Unit-3: Electric Vehicle Propulsion

3.1 Electric Vehicle Propulsion

Electric propulsion systems consist of electric motors, power converters, and electronic
controllers. The electronic controller commands the power converter by providing control
signals to it, and then it controls the operation of the electric motor to produce proper torque and
speed, according to the command from the driver.

The choice of electric propulsion systems for EVs depends on several factors:
Driver’s perception
Acceleration
Maximum speed
Climbing capability
Braking
Range

Vehicle constraints
Vehicle type
Vehicle weight
Payload

Energy source
Batteries
Fuel cells Ultracapacitors
Flywheels

Unlike the industrial applications of motors, the motors used in EVs usually require frequent
starts and stops, high rates of acceleration/deceleration, high torque and low-speed hill climbing,
low torque and high-speed cruising, and a very wide speed range of operation.

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3.2 Classification of Electric motors

Characteristics of Commutator and Commutatorless motors

1.​ Commutator motors are mainly traditional DC motors. DC motor drives have been
prominently used in electric propulsion systems mainly due to mature technology and
simple control. DC motors need commutators and brushes to feed current into the armature,
making them less reliable and unsuitable for maintenance-free operation and high speed.
2.​ Commutatorless electric motors are AC motors that offer advantages of higher efficiency,
higher power density, and lower operating cost. These motors are more reliable and
maintenance-free compared to commutator DC motors.
1)​ Induction motors offer low cost, high reliability, maintenance free operation. When used
in EV, the control is limited due to low efficiency at light loads and a limited
constant-power operating range.

2)​ Permanent magnet(PM) synchronous motor facilitate a wider speed range at constant
power operation.

3)​ PM brushless DC (BLDC) offer ability to produce a large torque, better heat conduction
in armature and higher power density. PM BLDC motors require use of shaft position
sensors for precise control.

4)​ Switched reluctance motors (SRM) offer advantages of simple construction, low
manufacturing cost, and outstanding torque–speed characteristics for EV applications.
The shaft position sensors are sensitive to mechanical shock, temperature and dust.

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3.3 Brushed DC motor

3.3.1 Derivation of Brushed DC motor torque:

Force experience by a current carrying conductor under the influence of magnetic field is

​ ​ ​ ​ ​ F = BIl
where
B = magnetic flux density
I = current
l = length of conductor

∴The motor torque T is given by the equation

T = 2nrBIl
where
r = radius of coil
n = number of turns of coil

Substituting ​ 2Blr = B × area = total flux = Փ

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 ​ ​ ​ ​ ∴ T = nΦI
However, this is the peak torque, when the coil is fully in the flux and coil is perfectly radial.
Also, it does not take into account the number of poles.
Let constant Km be the factor that takes into account the number of turns in each coil, the
number of pole pairs and other aspects of motor design. Thus we have ​ ​ ​ ​
​
T = Km ΦI …….(1)

This equation suggests that torque is proportional to the armature current.The armature current
depends on the supply voltage to the motor, Es and resistance of the armature coil Ra .

As the armature revolves under the magnetic field, it also develops a back EMF per side of the
coil as,
Eb = Blv

It depends on the velocity v of the conductor moving through the magnetic field.
The velocity depends on the angular velocity(ω) and the radius(r)
v = rω

Also, the armature coil has two sides, so equation becomes

Eb = 2Blrω

for n turns per coil, we have

Eb = 2nrBlω

The equation gives the voltage or ‘back EMF’ generated by the dynamo effect of the motor as it
turns: ​ ​ ​ Eb = KmΦω ………..(2)

This voltage opposes the supply voltage Es and acts to reduce the current in the motor.

The armature current is thus

…..(3)
The armature current decreases with increase in angular speed.
Substituting I in equation (1), the motor torque is obtained as

​ ……….(4)
This equation shows that the torque from this type of motor has a maximum value at zero speed
and it then falls steadily with increasing speed. Low speed torque is reduced by the controller or

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by internal resistance of the battery. Otherwise the current would be extremely high and would
damage the motor.
3.3.2 Torque -Speed characteristics of Brushed DC motor

3.3.3 Regenerative braking of DC Motors

Fig(a) Motoring​​ ​ ​ Fig(b) Dynamic braking

Consider a DC motor is connected to a battery of negligible internal resistance, and voltage Vs,
producing steady state torque T and angular speed ω. The electric machine will run in motoring
mode. To stop the motor, the mechanical frictional braking can be applied. The motor comes to
halt when the kinetic energy of motor is exhausted. The motor can be stopped using the electric
braking method by disconnecting the battery supply and connecting external resistance RL
across it. The back emf will supply reverse current and produce braking torque.

The resulting current will flow out of the motor

​ ​
The negative torque will be produced, which will slow the motor down, will be given by the
equation

​ ​ ​ ​

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This torque can be controlled by changing the resistance RL . The value of this torque declines
as the speed ω decreases.

If RL is constant we might expect the speed to decline in an exponential way to zero. This
way of slowing down an electric motor, using a resistor, is known as ‘dynamic braking’.

The kinetic energy of the vehicle will be converted into heat, just like normal friction
brakes. This electrical energy produced by the motor can be stored back to the battery using a
system known as ‘regenerative braking’.

Suppose the voltage of the battery is Vb , and the motor is turning at speed ω; then the
current that will flow out of the motor will be given by the equation.

​ ​ ​ ​
The braking torque tend to become smaller as the motors slows down, hence controlled braking
of vehicle can be achieved by using DC- to-DC converter that provides the required drop in
apparent battery voltage with decreasing speed, to ensure faster braking of vehicle.

The DC/DC converter will take this electrical power (= Vm × Im ) and put it out at an
increased voltage (and reduced current) so that it matches the rechargeable battery or capacitor
that is storing the energy.

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3.3.4 Brushed DC motor control characteristics:

1)​ If the supply voltage Es is reduced, then the maximum torque decreases and the slope of
the torque-speed graph remains unchanged.

2)​ If the magnetic flux is reduced then the maximum torque falls, but the slope of the
torque/speed graph becomes flatter. Thus the motor can be made to work at a wide range
of torque and speed.

3)​ Flux control method is better than voltage control at high-speed/low-torque operation,
which is quite common in electric vehicles cruising near their maximum speed.

4)​ In lower speed region, the maximum torque can be controlled by using voltage control
method, this also protects the motor from drawing large starting current.

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3.3.5. Four quadrant operation of DC motor

FM- Forward motoring

RM- Reverse Motoring

FB - Forward braking

RB- Reverse braking

3.3.6 Types of Brushed DC Motors

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1)​The shunt (or parallel) wound motor is difficult to control, as reducing the supply voltage
also results in a weakened magnetic field, thus reducing the back EMF and tending to
increase the speed.

2)​The advantage of the series motor is that the torque is very high at low speeds and falls off
rapidly as the speed rises.

3)​The separately excited motor have independent control of both the magnetic flux (by
controlling the voltage on the field winding Ef ) and also the supply voltage Es .

4)​For these reasons the separately excited brushed DC motor is quite widely used as the
traction motor in electric vehicles.

3.3.7 Brushed DC Motor Efficiency

(a)​ Copper losses
The heating effect of an electric current is proportional to the square of the current: P
= I2R. The current is proportional to the torque T provided by the motor, so we can
say that

Copper losses = kcT2

where kc is a constant depending on the resistance of the brushes and the coil, and
also the magnetic flux.
(b)​ Iron losses
Iron losses are proportional to the frequency with which that magnetic field changes.
The rate of change of magnetic flux is directly proportional to the speed of the rotor,
hence

Iron losses = ki ω

where ki is a constant.

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(c ) Friction & Windage Losses
Friction torque in the bearings and brushes of the motor produce friction force,
which will normally be more or less constant.

Friction power = Tf ω

​The rotor will also have a wind resistance, which might be quite large if a fan is
fitted to the rotor for cooling. The wind resistance force will increase with the square
of the speed.

Windage power = kw ω3

(d ) Constant losses
Constant losses occur even if the motor is totally stationary, that vary neither with
speed nor torque. For separately excited motor, power is required for setting up field
and permanent magnet motor required power for the electronic control circuits that
operate at all times.
Constant losses = C

The motor efficiency ηm is found as follows:

●​ Suitable values for the constants in this equation can usually be found by
experimentation, or by regression using measured values of efficiency.
●​ For example, typical values for a permanent magnet motor of the ‘Lynch’ type are as
follows:
kc = 0.8, kw = 10−5 , ki = 0.1, C = 20
●​ It is useful to plot the values of efficiency on a torque/speed graph, giving what is
sometimes known as an ‘efficiency map’ for the motor, which gives an idea of the
efficiency at any possible operating condition.

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3.4 Induction motor
Principle of operation

Three phase stator windings set-up a revolving flux, this flux cuts across the closed circuit
rotor windings and it develops rotor flux, that interacts with stator flux to produce the
torque.

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3.4.1 Types of Induction motors:

(a)​Squirrel cage rotor

(b)​Slip ring rotor

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Construction:
1.​ A three phase Induction motor consist of three phase stator windings which is space
displaced by 120o with respect each other ( phase A-B-C)
2.​ The rotors are of two types namely squirrel cage type and slip ring type. The slip
ring motor has provision to add external resistance for speed control in the rotor
circuit.
3.​ The stator as well as rotor windings are secured in the laminated iron core housing
for effective magnetic flux linkage and torque development. The core is made of
iron/ steel laminations with slots to accommodate the windings.
4.​ The cooling fan and fins on the body of motor ensure heat dissipation and reliable
operation.

3.4.2 Induction motor torque-speed characteristics:

1.​ The torque-speed characteristics of induction motors shows three modes of

operation.
2.​ Motoring mode(ωm < ωs): This is normal motoring mode where the motor convert
the electrical energy to mechanical energy and the EV is provided with the necessary
acceleration.
3.​ Generating mode(ωm > ωs): The mechanical energy is converted in to electrical
energy in this mode. The regenerative braking can be achieved with the generating
mode for recovery of braking energy or downhill motion. The frequency of supply

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 may be adjusted dynamically so that motor speed seems higher.
4.​ Plugging mode(ωm & ωs opposite): This mode is used for fast braking of induction
motor by reversing the motor torque.

3.4.3 Speed control of Induction motor:

(a)​Rotor resistance insertion method:-

Speed of motor can be controlled by adding external resistance in the rotor circuit. The
effect of different values of external resistance on the Torque-speed characteristics of
induction motor is shown above. The maximum torque can achieved at the starting by
having high external resistance( Rext4) in the rotor.

(b) V/f control method:-

To maintain torque while reducing the supply we need to keep the motor flux constant, this
is possible by reducing the supply frequency in proportion to the reduction in supply voltage

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Induction motor examples:-

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3.5 Brushless DC motor (BLDC)

Principle of Operation of BLDC motor:

1)​The rotor consists of a permanent magnet. The stator current flows in the direction that
magnetises the stator so that the rotor is turned counter-clockwise.
2)​The rotor passes between the poles of the stator, and the stator current is switched off.
3)​Momentum carries the rotor on, and the stator coil is re-energised, but the current and
hence the magnetic field are reversed.
4)​So the rotor is pulled on round in counter- clockwise direction. The process continues, with
the current in the stator coil alternating.
5)​The switching of the current must be synchronised with the position of the rotor. This is
done using Hall effect sensors or Optical sensors.

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Torque characteristics of BLDC motor:

3.5.1 Control of BLDC motor :

(a) Torque control of BLDC motor:

The desired current Is* is derived from the commanded torque T* through a torque controller.
The current controller and the commutation sequencer receive the desired current Is*, position
information from the position sensors, and the current feedback through current transducers and
then produce gating signals. These gating signals are sent to the three-phase inverter (power
converter) to produce the desired phase current to the BLDC machine.

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(b) Speed control of BLDC motor:

The speed controller may be any type of classical controller such as a proportional-integral (PI)
controller or a more advanced artificial intelligence control. The current controller and
commutation sequencer provide the gating signals to the three-phase inverter while comparing
sensed currents to a reference to maintain a constant peak current control by hysteresis (current
chopping) or with a voltage source (PWM)-type current control.

3.6 Switched Reluctance Motors (SRM):

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3.6.1 Construction of SRM:

1)​ The rotor is made up of laminated soft iron salient poles.

2)​ The main difficulty with the SRM is that the timing of the turning on and off of the stator
currents must be much more carefully controlled.
3)​ The torque can be made much smoother by adding more coils to the stator. The number of
salient poles will often be two less than the number of coils(8/6 or 6/4)

3.6.2 Working principle of SRM:

1)​ In Figure (a) coil A is magnetised, exerting a clockwise force on the rotor. When the salient
poles are coming into line with coil A, the current in A is switched off.

2)​ Two other salient poles are now nearly in line with coil C, which is energised, keeping the
rotor smoothly turning.

3)​ Correct turning on and off of the currents in each coil clearly needs good information about
the position of the rotor.

4)​ This is usually provided by sensors, but modern control systems can do without these.

5)​ Very rapid and complex analysis of the voltage and current waveforms is achieved using a
special type of microprocessor called a digital signal processor.

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3.6.3 Operating modes of SRM:

3.6.6 Torque-speed characteristics of SRM:

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3.6.7 Control of SRM:

1)​ A conventional SRM drive system consists of the SRM, power inverter, sensors such as
voltage, current, and position sensors, and control circuitry such as the DSP controller and
its peripherals

2)​ The SRM drive inverter is connected to a DC power supply, which can be derived from the
utility lines through a front-end diode rectifier or from batteries.

3)​ The controller provides a gating signal to the switches of the inverter according to
particular control strategies and the signals from various sensors.

4)​ Below the base speed, the back EMF is lower than the DC bus voltage. Maximum torque is
available in this case when the phase is turned on at an unaligned position and turned off at
the aligned position, and the phase current is regulated at the rated value by PWM control.

5)​ Above the base speed, the back EMF is higher than the DC bus voltage. To build high
current and therefore produce high motoring torque in the SRM, the phase is usually excited
ahead of the unaligned position, and the turn-on position is gradually advanced as the rotor
speed increases.

6)​ Regenerative braking is achieved by using SRM as switched reluctance generator (SRG)
with stator excited near the rotor aligned position and then turned off before the unaligned
region.

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3.7 Motor efficiency considerations:

1)​ The motor chosen for any application should be as efficient as possible.

2)​ The motors become more efficient as their size increases.

3)​ The speed of a motor has more control over efficiency than motor type. The losses in a
motor are proportional to torque, lower speed motor will have a higher torque, for the same
power, and hence higher losses.

4)​ Motors that are liquid cooled run at lower temperatures, which reduces the resistance of
the windings, and hence improves efficiency, though this will only affect things by about
1%.

5)​ The efficiency of an electric motor might well be very different from any figure given in
the specification, if it operates well away from optimum speeds and torque.

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3.7.1 Motor mass consideration:

A motor should generally be as small and light as possible while delivering the required power.

3.7.2 Motor sizing consideration:

1)​ Higher power leads to higher efficiency, and hence higher specific power.

2)​ Higher speed leads to higher power density. The size of the motor is most strongly
influenced by the motor torque, rather than power. The consequence is that a higher speed,
lower torque motor will be smaller.

3)​ So if a low-speed rotation is needed, a high-speed motor with a gearbox will be lighter and
smaller than a low-speed motor.

4)​ The more efficient motor types, switched reluctance and BLDC, have higher power density
than the induction motor.

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