Instructions

This is topic 1 of form 4 computer studies

1. Copy all the notes in your exercise book

INTRODUCTION TO NETWORKING AND DATA COMMUNICATION

Definition of terms used in networking

Computer network
A network is a collection of independent entities that are arranged in such a manner as to
exchange data, information or resources.
A computer network a collection of computers linked together using transmission media for the
purpose of communication and resource sharing.
The term transmission media refers to any physical or non-physical link between two or more
computers and in which a signal can be made to flow from source to destination. Some of the
shared resources include programs, printers, fax machines, modems, storage devices,
communication links etc.

Data communication
Data communication refers to the process of transmitting data signal from one point to another
through the network.

Terms used in data communication

1. Data signal: A data signal is a voltage level in the circuit which represents the flow
of data. In data communication, data signals can either be analog or digital in nature.

- Analog data is made up of continuous varying waveform

- Digital data is made up of a non-continuous discrete waveform.

 2. Signal modulation and demodulation: This is the process of converting data signals to a
form that is suitable or transmission over a transmission medium.
Modulation is a process a modem converts a digital signal to analog which can be transmitted
over analog telephone lines.
A modem at the receiving end converts the analog signal into digital form, a process known as
demodulation.

3. Multiplexing: Multiplexing is the process of sending multiple data signals over the same
medium.

Demultiplexing is the process of separating the multiplexed signals at the receiving end. The

different frequencies create what is called different logical channels in the medium. .
4. A bandwidth is the maximum amount of data that a transmission medium can carry at
anyone time. For example, a certain cable may have a bandwidth of 100 Mbps (Mega bits per
second).

5. Baseband signal: Baseband signal is a digital signal that is generated and applied to the
transmission medium directly without modulation.

- The baseband signal utilizes the full capacity of the transmission medium, hence at
anyone time; only one signal can be sent.

- Multiple signals can be sent at different times if they are multiplexed.

6. Broadband transmission: In broadband transmission, an analog signal is sent over the

transmission medium using a particular frequency.

- Several data signals can simultaneously be sent through the same medium but at different
frequencies. Frequency bands between these data signals prevent them from overlapping.

7. Attenuation: This is the decrease in magnitude and energy as a signal progressively

moves along a transmission medium. Attenuation or signal loss is usually corrected by placing
signal amplifiers also called repeater stations along the medium at appropriate distances in order
to receive the weak signal, clean it, amplify it then retransmit it.
Modes of data communication
There are three modes of data communication namely: simplex, half Duplex and full duplex.

a) Simplex transmission refers to communication in only one direction. An example of

simplex communication is the normal radio or television broadcast. The listener or viewer
cannot communicate back through the radio or television receiver back to the broadcaster.

b) Half duplex refers to communication in both directions but one direction at a time. A
sender must send the data before the recipient can reply. For example, communicating using a
'walkie talkie' radio, one has to say "over" to mark the end of every statement in order for the
other to respond.

c) Full duplex communication occurs in both directions simultaneously. An example of

full duplex communication can be found in computers that are sending and receiving data on a
network.

Types of computer networks

Computer networks can be classified using several aspects but the most common classification is
according to size. The 3 common types of networks but the three most common are:
1. Local area network (LAN)
2. Metropolitan area network (MAN)
3. Wide area network (WAN)
 Local area network (LAN)
Local area network is a computer network that spans a relatively small geographical area like in
one building or a school. One local area network can be connected to other local area network
over any distance via data transmission lines or wireless media.
Most local area networks connect personal computers and server computers on a small network.
- A server computer is a computer dedicated to servicing requests for resources from
other computers (workstations) on a network.
- Workstation/client computer is other computer on the network that sends requests to
the server
Local area networks are capable of transmitting data at very fast rates, much faster than data
transmitted over telephone lines. .

Metropolitan area networks (MAN)

A metropolitan area network is a network that covers a metropolitan area like a town or city. The
metropolitan area network size typically covers a radius of between 5 to 50 km. A metropolitan
area network is made up of many local area networks in a metropolitan area.

Wide area networks (WAN)

A wide area network is larger than a metropolitan area network and covers a large geographical
area such as a country, a continent or the whole world. It consists of many local area networks
and metropolitan area networks connected together to form one large network such as the
Internet.

Purpose and limitations of networking Purpose

of networking
Some of the reasons for setting up computer networks include: resource sharing, remote
communication, distributed processing facilities, cost effectiveness and reliability.

Resource sharing
A resource in the network environment means data/information, files, printers, modems,
communication links, storage devices, fax machines, application programs and any other
component that can' be attached to the network for access by users.
Computer network helps users share their files, exchange mail, send, Faxes, schedule meetings
and print documents from any point on the network.
Advantage: leads to less waste of time and resources and hence greater productivity.

- Network servers run a special program called the server software which controls
computers on the network and listens to client requests to service them over the network. For
example, a print server will give permission for a particular client to print documents on the
network printer

Remote communications

Remote communication refers to the transmission of data signals between two communication
devices located at different geographical locations.

- A computer that tries to access resources from another computer on the network is called a
remote client

-The computer being accessed and one with resources is called a remote host.

Remote communication has been made possible by use of wireless transmission media such as
radio waves, microwave and satellite.

It is through remote communications that people can be able to share ideas and pass messages
over the Internet.

Advantage: gives a lot of freedom to the network users which translates to more productivity.
Imagine continuing to work from home just as if you were in your office.

Assignment: Define the term telecommuting as used in networking

Distributed processing facilities

Distributed processing refers to the act of running the same programs or databases on different
computers which are on the same network. The output can then be transmitted to another
computer or the central computer on an organizations network.
However, with distributed processing, files reside on the user's computer rather than on a central
computer. Branch offices in a large organization have their own servers that store data,
information and other resources required for their daily operations. These servers would then
periodically update the central computer.
Advantages.

1. The failure of the central computer does not affect the operations of the other terminals.
2. Processing load is shared equally hence no time wastage.

Cost effectiveness
- Although the initial purchase and lying down of network components may be expensive,
it has greatly increased experience in value addition and the efficient use of scarce resources
- For example company executives may not need to travel across continents to hold
meetings. They can hold electronic video conferences instead and save the fare.

Reliability
A computer network is reliable in two ways especially when communicating or accessing
information:
1. Data can be transferred with minimum error from source to destination.
2. In case one computer breaks down, a user can still access data and information from the other
computers using another computer on the network.

Limitations of networking
Some of the limitations and disadvantages of networking include security issues, high initial
installation cost, moral and cultural effects, spread of terrorism and drug trafficking and over
reliance on networks
Security issues
Data and information held on a network is prone to more illegal access threats than if the
computer was not on the network.
One of the common methods of data protection in a networked environment is encryption. This
is the reconstruction of original data in a form that can only be understood by the sender or
receiver. Encrypted data cannot be understood by people who illegally access it unless they have
the decryption key.

High initial cost

The initial cost of buying network hardware and software is very high.

Moral and cultural effects

Access to bad sites such as pornographic and other negative material has also made the fight
against social problems such as HIV/AIDS, bad sexual behaviour, drugs and substance abuse
more complicated.

Spread of terrorism and drug trafficking

The Internet provides a rich recruitment ground for all types of illegal activities such as terrorism
and drug trafficking.
Terrorists and drug traffickers use information networks for their business communications.

Over-reliance on networks
All business processes and the society today depend on computer networks. This means that if by
any chance the network fails or goes down, then many systems in the society can be brought to a
halt!

Elements of networking
A computer network is made up of several standard elements (components) which can be
classified into three major categories namely:
1. Data communication media.
2. Communication devices.
3. Networking software.

Data communication media

A data communication medium is a pathway used for carrying data and information from one
point to another. Data communication media can be divided into two:
1. Communication using cable (bounded media)
2. Wireless communication (unbounded media)

Communication using cables (bounded media)

The main distinguishing characteristic of bounded media is that data signals are transmitted from
the source to the destination through a restricted pathway such as through a cable.
For example, if the cable is a copper conductor, the data signal which may be in form of an
electrical signal is propagated through the cable from the source to the destination. Any radiation
from the guided medium is regarded as signal loss.
There are several types of bounded transmission media but the most common ones are:
1. Two wire open lines cables.
2. Twisted pair cables.
3. Coaxial cables.
4. Fiber optic cables.

Two wire open lines cables

Two wire open lines cables are made up of two parallel copper wires separated by a plastic
insulator
- Used in telecommunication network to transmit voice signal e.g. the line running from a
subscriber’s house to the nearest telephone post.
Disadvantages:
- The signal can be affected by inter-line interference called crosstalk
 - The wires also capture environmental frequencies e.g. radio waves hence causing noise in
the transmission channel. In data communications, the word noise refers to random unwanted
signals picked up by the channel.

Twisted pair cables

A twisted pair cable is made up of two solid copper wire strands wound around each other in a
double helix manner.
- The winding of the wires is meant to reduce the development of an electromagnetic field
around the two wires as they transmit data.
Uses
- To transmit both voice and data
signals. Types of twisted pair cables are:
a) unshielded twisted pair (UTP) –
- they do not have a shield that prevents electromagnetic interference (EMI) also called
"electric noise" from the environment, therefore susceptible to noise and signal interference
- Noise may come from lightening sparks, radio signal and even the radiations from spark
plugs in motor vehicles
- not suitable for environments that are electrically "noisy
b) Shielded twisted pair (STP)
- Shielded twisted pair (STP) is similar to unshielded twisted pair except that a braided
shield is wrapped around the wires to shield or protect them from noise.

Twisted pair cables are categorised into five groups according to the type of data transmitted and
maximum rate of transmission, as shown below.
Table 1.1
Suitable for Speed (max. limit)
Category transmitting
1 Voice Less than 1Mbps
2 Data 1 Mbps
3 Data 16 Mbps
 4 Data 20 Mbps
5 Data 100 Mbps

1. Mbps means Megabits per second.

2. Today’s networks are approaching speeds of Gigabits per second.

The advantages of twisted pair cabling include:

1. It is easier to set up network media because connection is readily available.

2. Installation equipment is cheap and readily available.
3. It is cheap because of mass production for telephone use.

The disadvantages of twisted pair cabling include:

1. It suffers high attenuation. A device for restoring the signal called a "repeater" is needed to
amplify the signal.
2. It is sensitive to electromagnetic interference and eavesdropping.
3. It has low data transmission rates as compared to other cables.

Coaxial cables
A coaxial cable resembles the cable that is used to connect television antenna to a television set.
This cable has:
Central copper core, surrounded by a dielectric material (insulator).
There are two types of coaxial cables:
1. Thin coaxial cable (Thinnet). It has one dielectric insulator
2. Thick coaxial cable (Thicknet). It has two dielectric insulators around the core and is
thicker than the thinnet

The advantages of coaxial cables include:

1. They are very stable even under high loads.
2. They have a large bandwidth (up to I Gbps) compared to twisted pair.
3. They can carry voice, data and video signal simultaneously.
4. They are more resistant to radio and electromagnetic interference than twisted pair cables.
The disadvantages of coaxial cables include:
1. Thick coaxial cable is hard to work with.

2. Coaxial cables are relatively expensive to buy and to install as compared to twisted pair.

Fiber optic cables

- This is one of the latest types of bounded transmission media to be developed.
- It utilizes light to transmit data from one point to another on the network.
- The electrical signals from the source are converted to light signals, and then propagated
along the fiber optic cable by use of Light Emitting Diode (LED) at the transmitter.
At the receiving end, a photosensitive device can be used to convert the light signals back to
electric signals that can be processed by the computer.

The fiber optic cable is made up of the core, cladding, buffer, strength members and the jacket. .

The core: is the central part of the cable and is made of a hollow transparent plastic or glass.

Cladding: This is a single protective layer surrounding the core. It is redirected light back to the
core.

Buffer: surrounds the cladding and its main function is to strengthen the cable.
The jacket: It is the outer covering of the cable.

Fiber optic cables are of two types namely:

1. Single mode fiber.
2. Multimode fiber.
The single mode fiber cable has a very narrow centre core the light in the cable can therefore
take only one path through it.
Single mode fiber is very expensive and requires very careful handling during installation.
A multimode fiber has a thicker core than the single mode it allows several light rays to be fed
in the cable at an angle.
Multimode cables have a high attenuation rate and are usually used for shorter distances than
single mode.

The advantages of fiber optic cabling include:

1. It is immune to electromagnetic interference and eavesdropping.
2. It is fast and supports high bandwidth.
3. Large distance can be covered because it has low attenuation.
4. Can be used in hazardous places (highly flammable) because they do not generate
electrical signal.
5. It is smaller and lighter than copper cable hence ideal for space limited situations.

The disadvantages of fiber optic cabling include:

1. Connectivity devices and the media are expensive.
2. Installation is difficult because the cable must be carefully handled.
3. It is relatively complex to configure.
4. A broken cable is difficult and expensive to repair.

Wireless communication (unbounded media)

Wireless or unbounded media, is a type of media that is used to transmit data from one point to
another without using physical connections. In this case transmitting antenna and receiver aerial
facilitate the communication.
Examples of wireless transmission media include
✔ Microwaves
✔ Satellite
✔ Radio waves
✔ Infrared transmission
✔ Bluetooth
Microwave transmission
In networking, microwaves are very suitable for point to point transmissions. This means that a
signal is directed through a focused beam from transmitter to the receiver station (line of sight).
Line of sight (LoS) is a type of propagation that can transmit and receive data only where
transmit and receive stations are in view of each other without any sort of an obstacle between
them

Satellite communication
A satellite is a microwave relay station. The microwave earth stations have parabolic dishes with
an antenna fixed on them in order to focus a narrow beam towards the satellite in space. A
satellite transmission system has three main components:
1. Transmitter earth station that would set up an uplink to the satellite in order to transmit data.
The uplink will have a unique frequency.
2. A satellite that is somewhere in an orbit that receives, amplifies and retransmits the signal to a
receiving earth station via a downlink frequency that is different from that of the uplink so as to
avoid interference with the uplink signal.
3. Receiving earth station that would receive the sent signal on the other side of the globe

Radio communication
− Radio waves are omnidirectional. This means that they start from a central point and
spread outwards in all directions.
− Radio waves are used in radio and television broadcasts. Data can also be transmitted
over radio waves communication channels.
− Radio waves can be of high frequency, very high frequency or ultra-high frequency.

One of the latest radio transmission technologies is called Bluetooth technology. Bluetooth is a
worldwide and short-range radio technology that enables people to use hand held communication
devices such as cell phones and personal digital assistants to access the Internet.
The main component in Bluetooth is a small low power two-way radio transceiver, small enough
to be inserted in small devices.
A network of bluetooth-enabled devices is called a wireless personal area network (WPAN) or
piconet.

Infrared transmission
Infrared waves are not visible to the human eye. Communication through this medium is
achieved by having infrared transmitters and receivers (transceivers). Transceivers of infrared
signals must be within a line of sight in the same room. This is because unlike radio signals,
infrared signals cannot penetrate obstacles like walls. However, the signal can be reflected off
surfaces like walls and ceiling until they reach their destination.

Advantages and disadvantages of wireless communications

1. Wireless medium is flexible in operation as compared to bounded media i.e. devices can be
moved around without losing access to the network.
2. Wireless networks can span large geographical areas easily.
3. Wireless communication can take place via satellite even in very remote areas that do not
have high cost physical infrastructure like telephone lines.

Some of the disadvantages of wireless communications include:

1. It is relatively difficult to establish or configure.
2. The initial cost is very high.
3. it’s affected by whether or climatic conditions
Communication devices
These devices are more or less used as interfaces or junctions between the terminal devices. Data
Terminal equipment (DTE) are devices at both ends of the communication link such as a
computer. They include network interface cards (NIC), modems and codec’s, hubs, bridges,
repeaters, routers, gateways, switches and access points.

a) Network interface cards (NIC)

Network interface cards (NIC) create a physical link between the computer and the transmission
media to a network.
b) Modems and codecs
It converts a signal from digital to analog form for the purpose of transmission over the analog
media, while a codec converts an analog signal to digital form for transmission via a digital
medium. A modem can be external, an add-on card or built on the motherboard.
c) Hubs
A hub also called a concentrator is a component that connects computers on a network and is
able to relay signals from one computer to another on the same network.
A hub transmits signals by broadcasting them to all the computers on the network. After the
signal is broadcasted, the computer whose address is on the message picks the message from the
network that is part of the broadcast domain.

d) Bridges
Determines the appropriate network segment for which a message is meant for delivery through
address filtering.
Hence a bridge can divide a busy network into segments to reduce network traffic. The purpose
of using a bridge therefore is to:
1. Extend the length and number of stations that a segment can support.

2. Reduce overall traffic flow by allowing broadcasts only in the destination segment of the
network.

e) Repeaters
A repeater receives a signal from one segment of a network, cleans it to remove any distortion,
boosts it and then sends it to another segment.
The repeater enables the network to eliminate attenuation problems.

f) Routers
The router interconnects different networks and directs the transfer of data packets from source
to destination. Routing depends on network addresses called Internet protocol (IP) address.
Some modem routing devices combine the functionality of a bridge and router. Such a device is
called a brouter.
g) Gateways
A gateway is any device that can be configured to provide access to wide area networks or
Internet. One such device is the router.
h) Switches
A switch, unlike a hub forwards a packet directly to the address node without broadcasting.
A node refers to data terminal equipment such as a workstation or computer on the network.
The switch does this by connecting two nodes point to point as if they were linked by a direct
cable between them. This reduces the broadcast problems on the networks. It is important to note
that some hubs also incorporate the switching mechanisms. Such a hub is referred to as a
switching hub.

Wireless communication devices

Some of the most common devices used in wireless communication include access points and the
antenna.
Access points (AP)
It is an entry point into a bounded network for people who have wireless devices such as
personal digital assistants (PDA's), laptops and computers with wireless links.

Wireless antennae
The access point needs to have antennas in order to detect signals in the surrounding. The waves
may be radio waves, microwave or infrared waves in nature. In most cases, access points will
have two antennas so that the one that receives the best signal at any particular time can be used.

Personal computer memory card international association (PCMCIA) cards

A personal computer memory card international association is an add-on card inserted into a
device such as personal digital assistants or a laptop in order to enable wireless communication
between the devices and a wired network server.

Network software
These software can be classified into two main groups namely:
1. Network operating systems.
2. Network protocols.

Network operating systems

These are operating systems specifically designed to optimize the networked computers ability to
respond to service requests. Servers run on a network operating system.
Functions of network operating systems
1. Provides access to network resources e.g. printers and folders.
2. Enables nodes on the network to communicate with each other more efficiently.
3. Supports inter-process communication i.e. enables the various processes on the network
to communicate with one another.
4. Respond to requests from application programs running on the network.
5. Supporting network services like network card drivers and protocols.
6. Implementing network security features.

Examples of network operating systems are Windows NT/2000/2003, UNIX, Linux and Novell
Netware.
Protocols

Protocols are the rules and technical procedures that govern communication between
different computers on a network
The work of these protocols must be coordinated so that there are no conflicts or incomplete
operations. This co-ordination is achieved through protocol layering. Network protocols are
designed after the open systems interconnection (OSI) model or ISO standing for International
organization of Standardization.
The open systems interconnection model is not a protocol as such but is meant to help designers
to come up with high quality layered protocols. It has seven layers, each performing distinct
functions as shown in Table 1.2.

Table 1.2

Layer Function

User applications run here and generate requests for data transmission or
7. Application layer
open received Information.

Adds formatting, display and encryption Information to the data being

6. Presentation layer
sent.

5. Session layer Sets up data transmission sessions between two communicating devices.

4. Transport layer Manages data transfer over the network to ensure reliability.

Address information is added to the data packet and routed to

3. Network layer
destination.
 Adds error checking information and prepares data for going onto the
2. Data link layer
physical connection.
The data packets are finally transmitted via the network card through the
1. Physical layer
transmission media inform of bits

Application protocols work at the highest layer of the OSI model. They provide services to
application programs. An example of an application program is an e-mail editor program that
enables composing or reading of e-mail messages. Examples of protocols at the application layer
include:

1. Simple mail transfer protocol (SMTP) - An Internet protocol for transferring e-mails.
2. File transfer protocol (FTP) - An Internet protocol for file transfer.

3. Apple talk and apple share - Apple computers networking protocol suit.

Transport protocols ensure that data is passed between computers more reliably. Some examples
include:

1. Transmission control protocol (TCP): This is responsible for delivery of sequenced data over
the network.

2. Sequential packet exchange (SPX): This part of the Novell's internet work
packet exchange/sequential packet exchange (IPX/SPX) for sequenced data.

3. NetBEUI: A local area network protocol for Microsoft and 1MB networks that establishes
communication sessions between computers.

4. Apple transaction protocol (ATP): Apple computer's communication session and

data transport protocol.

Network protocols provide link services. They handle addressing and routing information, error
checking and retransmission of requests. Some examples of network layer protocols include:

1. Internet protocol (IP): It does packet forwarding and routing.

2. Internetwork packets exchange: Netware’s protocol for packet forwarding and routing.
Network topologies
Network topology refers to the way in which computers and other devices have been arranged or
how data is passed from one computer to another in the network. Therefore network topology
can be viewed in two ways namely logical and physical topology.

Logical topology
Logical topology also called signal topology deals with the way data passes from one device to
the next on the network. Examples of logical topologies are Ethernet and token ring.
a) Ethernet topology

In Ethernet topology, all computers listen to the network media and can only send data when
none of the others is sending.

b) Token ring topology

In token ring topology, a special package for data called a token goes around the network and
only the computer whose address is on the data held in the token will take up the token to read
the data then release the token. The token can then be captured by another computer which needs
to transmit data.

Physical topology
Physical topology refers to the physical layout or arrangement of components on the network.
Examples of physical topologies include star, bus, ring, mesh and tree/hierarchical topology.

a) Star topology
In star topology, all devices are connected to a central hub. Nodes communicate across the network
by passing data through the
hub. When the hub
receives data from a
transmitting computer, it
broadcasts the message to
all the other nodes on the
network
The advantages of star topology include:

1. It allows centralization of key networking resources like concentrators and servers.

2. It gives the network administrator a focal point for network management.

3. Star networks are easy to configure.

The disadvantages of star topology include:

1. costly because it requires one complete cable per computer.

2. If the central hub fails, the entire network will be down.
3. Installing is time consuming because each node forms a segment of its own.

b) Bus topology
All devices are connected to a central cable called the bus or backbone
A terminator is attached to each end of the cable to avoid signals from bouncing back and forth
on the cable causing signal distortion. As the data passes along the cable, each station checks
whether the data is addressed to it. If the address matches the machines address, it receives the
data otherwise it rejects it. The network addresses of computers on a network are called the
medium access control (MAC) address.

The advantages of the bus topology are:

1. It is easy to install.
2. It is less costly. Does not require a complete cable length per computer.

The disadvantages of bus topology are:

1. A cable break in any section brings down the whole networks.

2. Troubleshooting a cable fault is difficult because the fault could be anywhere on the cable.

3. It limits the number of computers that can be connected to the cable because each computer is
listening to the cable in order to transmit.

c) Ring topology
In a ring topology, all devices are connected to one another in the shape of a closed loop each
station is responsible for regenerating and retransmitting signals around the network to its
neighbour. A token is used to exchange data from one station to another.

The advantages of ring topology are:

1. They use a short length cable.
2. Ring topology is simple to install.

The disadvantages of ring topology are:

1. Modification may be difficult because adding or removing a device can disrupt the
entire network.
2. Troubleshooting can be difficult.
3. One device or media breakdown may affect the entire network.
d) Mesh topology
This is the most common type of topology used in wide area network where there are many paths
between different locations. Devices are connected with many redundant interconnections
between the nodes. In a true mesh topology every node has a connection to every other node in
the network. This is a hybrid topology. Groups of star-configured networks are connected to a
linear bus backbone

Network security
In networking there are several ways of enforcing security one of them is share level and the
other is the user level security.

Share level security

Used in peer to peer networks. The user can decide which resources to give for sharing.
Most desktop operating system such as Windows provide such kind of security.

User-level security
User level security model is used on server based networks. A network administrator assigns
accounts to users. This means that each user is provided with a unique name and password which
he or she can use to access network resources.