FUNGI

Fungi are ubiquitous organisms. Initially, fungi were in plant kingdom, since they are non-motile
and absorb their nourishment from the substratum. During the nineteenth century it was realized,
however, that the most important peculiar features of green plants are that they are phototrophs
(utilizing energy from light) and autotrophs (synthesizing their organic components from
atmospheric carbon dioxide). Plants are photosynthetic due to the presence of an organelle called
chloroplast that produces chlorophyll. Animals on the other hand are chemotrophs, obtaining
energy from organic materials, and heterotrophs, utilizing the same materials as the source of
carbon for the synthesis of their own organic components. Fungi are achlorophyllous and as a
result of this, non-photosynthetic. It is clear that fungi, although non-motile, resemble animals
rather than plants. Possession of cell wall also makes fungi apart from animal.

Fungi comprise yeasts, moulds and mushrooms. They can be saprophytic (feed on dead organic
matter) or parasitic (procure nutrient and harm the host). They often interact with other
organisms, forming beneficial or mutualistic associations and establishing a mutualistic
relationship with another organisms. The roots of the plant connect with the underground parts of
the fungus forming mycorrhizae. This mutualistic relationship is also noticeable in lichen
(between a fungus and alga).

General Characteristics of Fungi

1. All fungi are eukaryotic that is, they have membrane-bound organelles such as nucleus,
mitochondrion etc.
2. They can be unicellular e.g. Saccharomyces cerevisiae, or multicellular (filamentous) e.g.
Rhizopus stolonifer
3. All fungi are achlorophyllous. They lack green pigment called chlorophyll. Due to
absence of this pigment, they cannot synthesize their own food and hence, they are
heterotrophic.
4. They possess cell wall made of chitin. The fungal cell walls contain complex
polysaccharides called chitin and sometimes with glucans.
5. They may be free-living or form intimate relationship with other organisms
6. Their protoplasts are encased in cell wall which is made of chitin.
 7. Fungi can live as parasites or saprophytes
8. All fungi are chemoheterotrophic or chemo-organotropics. They utilize pre-existing
organic sources of carbon in their environment and the energy from chemical reactions to
synthesize the organic compounds they require for growth and energy.
9. Majority of them are filamentous, compose of thread-like structures called hyphae.
10. In multicellular fungi, a mass of hyphae is collectively known as mycelium.
11. Fungi propagate or reproduce by both sexual and asexual means. They can reproduce
asexually by fragmentation, budding, or producing spores, or sexually with homothallic
or heterothallic mycelia. Organisms in Classes Zygomycetes, Ascomycetes and
Basidiomycetes (Perfect fungi) reproduce both sexually and asexually. Imperfect fungi
(Deuteromycetes) reproduce asexually.

Classification of Fungi

Based on Mode of Nutrition

1. Saprophytic – The fungi obtain their nutrition by feeding on dead organic substances.
Examples: Rhizopus, Penicillium and Aspergillus.
2. Parasitic – The fungi obtain their nutrition by living on other living organisms (plants or
animals) and absorb nutrients from their host. Examples: Taphrina and Puccinia.
3. Mutualistic – These fungi live by having an interdependent relationship association with
other species in which both are mutually benefited. Examples: Lichens and
mycorrhiza. Lichens are the symbiotic association between algae and fungi. Here both
algae and fungi are mutually benefited as fungi provide shelter for algae and in reverse
algae synthesis carbohydrates for fungi.

Based on Spore Formation

On the basis of the organisation of the vegetative thallus, the morphology of reproductive
structures, the way of spores production and particular life cycle involved the kingdom mycota is
classified into following divisions.
Phycomycetes
 It includes the simplest type of fungi. It is also called as Algae-Fungi because most
of the characteristics of them are similar to algae like Vaucheria.
 They have simple thallus which is unicellular or coenocytic or aseptate filaments.
 They reproduce asexually by the formation of zoospores or non-motile spores.
 Sexual reproduction is isogamous or heterogamous which takes place by
gametangial contact.
 The diploid phase is represented by zygote.
 Phycomycetes has been classified into subclasses: oomycetes and zygomycetes.
Oomycetes
 Oomycetes range from a primitive unicellular thallus to a profusely branched
filamentous mycelium.
 Many members of them are terrestrial and obligate parasites.
 Asexually they reproduce by biflagellate zoospores.
 Sexual reproduction is oogamy that involves the fusion of male and female gametes
to form oospore.
 Oospore undergoes meioses to produce haploid biflagellate zoospores.
 Example; Phytophthora infestans(causes potato late blight)
Zygomycetes
 The group is named zygomycetes because a diploid resting spore called the
zygospore is formed during the life cycle.
 They are mostly saprophytic, some others are parasites on plants and animals.
 The vegetative body is mycelium which is well developed, profusely branched and
coenocytic.
 The absence of motile sexual or asexual cells.
 The asexual reproduction takes place by sporangiospores, aplanospores or by
conidia.
 Sexual reproduction occurs by conjugation of gametangia resulting in the formation
of zygospore.
 Examples; Rhizopus, Mucor etc
Ascomycetes
  The species of ascomycetes are called the sac fungi because they produce sexual
pores within the sac-like ascus.
 Ascomycetes are mostly terrestrial occurring as saprophytes or parasites.
 They have well-developed, branched, septate mycelium except yeast. Yeast is a
unicellular fungus.
 Asexually they reproduce by non-motile spores, conidia, oidia or chlamydospores.
 Sexual reproduction takes place by the fusion of gametangia of opposite mating
types.
 There is absence of motile cells.
 They have septate mycelium with the primary mycelium uninucleate or
multinucleate but ascosgenous hyphae binucleate.
 Conidum is common
 Eight ascospores are produced within ascos i.e. endogenously.
 Sexual reproduction is reduced to karyogamy i.e. fusing of 2 nuclei.
 The fruiting body id the ascocarp which is complex multicellular and it bears asci.

 Examples, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Penicillium, Aspergillus etc.

Basidiomycetes
 The members of basidiomycetes are saprophytic or parasitic. The group is named
basidiomycetes as they produce the basidiospores at the club-shaped basidium
during sexual reproduction.
 Mycelium is highly developed, profusely branched and septate.
 The mycelia are differentiated into two mating types; (+ve) and (-ve).
 There are two kinds of mycelium; primary mycelium and secondary mycelium.
 Asexual reproduction takes place by fragmentation, budding, oidia, conidia or
chlamydospore.
 The dikaryotic cell is formed during sexual reproduction.
 The absence of motile cell throughout the life cycle.
 Basidiomycetes are the most advanced fungi as their fructifications are often large
and prominent.
 Sexual reproduction is reduced to karyogamy.
 Four basidiospores are formed on basidium i.e. exogenously.
  The fruiting body is the basidiocarp which is complex and multicellular.
 Clamp connection is formed

 Examples; Mushrooms, Puccinia, Ustilago etc.

Deuteromycetes (The Imperfect Fungi)
 Deuteromycetes compromises more than 17000 species of the diverse habits and
habitats. It is considered as an artificial class of fungi.
 The fungi are saprophytes as well as parasites. Parasitic fungi cause serious diseases
to plants, animals including human beings.
 Some of them are unicellular while others are multicellular.
 They reproduce asexually by conidia along with some other types of spores.
 The sexual reproduction is entirely absent.
 The asexual stage or imperfect stage in Deuteromycetes is well defined. But the
sexual or perfect stage is absent in life cycle, therefore, they are called ‘Fungi
Imperfecti’.
 They have septate hyphae.
 Example; Alternaria, Fusarium, Helminthosporium etc.

Rhizopus stolonifera

Rhizopus stolonifera is a saprobic and grow on a variety of dead organic matter. It is

characterized by a body of branching mycelia composed of three types of
hyphae: stolons, rhizoids, and usually unbranching sporangiophores. The black sporangia at the
tips of the sporangiophores are rounded and produce numerous nonmotile
multinucleate spores for asexual reproduction. Rhizopus can reproduce sexually when two
compatible and physiologically distinct mycelia are present. The rapidly growing colonies fade
from white to dark as they produce spores and are similar to cotton candy (also called candy
floss or fairy floss) in texture.
Common Bread Mold.

MUCOR (SAPROPHYTIC FUNGUS)

The vegetative body is made up of a mass of white delicate threads called hyphae, the hyphae is
coenocytic i.e. non-septate and multinucleated.
Asexual body and reproduction
Mycelium produces on erect hyphae, each hyphae swells up at tip by the migration of
protoplasmic contents, the protoplasmic contents accumulate more densely towards the
peripheries than the centre, a row of vacuoles soon fuse together, thus separating the layer clear
centre portion from the outer dense portion, a dome-shape central portion is sterile and this is
called columella. The peripheral portion divided into several multinucleated masses, each mass
is then covered by a walls to form a spore, the columella keeps on selling and great pressure on
the wall of the sporangium, the sporangium wall later breaks down to release the spores, the
spores are tiny and very light and are air-borne and can germinate on suitable medium under
favourable condition of moisture and warmth into a mucor.

Sexual reproduction
When a food supply in the medium is exhausted, two hyphae of opposite sexes (i.e. + and –
strains) come close together, two short progametes developed forming a contact at their tips,
each progametes enlarges and become club-shaped, the progamete is later divided into suspensor
and gametangium. The contents of gametangiumcontain the multinucleate gamete called
coenogamete. The end walls of the two gametangia dissolved, the two gametes then fuse to form
a diploid zygote, the zygote swell up into a rounded body with thick black rough wall called
zygospore. The zygospore, which is very rich in fat globules, divided internally meotically into 4
and 3 of them degenerate, the remaining one divides mitotically many times. The zygospore
undergoes a period of rests , later on the outer wall burst and the inner wall grow into a
sporangiophore or promycelium which ends in a sporangium, each sporangium has no columella
but has numerous spores, the spore germinate and gives rise to a mucor plant which is either + or
- strains.

Economic Importance of Fungi

1. Drug production: Different types of fungi are used in the production of important numbers of
drugs. The most important species are Penicillium notatum and Fusidium coccineum used in
the production of Penicillin and Fusidin ( Fusidic acid) antibiotics respectively.
2. Foods: Fungi are used as food by humans from a long time ago. Some fungi have been used
directly as food and some are used in food processing. Fruit bodies of some fungi, like
Mushrooms are used as food due to their high nutritional values with low fat.
3. Fungi in Industries: Alcoholic fermentation by fungi is the basis of brewing industry. The
enzyme zymase of microorganisms like yeast is responsible for alcohol production. During
alcoholic fermentation by yeast, CO2 being released as bubbles are used in baking industry to
make the breads and cakes as spongy in appearance.
4. Soil fertility : Decomposition of litter and wood, mainly in the forest, takes place by the
combined action of diffe-rent type of fungi. Fungi like Fusarium, Chaetomium, Chitridium,
Penicillium, Aspergillus etc., can decompose the structural polymers such as cellulose,
hemicellulose, lipid, protein, starch etc.
5. Fungi associates with the roots of higher plants form mycorrhizal relationship which help in
plant nutrition. Examples of such fungi are Rhizoctonia, Tricholoma, Boletus, Phallus,
Amanita etc
6. Fungi are very useful in Biological Research. For instance, Fungi like Neurospora, Yeast
etc., have been used in genetical and cytological studies. Physarum polysephalum has been
used to study DNA-synthesis
7. Plant hormones: Some fungi are used to produce plant hormone like Gibberellin by soil
fungus Gibberella fujikuroi
8. Fungi such as Trichoderma sp. are very effective in biological control of pathogens.
9. Fungi like Cordyceps melonthae, are used as insecticides to control different types of insects.

Harmful Effects of Fungi

1. Fungi cause plant. Human and animal diseases.

2. Fungi produce toxins that are generally called mycotoxins which have adverse health
effects such immune deficiency, liver fibrosis and cancer. Examples of mycotoxins are
aflatoxin and patulin
3. Fungi grow on paper, wood and cloth causing damage to them.
4. Fungi are also responsible for food spoilage.

Differences between algae and fungi

1. Algae contain green pigment called chlorophyll but fungi have no chlorophyll
2. Algae are autotrophic plants manufacturing their own food with help of chlorophyll while
fungi are heterotrophic being saprophytic or parasitic.
3. The body of an alga is compose of a true parenchymatous tissue while that of a fungus is
compose of false (pseudo parenchymatous) tissue which are interwoven mass of threads
called hyphae.
4. Cell wall of an alga is composed of cellulose and that of fungus is composed of chitin
usually with cellulose, pectoseetc in different proportion.
5. Reserve carbohydrate in algae is usually starch, but, in fungi, it is glycogen.
LICHEN

Lichen is a symbiotic relationship between different organisms. It is composed of a fungal

partner (mycobiont) and one or more photosynthetic partners (photobiont). The photosynthetic
partner is generally green algae or cyanobacteria. There are about 13,500 species of lichen on the
Earth. Lichens can survive severe conditions because they can withstand drying. The lack of
water interrupts photosynthesis. In this suspended state, some lichens are able to withstand great
extremes in temperature. The slow growth in lichens could possibly be attributed to their slow
rate of photosynthesis (since they are usually dry). Reproduction in lichens may be either sexual
or vegetative (asexual).

There are three major morphological types of thalli: foliose, crustose, and fruticose.

1. Foliose lichens are leaflike in both appearance and structure. They adhere to their substrate
loosely e.g Candelaria concolor
2. Crustose lichens are "crust-like." They are tightly attached to or embedded in their substrate,
and have no lower cortex. Crustose lichens consist of about 75 percent of all lichens on earth
e.g Sarcogyne clavus
3. Fruticose lichens have no distinct top and bottom and are often round in cross-section. Their
thalli may be upright, shrubby, or of pendulous strands e.g Cladina evansii

Importance of Lichens

1. Lichens serve as staple food for many animals. They are rich in vitamins, useful enzymes
and certain polysaccharides.
2. Litmus paper is prepared from a lichen and used as pH indicator.
3. Lichens are the first organisms to inhabit bare rocky areas and this helps in soil
formation. In this way, lichens prepare land for mosses and later for higher plants.
4. Crustaceous lichens help in formation of soil from rock.
5. Lichens having cyanobacteria as a photobiont provide fixed nitrogen to their
environment.
6. Lichens are extremely sensitive to atmospheric pollutants. Reduction in lichens in an area
is an indication of air pollution especially Sulphur dioxide. Also, heavy metals are
absorbed into the lichen thallus. They are reliable bioagents in the control of pollution.
7. Lichens are medicinally importance as they are used to cure fever, jaundice, fever,
diarrhoea, epilepsy and various skin diseases.
8. Lichens are used in making perfumes. Ramalina lichen is an example.
9. Lichens are used in making dye. A brown dye and red dye are obtained from Parmelia
spp. and Ochrolechia spp. respectively.
10. Some lichens are very poisonous due to presence of toxic substances in them. Chlorine is
observed in Everina furfuracea. Parmelia molliuscula has identified to contain selenium.