Layer: Control Plane 5-25
 Dijkstra s algorithm: another example
Step N' D(v),p(v) D(w),p(w) D(x),p(x) D(y),p(y) D(z),p(z)
0 u 2,u 5,u 1,u ∞ ∞
1 ux 2,u 4,x 2,x ∞
2 uxy 2,u 3,y 4,y
3 uxyv 3,y 4,y
4 uxyvw

8 Loop 5
9 find i not in N' such that D(i) is a
minimum add i to N' 3
v w 5
2
11 update D(j) for all j adjacent to i u 2 1 z
and not in N' : 3
1 2
D(j) = min( D(j), D(i) + c(i,j) ) x 1
y
p(j) = i, if D(i) + c(I,j) smaller
15 until all nodes in N'
Network Layer: Control Plane 5-26
 Dijkstra s algorithm: another example
Step N' D(v),p(v) D(w),p(w) D(x),p(x) D(y),p(y) D(z),p(z)
0 u 2,u 5,u 1,u ∞ ∞
1 ux 2,u 4,x 2,x ∞
2 uxy 2,u 3,y 4,y
3 uxyv 3,y 4,y
4 uxyvw 4,y

8 Loop 5
9 find i not in N' such that D(i) is a
minimum add i to N' 3
v w 5
2
11 update D(j) for all j adjacent to i u 2 1 z
and not in N' : 3
1 2
D(j) = min( D(j), D(i) + c(i,j) ) x 1
y
p(j) = i, if D(i) + c(I,j) smaller
15 until all nodes in N'
Network Layer: Control Plane 5-27
 Dijkstra s algorithm: another example
Step N' D(v),p(v) D(w),p(w) D(x),p(x) D(y),p(y) D(z),p(z)
0 u 2,u 5,u 1,u ∞ ∞
1 ux 2,u 4,x 2,x ∞
2 uxy 2,u 3,y 4,y
3 uxyv 3,y 4,y
4 uxyvw 4,y
5 uxyvwz
8 Loop 5
9 find i not in N' such that D(i) is a
minimum add i to N' 3
v w 5
2
11 update D(j) for all j adjacent to i u 2 1 z
and not in N' : 3
1 2
D(j) = min( D(j), D(i) + c(i,j) ) x 1
y
p(j) = i, if D(i) + c(I,j) smaller
15 until all nodes in N'
Network Layer: Control Plane 5-28
Dijkstra s algorithm: example (2)
resulting shortest-path tree from u:

v w
u z
x y

resulting forwarding table in u:

destination link
v (u,v)
x (u,x)
y (u,x)
w (u,x)
z (u,x)
Network Layer: Control Plane 5-29
 Dijkstra s algorithm, discussion
algorithm complexity: n nodes
§ each iteration: need to check all nodes, j, not in N’
§ n(n-1)/2 comparisons: O(n2)
§ more efficient implementations possible: O(nlogn)
oscillations possible:
§ e.g., support link cost equals amount of carried traffic:

1 A 1+e A A A
2+e 0 0 2+e 2+e 0
D 0 0 B D 1+e 1 B D B D 1+e 1 B
0 0
0 e 0 0
C 0 1 1+e 0
1 C C C
1
e
given these costs, given these costs, given these costs,
initially find new routing…. find new routing…. find new routing….
resulting in new costs resulting in new costs resulting in new costs
Network Layer: Control Plane 5-30
LS Routing Summary
§ net topology, link costs known to all nodes
• accomplished via “link state broadcast”
• all nodes have the entire topology info
§ computes least cost paths from one node
(‘source’) to all other nodes
• gives forwarding table for that node

Network Layer: Control Plane 5-31

LS Reports à Net Topo
§ Node u sending a LS report
• Node u: (v,5), (w,3), (x,7)

§ Suppose node u received these LS reports

• Node v: (u,5)
• Node w: (u,3), (x,2) 3
• Node x: (u,7), (w,2)
v w
5
u
2
7
x

Network Layer: Control Plane 5-32

LS Routing Summary
§ net topology, link costs known to all nodes
• accomplished via “link state broadcast”
• all nodes have the entire topology info
§ computes least cost paths from one node
(‘source’) to all other nodes
• gives forwarding table for that node

§ Do you see any problems?

LS broadcast: consumes bandwidth
Topology info: occupies memory space

Network Layer: Control Plane 5-33

Chapter 5: outline
5.1 introduction 5.5 The SDN control plane
5.2 routing protocols 5.6 ICMP: The Internet
§ link state Control Message
§ distance vector Protocol
5.3 intra-AS routing in the 5.7 Network management
Internet: OSPF and SNMP
5.4 routing among the ISPs:
BGP

Network Layer: Control Plane 5-34

Can you do without knowing the
Topology?
Yes, I tell my neighbors.
You tell yours

Network Layer: Control Plane 5-35

Quiz Time!

Network Layer: Control Plane 5-36

How does a router know a route
without the network topology?

Track how neighbors know about the destination

For best route, check all neighbors

1. Cost to the neighbor
2. Neighbor’s cost to the destination
Network Layer: Control Plane 5-37
Distance vector algorithm
Bellman-Ford equation (dynamic programming)

let
dx(y) := cost of least-cost path from x to y
then
dx(y) = min
v
{c(x,v) + dv(y) }

cost from neighbor v to destination y

link cost to neighbor v

min taken over all neighbors v of x

Network Layer: Control Plane 5-38
Bellman-Ford example
5
3 clearly, dv(z) = 5, dx(z) = 3, dw(z) = 3
v w 5
2
u 2 1 z B-F equation says:
3
1 2 du(z) = min { c(u,v) + dv(z),
x y
1 c(u,x) + dx(z),
c(u,w) + dw(z) }
= min {2 + 5,
1 + 3,
5 + 3} = 4
node achieving minimum is next
hop in shortest path, used in forwarding table

Network Layer: Control Plane 5-39

Distance vector algorithm
§ dx(y) = estimate of least cost from x to y
• x maintains distance vector Dx = [dx(y): y є N ]
§ node x:
• knows cost to each neighbor v: c(x,v)
• maintains its neighbors distance vectors. For
each neighbor v, x maintains
Dv = [dv(y): y є N ]

Network Layer: Control Plane 5-40

Distance vector algorithm
key idea:
§ from time-to-time, each node sends its own
distance vector estimate to neighbors
§ when x receives new Dv estimate from neighbor
v, it updates its own Dx using B-F equation:
dx(y) ← minv{c(x,v) + dv(y)} for each node y ∊ N

v under minor, natural conditions, the estimate dx(y)

converge to the actual least cost

Network Layer: Control Plane 5-41

Distance vector algorithm
iterative, asynchronous: each node:
each local iteration
caused by:
§ local link cost change wait for (change in local link
cost or msg from neighbor)
§ DV update message from
neighbor
distributed: recompute estimates
§ each node notifies
neighbors when its DV
changes if DV to any dest has
• neighbors then notify their changed, notify neighbors
neighbors if necessary

Network Layer: Control Plane 5-42

Distance vector algorithm
each node:

wait for (change in local link

cost or msg from neighbor)

recompute estimates

if DV to any dest has

changed, notify neighbors

Network Layer: Control Plane 5-43

 dx(y) = min{c(x,y) + dy(y), c(x,z) + dz(y)} dx(z) = min{c(x,y) +
= min{2+0 , 7+1} = 2 dy(z), c(x,z) + dz(z)}
= min{2+1 , 7+0} = 3
node x cost to cost to
table x y z x y z
x 0 2 7 x 0 2 3

from
y ∞∞ ∞ y 2 0 1
from

z ∞∞ ∞ z 7 1 0

node y cost to
table x y z y
2 1
x ∞ ∞ ∞
x z
from

y 2 0 1 7
z ∞∞ ∞

node z cost to
table x y z
x ∞∞ ∞
from

y ∞∞ ∞
z 7 1 0
time
Network Layer: Control Plane 5-44
Quiz Time!

Network Layer: Control Plane 5-45

 Dx(y) = min{c(x,y) + Dy(y), c(x,z) + Dz(y)} Dx(z) = min{c(x,y) +
= min{2+0 , 7+1} = 2 Dy(z), c(x,z) + Dz(z)}
= min{2+1 , 7+0} = 3
node x cost to cost to cost to
table x y z x y z x y z
x 0 2 7 x 0 2 3 x 0 2 3

from
y ∞∞ ∞ y 2 0 1
from

y 2 0 1

from
z ∞∞ ∞ z 7 1 0 z 3 1 0

node y cost to cost to cost to

table x y z x y z x y z y
2 1
x ∞ ∞ ∞ x 0 2 7 x 0 2 3 x z
from

y 2 0 1 y 2 0 1 7
from

y 2 0 1

from
z ∞∞ ∞ z 7 1 0 z 3 1 0

node z cost to cost to cost to

table x y z x y z x y z
x ∞∞ ∞ x 0 2 7 x 0 2 3
from

from
y 2 0 1 y 2 0 1
from

y ∞∞ ∞
z 7 1 0 z 3 1 0 z 3 1 0
time
Network Layer: Control Plane 5-46
 Distance vector: link cost changes
link cost changes: 1
v node detects local link cost change y
4 1
v updates routing info, recalculates x z
distance vector 50
v if DV changes, notify neighbors

good t0 : y detects link-cost change, updates its DV, informs its

news neighbors.
travels t1 : z receives update from y, updates its table, computes new
fast least cost to x , sends its neighbors its DV.

t2 : y receives z s update, updates its distance table. y s least costs

do not change, so y does not send a message to z.

* Check out the online interactive exercises for more

examples: http://gaia.cs.umass.edu/kurose_ross/interactive/ Network Layer: Control Plane 5-47
Distance vector: link cost changes
link cost changes: 60
v node detects local link cost change y
4 1
v bad news travels slow - count to x z
infinity problem! 50
v 44 iterations before algorithm
stabilizes: Quiz!
poisoned reverse:
v If Z routes through Y to get to X :
§ Z tells Y its (Z s) distance to X is infinite (so Y won t route
to X via Z)
v will this completely solve count to infinity problem?

Network Layer: Control Plane 5-48

Comparison of LS and DV algorithms
message complexity robustness: what happens if
§ LS: with n nodes, E links, O(nE) router malfunctions?
msgs sent LS:
§ DV: exchange between neighbors • node can advertise incorrect
only link cost
• each node computes its own
table independently
speed of convergence DV:
§ LS: O(n2) algorithm
• DV node can advertise
• may have oscillations incorrect path cost
§ DV: convergence time varies • each node s table used by
• may be routing loops others
• count-to-infinity problem • error propagate thru
network

Network Layer: Control Plane 5-49

Chapter 5: outline
5.1 introduction 5.5 The SDN control plane
5.2 routing protocols 5.6 ICMP: The Internet
§ link state Control Message
§ distance vector Protocol
5.3 intra-AS routing in the 5.7 Network management
Internet: OSPF and SNMP
5.4 routing among the ISPs:
BGP

Network Layer: Control Plane 5-50

Making routing scalable
our routing study thus far - idealized
§ all routers identical
§ network flat
… not true in practice

scale: with billions of administrative autonomy

destinations: § internet = network of
§ can t store all networks
destinations in routing § each network admin may
tables! want to control routing in
§ routing table exchange its own network
would swamp links!

Network Layer: Control Plane 5-51

Internet approach to scalable routing
aggregate routers into regions known as autonomous
systems (AS) (a.k.a. “domains”)

intra-AS routing inter-AS routing

§ routing among hosts, routers § routing among AS’es
in same AS (“network”) § gateways perform inter-
§ all routers in AS must run domain routing (as well
same intra-domain protocol as intra-domain routing)
§ routers in different AS can run
different intra-domain routing
protocol
§ gateway router: at “edge” of
its own AS, has link(s) to
router(s) in other AS’es
Network Layer: Control Plane 5-52
Interconnected ASes

3c
3a 2c
3b 2a
AS3 2b
1c AS2
1a 1b AS1
1d § forwarding table
configured by both intra-
and inter-AS routing
Intra-AS Inter-AS algorithm
Routing
algorithm
Routing
algorithm • intra-AS routing
determine entries for
Forwarding
table
destinations within AS
• inter-AS & intra-AS
determine entries for
external destinations
Network Layer: Control Plane 5-53
 Inter-AS tasks
§ suppose router in AS1 AS1 must:
receives datagram 1. learn which dests are
destined outside of AS1: reachable through AS2,
• router should forward which through AS3
packet to gateway 2. propagate this
router, but which one? reachability info to all
routers in AS1
job of inter-AS routing!

3c
3a
3b
AS3 2c other
1c 2a networks
other
1a 2b
networks 1b AS2
AS1 1d

Network Layer: Control Plane 5-54

Intra-AS Routing
§ also known as interior gateway protocols (IGP)
§ most common intra-AS routing protocols:
• RIP: Routing Information Protocol
• OSPF: Open Shortest Path First (IS-IS protocol
essentially same as OSPF)
• IGRP: Interior Gateway Routing Protocol
(Cisco proprietary for decades, until 2016)

Network Layer: Control Plane 5-55

OSPF (Open Shortest Path First)
§ open : publicly available
§ uses link-state algorithm
• link state packet dissemination
• topology map at each node
• route computation using Dijkstra s algorithm
§ router floods OSPF link-state advertisements to all
other routers in entire AS
• carried in OSPF messages directly over IP (rather than
TCP or UDP
• link state: for each attached link
§ IS-IS routing protocol: nearly identical to OSPF

Network Layer: Control Plane 5-56

OSPF advanced features
§ security: all OSPF messages authenticated (to prevent
malicious intrusion)
§ multiple same-cost paths allowed (only one path in
RIP)
§ for each link, multiple cost metrics for different ToS
(e.g., satellite link cost set low for best effort ToS;
high for real-time ToS)
§ integrated uni- and multi-cast support:
• Multicast OSPF (MOSPF) uses same topology data
base as OSPF
§ hierarchical OSPF in large domains.

Network Layer: Control Plane 5-57

Hierarchical OSPF
boundary router
backbone router

backbone
area
border
routers

area 3

internal
routers
area 1
area 2

Network Layer: Control Plane 5-58

Hierarchical OSPF
§ two-level hierarchy: local area, backbone.
• link-state advertisements only in area
• each nodes has detailed area topology
• only know direction (shortest path) to nets in
other areas.
§ area border routers: summarize distances to nets in
own area, advertise to other Area Border routers.
§ backbone routers: run OSPF routing limited to
backbone.
§ boundary routers: connect to other AS es.

Network Layer: Control Plane 5-59

Chapter 5: outline
5.1 introduction 5.5 The SDN control plane
5.2 routing protocols 5.6 ICMP: The Internet
§ link state Control Message
§ distance vector Protocol
5.3 intra-AS routing in the 5.7 Network management
Internet: OSPF and SNMP
5.4 routing among the ISPs:
BGP

Network Layer: Control Plane 5-60

Internet inter-AS routing: BGP
§ BGP (Border Gateway Protocol): the de facto
inter-domain routing protocol
• glue that holds the Internet together
§ BGP provides each AS a means to:
• eBGP: obtain subnet reachability information from
neighboring ASes
• iBGP: propagate reachability information to all AS-
internal routers.
• determine good routes to other networks based on
reachability information and policy
• allows subnet to advertise its existence to rest of
Internet: I am here

Network Layer: Control Plane 5-61

eBGP, iBGP connections

2b

2a 2c
1b 3b
2d
1a 1c 3a 3c
AS 2
1d 3d

AS 1 eBGP connectivity AS 3
iBGP connectivity

1c gateway routers run both eBGP and iBGP protools

Network Layer: Control Plane 5-62

BGP basics
§ BGP session: two BGP routers ( peers ) exchange BGP
messages over semi-permanent TCP connection:
• advertising paths to different destination network prefixes
(BGP is a path vector protocol)
§ when AS3 gateway router 3a advertises path AS3,X to AS2
gateway router 2c:
• AS3 promises to AS2 it will forward datagrams towards X

AS 3 3b
AS 1 1b
3a 3c
1a 1c
AS 2 2b 3d X
1d
BGP advertisement:
2a 2c AS3, X

2d
Network Layer: Control Plane 5-63
Path attributes and BGP routes
§ advertised prefix includes BGP attributes
• prefix + attributes = route
§ two important attributes:
• AS-PATH: list of ASes through which prefix advertisement
has passed
• NEXT-HOP: indicates specific internal-AS router to next-
hop AS
§ Policy-based routing:
• gateway receiving route advertisement uses import policy to
accept/decline path (e.g., never route through AS Y).
• AS policy also determines whether to advertise path to
other neighboring ASes

Network Layer: Control Plane 5-64

 BGP path advertisement
AS3 3b
AS1 1b
3a 3c
1a 1c
AS2 2b 3d X
1d AS3,X
AS2,AS3,X
2a 2c

2d

§ AS2 router 2c receives path advertisement AS3,X (via eBGP) from AS3
router 3a
§ Based on AS2 policy, AS2 router 2c accepts path AS3,X, propagates
(via iBGP) to all AS2 routers
§ Based on AS2 policy, AS2 router 2a advertises (via eBGP) path AS2,
AS3, X to AS1 router 1c
Network Layer: Control Plane 5-65
BGP path advertisement
AS3 3b
AS1 1b AS3,X
3a 3c
1a 1c
AS2 2b 3d X
1d AS3,X
AS2,AS3,X
2a 2c

2d

gateway router may learn about multiple paths to destination:

§ AS1 gateway router 1c learns path AS2,AS3,X from 2a
§ AS1 gateway router 1c learns path AS3,X from 3a
§ Based on policy, AS1 gateway router 1c chooses path AS3,X, and
advertises path within AS1 via iBGP
Network Layer: Control Plane 5-66
 BGP, OSPF, forwarding table entries
Q: how does router set forwarding table entry to distant prefix?

AS3 3b
AS1 1b AS3,X
1 AS3,X
3a 3c
1a 2 1c
local link AS2 2b 3d X
interfaces 2 1d 1 AS3,X
at 1a, 1d AS2,AS3,X
2a 2c
physical link
2d

dest interface § recall: 1a, 1b, 1d learn about dest X via iBGP
… … from 1c: “path to X goes through 1c”
X 1 § 1d: OSPF intra-domain routing: to get to 1c,
… … forward over outgoing local interface 1

Network Layer: Control Plane 5-67

BGP, OSPF, forwarding table entries
Q: how does router set forwarding table entry to distant prefix?

AS3 3b
AS1 1b
1
3a 3c
1a 2 1c
AS2 2b 3d X
1d
2a 2c

2d

dest interface § recall: 1a, 1b, 1c learn about dest X via iBGP
… … from 1c: “path to X goes through 1c”
X 2 § 1d: OSPF intra-domain routing: to get to 1c,
… … forward over outgoing local interface 1
§ 1a: OSPF intra-domain routing: to get to 1c,
forward over outgoing local interface 2
Network Layer: Control Plane 5-68
BGP route selection
§ router may learn about more than one route to
destination AS, selects route based on:
1. local preference value attribute: policy decision
2. shortest AS-PATH
3. closest NEXT-HOP router: hot potato routing
4. additional criteria

Network Layer: Control Plane 5-69

Hot Potato Routing
AS3 3b
AS1 1b
3a 3c
1a 1c
AS2 2b 3d X
1d 112
AS3,X
152
AS1,AS3,X 2a 263 2c
201
OSPF link weights
2d

§ 2d learns (via iBGP) it can route to X via 2a or 2c

§ hot potato routing: choose local gateway that has least intra-
domain cost (e.g., 2d chooses 2a, even though more AS hops
to X): don’t worry about inter-domain cost!

Network Layer: Control Plane 5-70

BGP messages
§ BGP messages exchanged between peers over TCP
connection
§ BGP messages:
• OPEN: opens TCP connection to remote BGP peer and
authenticates sending BGP peer
• UPDATE: advertises new path (or withdraws old)
• KEEPALIVE: keeps connection alive in absence of
UPDATES; also ACKs OPEN request
• NOTIFICATION: reports errors in previous msg; also
used to close connection

Network Layer: Control Plane 5-71

Quiz Time!

Network Layer: Control Plane 5-72

BGP: achieving policy via advertisements
legend: provider
B network
X
W A
customer
C network:
Y

Suppose an ISP only wants to route traffic to/from its customer

networks (does not want to carry transit traffic between other ISPs)
§ A advertises path Aw to B and to C
§ B chooses not to advertise BAw to C:
§ B gets no revenue for routing CBAw, since none of C, A, w are B s
customers
§ C does not learn about CBAw path
§ C will route CAw (not using B) to get to w
Network Layer: Control Plane 5-73
BGP: achieving policy via advertisements
legend: provider
B network
X
W A
customer
C network:
Y

Suppose an ISP only wants to route traffic to/from its customer

networks (does not want to carry transit traffic between other ISPs)

§ A,B,C are provider networks

§ X,W,Y are customer (of provider networks)
§ X is dual-homed: attached to two networks
§ policy to enforce: X does not want to route from C to B via X
§ .. so X will not advertise to C a route to B
Network Layer: Control Plane 5-74
Triple Quiz Time!

Network Layer: Control Plane 5-75

Why different Intra-, Inter-AS routing ?
policy:
§ inter-AS: admin wants control over how its traffic
routed, who routes through its net.
§ intra-AS: single admin, so no policy decisions needed
scale:
§ hierarchical routing saves table size, reduced update
traffic
performance:
§ intra-AS: can focus on performance
§ inter-AS: policy may dominate over performance

Network Layer: Control Plane 5-76

Chapter 5: outline
5.1 introduction 5.5 The SDN control plane
5.2 routing protocols 5.6 ICMP: The Internet
§ link state Control Message
§ distance vector Protocol
5.3 intra-AS routing in the 5.7 Network management
Internet: OSPF and SNMP
5.4 routing among the ISPs:
BGP

Network Layer: Control Plane 5-77

Recall: per-router control plane
Individual routing algorithm components in each and every
router interact with each other in control plane to compute
forwarding tables

4.1 • OVERVIEW OF NETWORK LAYER 309

Routing
Algorithm
Routing algorithm control
Control plane plane
Data plane

Local forwarding data

table
header output
plane
0100 3
0110 2
0111 2
1001 1

Values in arriving
packet’s header
1
1101

2
3

Network Layer: Control Plane 5-78

Figure 4.2 ♦ Routing algorithms determine values in forward tables
 Recall: logically centralized control plane
A distinct (typically remote) controller interacts with local
control agents (CAs) in routers to compute forwarding tables

Remote Controller

control
plane

data
plane

CA
CA CA CA CA

Network Layer: Control Plane 5-79

Software defined networking (SDN)
Why a logically centralized control plane?
§ easier network management:
• avoid router misconfigurations
• greater flexibility of traffic flows

Difficult to manipulate where traffic flows in a

traditional network!

Network Layer: Control Plane 5-80

Case 1: enforcing a policy?
5
3
2 v w 5

u 2 1
3 z
1
2
x 1 y

Q: what if network operator wants u-to-z traffic to flow along

uvwz?
A: need to define link costs so traffic routing algorithm
computes routes accordingly (or need a new routing algorithm)!
Link costs are the only control “knobs”: not good!
Network Layer: Control Plane 5-81
Case 2: speeding up Tx?
5
3
2 v w 5

u 2 1
3 z
1
2
x 1 y

Q: what if network operator wants to split u-to-z

traffic along uvwz and uxyz (load balancing)?
A: can’t do it (or need a new routing algorithm)

OSPF might be able to do this to some degree!

Network Layer: Control Plane 5-82

Case 3: avoiding congestion?

v
v
w
w

u zz

xx yy

Q: what if w wants to route blue and red traffic

differently?

A: can’t do it (with destination based forwarding, and LS,

DV routing)

Network Layer: Control Plane 5-83

Software defined networking (SDN)
Why a logically centralized control plane?
§ easier network management:
• avoid router misconfigurations
• greater flexibility of traffic flows
§ Empowering general table-based forwarding
• Traditional control plane: compute tables as result of
distributed algorithm ß Hard to manipulate
• Centralized control plane: compute/configure tables
centrally and distribute ß Higher flexibility
§ open (non-proprietary) implementation of control
plane
• Easier to contribute code for route computation

Network Layer: Control Plane 5-84

Traditional Router Architecture
§ Internet network layer: historically has been
implemented via distributed, per-router approach
§ Specialized router contains switching hardware,
runs proprietary implementation of Internet
standard protocols (IP, RIP, IS-IS, OSPF, BGP) in
proprietary router OS (e.g., Cisco IOS)
• can’t add functions as user demand rises. Therefore
different “middleboxes” for different network layer
functions: firewalls, load balancers, NAT boxes, ..

§ ~2005: renewed interest in rethinking network

control plane

Network Layer: Control Plane 5-85

 Analogy: mainframe to PC evolution*
Ap Ap Ap Ap Ap Ap Ap Ap Ap Ap
App
Specialized p p p p p p p p p p
Applications Open Interface

Specialized Windows Mac

Operating (OS) or Linux or OS
System
Open Interface
Specialized
Hardware Microprocessor

Vertically integrated Horizontal separation

Closed proprietary Open interfaces
Slow innovation Rapid innovation
Small industry Huge industry
* Slide courtesy: N. McKeown Network Layer: Control Plane 5-86
 Software defined networking (SDN)
4. programmable 3. control plane
control routing access
control
… load
balance functions
applications external to data-
plane switches
Remote Controller

control
plane

data
plane

CA 2. control,
data plane
CA CA CA CA separation

1: generalized“ flow-
based” forwarding
(e.g., OpenFlow)
Network Layer: Control Plane 5-87
 SDN perspective: data plane switches
Data plane switches network-control applications

§ fast, simple, commodity switches

routing
…
§ implementing generalized data- load
access
plane forwarding (Section 4.4) in control balance
hardware
control
§ flow table installed by controller northbound API plane

SDN Controller
Open Flow (network operating system)
§ API for table-based switch control
• defines what is controllable and what southbound API
is not
§ protocol for communicating with data
controller plane

SDN-controlled switches
Network Layer: Control Plane 5-88 Network Layer: Control Plane 5-88
 SDN perspective: SDN controller
SDN controller (network OS): network-control applications

§ maintain network state

routing
…
information
access load
§ interacts with network control balance
control applications “above”
via northbound API northbound API
control
plane
§ interacts with network
switches “below” via SDN Controller
southbound API (network operating system)
§ implemented as distributed
system for performance, southbound API

scalability, fault-tolerance,
robustness data
plane

SDN-controlled switches
Network Layer: Control Plane 5-89 Network Layer: Control Plane 5-89
 SDN perspective: control applications
network-control apps: network-control applications

§ “brains” of control:
routing
…
implement control functions
using lower-level services, API access load
control balance
provided by SND controller
§ unbundled: can be provided by northbound API
control
plane
3rd party: distinct from routing
vendor, or SDN controller SDN Controller
(network operating system)

southbound API

data
plane

SDN-controlled switches
Network Layer: Control Plane 5-90 Network Layer: Control Plane 5-90
 Components of SDN controller
routing access load
control balance
Interface layer to
network control Interface, abstractions for network control apps
apps: abstractions
API
network
graph
RESTful
API
… intent

Network-wide state
management layer: statistics … flow tables
state of networks
Network-wide distributed, robust state management
SDN
links, switches,
controller
services: a distributed
database
Link-state info host info … switch info

communication layer: OpenFlow … SNMP

communicate Communication to/from controlled devices
between SDN
controller and
controlled switches

Network Layer: Control Plane 5-91

ONOS controller
Network …
control apps
§ control apps
northbound separate from
REST API Intent abstractions, controller
protocols
§ intent framework:
hosts paths flow rules topology high-level
specification of
ONOS
devices links statistics distributed service: what rather
core than how
§ considerable
device link host flow packet southbound emphasis on
abstractions,
OpenFlow Netconf OVSDB protocols
distributed core:
service reliability,
replication
performance scaling
Network Layer: Control Plane 5-92
OpenDaylight (ODL) controller
Traffic …
Engineering § ODL Lithium
controller
REST API
§ network apps may
Network Basic Network Service Functions
be contained within,
service apps or be external to
Access
topology
manager
switch
manager
stats
manager
SDN controller
Control
host
§ Service Abstraction
forwarding
manager manager Layer: interconnects
internal, external
Service Abstraction Layer (SAL) applications and
services
OpenFlow 1.0
… SNMP OVSDB

Network Layer: Control Plane 5-93

OpenFlow protocol
§ operates between
OpenFlow Controller controller, switch
§ TCP used to exchange
messages
• optional encryption
§ three classes of
OpenFlow messages:
• controller-to-switch
• Switch-to-controller
• symmetric (misc)

Network Layer: Control Plane 5-94

OpenFlow: controller-to-switch messages

Key controller-to-switch messages

§ features: controller queries OpenFlow Controller
switch features, switch replies
§ configure: controller
queries/sets switch
configuration parameters
§ modify-state: add, delete, modify
flow entries in the OpenFlow
tables
§ packet-out: controller can send
packets out of a specific switch
port
Network Layer: Control Plane 5-95
OpenFlow: switch-to-controller messages
Key switch-to-controller messages
§ packet-in: transfer packet (and its OpenFlow Controller
control) to controller. See packet-
out message from controller
§ flow-removed: flow table entry
deleted at switch
§ port status: inform controller of a
change on a port.

Fortunately, network operators don’t “program” switches by

creating/sending OpenFlow messages directly. Instead use
higher-level abstraction at controller
Network Layer: Control Plane 5-96
SDN: control/data plane interaction example
Dijkstra’s link-state 1 s1, experiencing link failure
Routing using OpenFlow port status
message to notify controller
4 5
network
graph
RESTful
API
… intent 2 SDN controller receives
OpenFlow message, updates
statistics
3
… flow tables
link status info
3 Dijkstra’s routing algorithm
Link-state info host info … switch info application has previously
2 registered to be called when
OpenFlow
… SNMP
ever link status changes. It is
called.
4 Dijkstra’s routing algorithm
6 access network graph info, link
1
state info in controller,
s2 computes new routes
s1
s4
s3
Network Layer: Control Plane 5-97
SDN: control/data plane interaction example
Dijkstra’s link-state
Routing
4 5
network
graph
RESTful
API
… intent 5 link state routing app interacts
with flow-table-computation
statistics
3
… flow tables
component in SDN controller,
which generates new flow
Link-state info host info … switch info
tables needed

2 6 Controller uses OpenFlow to

OpenFlow
… SNMP
install new tables in switches
that need updating
6
1

s2
s1
s4
s3
Network Layer: Control Plane 5-98
SDN: selected challenges
§ hardening the control plane: reliable, secure
distributed system
• robustness to failures: leverage strong theory of
reliable distributed system for control plane
• reliability, security: “baked in” from day one?
§ networks, protocols meeting mission-specific
requirements
• e.g., real-time, ultra-reliable, ultra-secure (TLS)
§ Internet-scaling
• BGP configuration using SDN

Network Layer: Control Plane 5-99

Chapter 5: outline
5.1 introduction 5.5 The SDN control plane
5.2 routing protocols 5.6 ICMP: The Internet
§ link state Control Message
§ distance vector Protocol
5.3 intra-AS routing in the 5.7 Network management
Internet: OSPF and SNMP
5.4 routing among the ISPs:
BGP

Network Layer: Control Plane 5-

100
ICMP: internet control message protocol

§ used by hosts & routers

Type Code description
to communicate network-
0 0 echo reply (ping)
level information 3 0 dest. network unreachable
• error reporting: 3 1 dest host unreachable
unreachable host, network, 3 2 dest protocol unreachable
port, protocol 3 3 dest port unreachable
• echo request/reply (used by 3 6 dest network unknown
ping) 3 7 dest host unknown
§ network-layer above IP: 4 0 source quench (congestion
• ICMP msgs carried in IP control - not used)
datagrams 8 0 echo request (ping)
9 0 route advertisement
§ ICMP message: type, code 10 0 router discovery
plus first 8 bytes of IP 11 0 TTL expired
datagram causing error 12 0 bad IP header

Network Layer: Control Plane 5-

101
Traceroute and ICMP
§ source sends series of § when ICMP message
UDP segments to arrives, source records
destination RTTs
• first set has TTL =1
• second set has TTL=2, etc. stopping criteria:
§ when datagram in nth set § UDP segment eventually
arrives to nth router: arrives at destination host
• router discards datagram and § source stops
sends source ICMP message
(type 11, code 0)
• ICMP message include name
of router & IP address

3 probes 3 probes

3 probes
Network Layer: Control Plane 5-
102
Chapter 5: outline
5.1 introduction 5.5 The SDN control plane
5.2 routing protocols 5.6 ICMP: The Internet
§ link state Control Message
§ distance vector Protocol
5.3 intra-AS routing in the 5.7 Network management
Internet: OSPF and SNMP
5.4 routing among the ISPs:
BGP

Network Layer: Control Plane 5-

103
What is network management?
§ autonomous systems (aka network ): 1000s of interacting
hardware/software components
§ other complex systems requiring monitoring, control:
• jet airplane
• nuclear power plant
• others?

"Network management includes the deployment, integration

and coordination of the hardware, software, and human
elements to monitor, test, poll, configure, analyze, evaluate,
and control the network and element resources to meet the
real-time, operational performance, and Quality of Service
requirements at a reasonable cost."

Network Layer: Control Plane 5-

104
Infrastructure for network management
definitions:
managing entity
agent data
managing
data managed device
managed devices
entity
contain managed
agent data
objects whose data is
network gathered into a
management
protocol agent data
managed device Management
managed device
Information Base (MIB)

agent data
agent data
managed device
managed device

Network Layer: Control Plane 5-

105
 SNMP protocol
Two ways to convey MIB info, commands:

managing managing
entity entity

request
trap msg
response

agent data agent data

managed device managed device

request/response mode trap mode

Network Layer: Control Plane 5-
106
SNMP protocol: message types
Message type Function
GetRequest
GetNextRequest manager-to-agent: get me data
GetBulkRequest (data instance, next data in list, block of data)

InformRequest manager-to-manager: here s MIB value

SetRequest manager-to-agent: set MIB value

Response Agent-to-manager: value, response to

Request

Trap Agent-to-manager: inform manager

of exceptional event

Network Layer: Control Plane 5-

107
Chapter 5: summary
we’ve learned a lot!
§ approaches to network control plane
• per-router control (traditional)
• logically centralized control (software defined networking)
§ traditional routing algorithms
• implementation in Internet: OSPF, BGP
§ SDN controllers
• implementation in practice: ODL, ONOS
§ Internet Control Message Protocol
§ network management

next stop: link layer!

Network Layer: Control Plane 5-
109