UNIT-3

Poset
A poset, or par ally ordered set, is a set with a binary rela on that is reflexive, an symmetric,
and transi ve, meaning that elements can be compared in a way that's not necessarily total
(like "less than or equal to"). A classic example is the set of integers with the usual "less than or
equal to" rela on.

Here's a more detailed explana on:

Key Concepts:

 Set: A collec on of dis nct objects (elements).

 Binary Rela on: A rule that defines a rela onship between pairs of elements in the set.

 Reflexive: For any element x in the set, x is related to itself (x ≤ x).

 An symmetric: If x is related to y and y is related to x, then x must be equal to y (if x ≤ y

and y ≤ x, then x = y).

 Transi ve: If x is related to y and y is related to z, then x is related to z (if x ≤ y and y ≤ z,

then x ≤ z).

 Par ally Ordered: Not all pairs of elements are necessarily comparable. Meaning, it's
possible that for elements x and y, neither x ≤ y nor y ≤ x holds.

Examples of Posets:

 Integers with the "less than or equal to" rela on:

The set of all integers (..., -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, ...) with the usual "<=" rela on forms a poset.

 Subsets of a set with the "subset of" rela on:

Consider a set S = {a, b, c}. The set of all its subsets (including the empty set and S itself) and the
"subset of" rela on (⊆) forms a poset. For example, {a} ⊆ {a, b}, {a,b} ⊆ {a,b,c}.

 Divisibility of posi ve integers:

The set of posi ve integers with the "divides" rela on (a | b if b is divisible by a) forms a
poset. For example, 2 | 4, but 2 does not divide 3.

 Hasse Diagram:
A visual representa on of a poset, where elements are represented as nodes and edges indicate
the "less than" rela on.

Non-Examples (Not Posets):

 The set of all real numbers with the "less than" rela on:

While this is an ordered set, it's not a poset because the rela on is not reflexive (x < x is false for
any x).

 The set of all real numbers with the "greater than" rela on:

Similar to the previous example, this is an ordered set, but not a poset because the rela on is
not reflexive (x > x is false for any x).

In Summary: A poset is a set with a par al ordering, where elements can be compared in a way
that's not necessarily total, and the ordering rela on must be reflexive, an symmetric, and
transi ve.

Par ally Ordered Sets

Consider a rela on R on a set S sa sfying the following proper es:

1. R is reflexive, i.e., xRx for every x ∈ S.

2. R is an symmetric, i.e., if xRy and yRx, then x = y.

3. R is transi ve, i.e., xRy and yRz, then xRz.

Then R is called a par al order rela on, and the set S together with par al order is called a
par ally order set or POSET and is denoted by (S, ≤).

Example:

1. The set N of natural numbers form a poset under the rela on '≤' because firstly x ≤ x,
secondly, if x ≤ y and y ≤ x, then we have x = y and lastly if x ≤ y and y ≤ z, it implies x ≤ z
for all x, y, z ∈ N.

2. The set N of natural numbers under divisibility i.e., 'x divides y' forms a poset because
x/x for every x ∈ N. Also if x/y and y/x, we have x = y. Again if x/y, y/z we have x/z, for
every x, y, z ∈ N.

3. Consider a set S = {1, 2} and power set of S is P(S). The rela on of set inclusion ⊆ is a
par al order. Since, for any sets A, B, C in P (S), firstly we have A ⊆ A, secondly, if A ⊆B
and B⊆A, then we have A = B. Lastly, if A ⊆B and B ⊆C,then A⊆C. Hence, (P(S), ⊆) is a
poset.
Elements of POSET:
1. Maximal Element: An element a ∈ A is called a maximal element of A if there is no
element in c in A such that a ≤ c.

2. Minimal Element: An element b ∈ A is called a minimal element of A if there is no

element in c in A such that c ≤ b.

Note: There can be more than one maximal or more than one minimal element.

Example: Determine all the maximal and minimal elements of the poset whose Hasse diagram
is shown in fig:

Solu on: The maximal elements are b and f.

The minimal elements are d and e.

Comparable Elements:

Consider an ordered set A. Two elements a and b of set A are called comparable if

a≤b or b≤a
R R

Non-Comparable Elements:

Consider an ordered set A. Two elements a and b of set A are called non-comparable if neither a
≤ b nor b ≤ a.

Example: Consider A = {1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 10, 15, 30} is ordered by divisibility. Determine all the
comparable and non-comparable pairs of elements of A.
Solu on: The comparable pairs of elements of A are:
{1, 2}, {1, 3}, {1, 5}, {1, 6}, {1, 10}, {1, 15}, {1, 30}
{2, 6}, {2, 10}, {2, 30}
{3, 6}, {3, 15}, {3, 30}
{5, 10}, {5, 15}, {5, 30}
{6, 30}, {10, 30}, {15, 30}

The non-comparable pair of elements of A are:

{2, 3}, {2, 5}, {2, 15}
{3, 5}, {3, 10}, {5, 6}, {6, 10}, {6, 15}, {10, 15}

Linearly Ordered Set:

Consider an ordered set A. The set A is called linearly ordered set or totally ordered set, if every
pair of elements in A is comparable.

Example: The set of posi ve integers I+ with the usual order ≤ is a linearly ordered set.

Hasse Diagrams
It is a useful tool, which completely describes the associated par al order. Therefore, it is also
called an ordering diagram. It is very easy to convert a directed graph of a rela on on a set A to
an equivalent Hasse diagram. Therefore, while drawing a Hasse diagram following points must
be remembered.

1. The ver ces in the Hasse diagram are denoted by points rather than by circles.

2. Since a par al order is reflexive, hence each vertex of A must be related to itself, so the
edges from a vertex to itself are deleted in Hasse diagram.

3. Since a par al order is transi ve, hence whenever aRb, bRc, we have aRc. Eliminate all
edges that are implied by the transi ve property in Hasse diagram, i.e., Delete edge from
a to c but retain the other two edges.

4. If a vertex 'a' is connected to vertex 'b' by an edge, i.e., aRb, then the vertex 'b' appears
above vertex 'a'. Therefore, the arrow may be omi ed from the edges in the Hasse
diagram.

The Hasse diagram is much simpler than the directed graph of the par al order.

Example: Consider the set A = {4, 5, 6, 7}. Let R be the rela on ≤ on A. Draw the directed graph
and the Hasse diagram of R.

Solu on: The rela on ≤ on the set A is given by

 R = {{4, 5}, {4, 6}, {4, 7}, {5, 6}, {5, 7}, {6, 7}, {4, 4}, {5, 5}, {6, 6}, {7, 7}}

The directed graph of the rela on R is as shown in fig:

To draw the Hasse diagram of par al order, apply the following points:

1. Delete all edges implied by reflexive property i.e.

(4, 4), (5, 5), (6, 6), (7, 7)

2. Delete all edges implied by transi ve property i.e.

(4, 7), (5, 7), (4, 6)

3. Replace the circles represen ng the ver ces by dots.

4. Omit the arrows.

The Hasse diagram is as shown in fig:

Upper Bound: Consider B be a subset of a par ally ordered set A. An element x ∈ A is called an
upper bound of B if y ≤ x for every y ∈ B.

Lower Bound: Consider B be a subset of a par ally ordered set A. An element z ∈ A is called a
lower bound of B if z ≤ x for every x ∈ B.

Example: Consider the poset A = {a, b, c, d, e, f, g} be ordered shown in fig. Also let B = {c, d, e}.
Determine the upper and lower bound of B.

Solu on: The upper bound of B is e, f, and g because every element of B is '≤' e, f, and g.

The lower bounds of B are a and b because a and b are '≤' every elements of B.

Least Upper Bound (SUPREMUM):

Let A be a subset of a par ally ordered set S. An element M in S is called an upper bound of A if
M succeeds every element of A, i.e. if, for every x in A, we have x <=M

If an upper bound of A precedes every other upper bound of A, then it is called the supremum
of A and is denoted by Sup (A)

Greatest Lower Bound (INFIMUM):

An element m in a poset S is called a lower bound of a subset A of S if m precedes every

element of A, i.e. if, for every y in A, we have m <=y

If a lower bound of A succeeds every other lower bound of A, then it is called the infimum of A
and is denoted by Inf (A)
Example: Determine the least upper bound and greatest lower bound of B = {a, b, c} if they
exist, of the poset whose Hasse diagram is shown in fig:

Solu on: The least upper bound is c.

The greatest lower bound is k.