Lecture 9

Database
Normalization
COMP3278B
Introduction to Database Management Systems
Dr. Ping Luo
Email : [email protected]
Department of Computer Science, The University of Hong Kong

Acknowledgement: Dr. Chui Chun Kit

Outcome based learning
Outcome 1. Information Modeling
Able to understand the modeling of real life information in a database
system.

Outcome 2. Query Languages

Able to understand and use the languages designed for data access.

Outcome 3. System Design

Able to understand the design of an efficient and reliable database
system.

Outcome 4. Application Development

Able to implement a practical application on a real database.
2
Recap Armstrong’s Axioms

We have 3 basic axioms.

1. Reflexivity - if   , then  → .
2. Transitivity - if  →  and  → , then  → .
3. Augmentation - if  → , then   → .

3
Recap Armstrong’s Axioms

3 more axioms to help easier prove!

4. Union - if  →  and  → , then  → .
5. Decomposition - if  → , then  →  and  → .
6. Pseudo-transitivity - if  →  and  →, then  →.

2 rules in tutorial!
7. Extensivity - if  → , then  → .
8. Composition - if  →  and  → , then  → .

4
Attribute set closure α +

Given a set F of FDs and a set of attributes α.

The closure of α (denoted as α+) is the set of
attributes that can be functionally determined by α.

Attribute set
F = {A → B, B → C}
closure of A.
{A}+= { A, B
B,, C }
1. A →A is always true (by Reflexivity).
2. A → B is given in F.
3. A → C is derived from F:
Given A → B and B → C, A → C is also true (by Transitivity).
5
Attribute set closure α +

Given a set F of FDs and a set of attributes α.

The closure of α (denoted as α+) is the set of
attributes that can be functionally determined by α.

Attribute set
F = {A → B, B → C}
closure of A.
{A}+= { A, BB,, C }
{B}+= { B, C } Note that we only
consider single

{C}+= { C } attribute, not attribute

sets (so we do not
have AB, ABC, AC…etc
{A,B}+= { A, B, C } in {A,B}+).
6
FD closure F+

The set of ALL functional dependencies that can be

logically implied by F is called the closure of F (or F+)

To compute F+ in a relation R: This is the attribute

set closure.

Step 1. Treat every subset of R as α.

Step 2. For every α, compute α+.
Step 3. Use α as LHS, and generate an FD for every
subset of α+ on RHS.
The fd_closure() algorithm
7
FD closure F +

Given a relation R(N, S, P) and the functional

dependencies F = {N→S, N→P} find the FD closure F+.
N S P NS NP SP NSP

Step 1. Treat every subset of R as α.

8
 FD closure F +

Given a relation R(N, S, P) and the functional

dependencies F = {N→S, N→P} find the FD closure F+.
N S P NS NP SP NSP
Attribute
set closure {N,S,P}

Step 2. For every α, compute α+.

To find the attribute set closure {N}, use the attribute_closure() algorithm
1. result = {N}
2. Consider the FDs with N →S, N →P, add S and P into result.
3. result = {N,S,P}
9
 FD closure F +

Given a relation R(N, S, P) and the functional

dependencies F = {N→S, N→P} find the FD closure F+.
N S P NS NP SP NSP
Attribute
set closure {N,S,P} {S} {P} {N,S,P} {N,S,P} {S,P} {N,S,P}

Step 2. For every α, compute α+.

To find the attribute set closure {N}, use the attribute_closure() algorithm
1. result = {N}
2. Consider the FDs with N →S, N →P, add S and P into result.
3. result = {N,S,P}
10
 FD closure F +

Given a relation R(N, S, P) and the functional

dependencies F = {N→S, N→P} find the FD closure F+.
N S P NS NP SP NSP
Attribute
set closure {N,S,P} {S} {P} {N,S,P} {N,S,P} {S,P} {N,S,P}

N→N
N→S
N→P
N→NS
FD Step 3. Use α as LHS, and generate an FD
N→NP
N→SP
for every subset of α+ on RHS.
N→NSP

11
 FD closure F +

Given a relation R(N, S, P) and the functional

dependencies F = {N→S, N→P} find the FD closure F+.
N S P NS NP SP NSP
Attribute
set closure {N,S,P} {S} {P} {N,S,P} {N,S,P} {S,P} {N,S,P}

N→N S→S P→P NS→N NP→N SP→S NSP→N

N→S NS→S NP→S SP→P NSP→S
N→P NS→P NP→P SP→SP NSP→P
N→NS NS→NS NP→NS NSP→NS
FD
N→NP NS→NP NP→NP NSP→NP
N→SP NS→SP NP→SP NSP→SP
N→NSP NS→NSP NP→NSP NSP→NSP

12
Concept
Decomposition
Lossless-join decomposition
Dependency preserving decomposition

Normal form
Boyce-Codd Normal Form (BCNF)

13
Motivating example
Let’s consider the following schema
Employees have eid (key), name, parkingLot.
Departments have did (key), dname, budget.
An employee works in exactly one department, since some date.
Employees who work in the same department must park at
the same parkingLot.

name dname
since budget
eid parkingLot did

Employees Works_in Departments

14
 Motivating example
Reduce to relational tables
Employees( eid, name, parkingLot, did, since)
Foreign key: did references Departments(did)
Departments( did, dname, budget)
Observation: In Employees table, whenever did is 1, parkingLot must be “A”!
Implication: The constraint “Employees who work in the same department
must park at the same parkingLot” is NOT utilized in the design!!!
There are some redundancy in the Employees table.

eid name parkingLot did since did dname budget

1 Kit A 1 1/9/2014 1 Human Resource 4M
2 Ben B 2 2/4/2010 2 Accounting 3.5M
3 Ernest B 2 30/5/2011
4 Betty A 1 22/3/2013 Yes! As parkingLot is
5 David A 1 4/11/2004 “functionally depend” on did, we
6 Joe B 2 12/3/2008
7 Mary B 2 14/7/2009
should not put parkingLot in the
8 Wandy A 1 9/8/2008 Employee table. 15
We are going to learn
Database normalization
The process of organizing the columns and tables of
a relational database to minimize redundancy and
dependency.
To make sure that every relation R is in a “good” form.
If R is not “good”, decompose it into a set of relations {R1,
R2, …, Rn}.
Question: How can we do Yes! The theories
the decomposition? can be explained
Are there any guidelines / through functional
theories developed to dependencies ☺.
decompose a relation? 16
16
Normalization goal
We would like to meet the following goals when we
decompose a relation schema R with a set of
functional dependencies F into R1, R2, …, Rn
1. Lossless-join – Avoid the decomposition result in
information loss.

2. Reduce redundancy – The decomposed relations Ri should

be in Boyce-Codd Normal Form (BCNF).

3. Dependency preserving – Avoid the need to join the

decomposed relations to check the functional dependencies
when new tuples are inserted into the database. 17
Section 1

Lossless-join
Decomposition
 Example 1
R Functional dependencies

A B C F = {B →C}
1 1 3
1
2
2
1
2
3
The functional dependency B→C tells us
3 2 2 that for all tuples with the same value in B,
3 1 3
4 2 2 there should be at most one corresponding
4 1 3
value in C (E.g., If B=1, C =3 ; if B=2, C=2)
Decompose Question: Will decomposing R(A,B,C) into
R1(A,B) and R2(A,C) cause information lost?
R1 = A, B(R) R2 = A, C(R)
A B A C
1 1 1 3 Think in this way:
1 2 1 2 Is this decomposition “lossless join
2 1 2 3 decomposition”?
3 2 3 2 I.e., Is there any information lost if
3 1 3 3 we decompose R in this way?
4 2 4 2
4 1 4 3 19
 Example 1
R Functional dependencies R1 ⋈ R2= A, B(R) ⋈ A, C(R)
A B C F = {B →C} A B C
1 1 3 1 1 3

≠
1 2 2
To check if the
1 1 2
2 1 3 1 2 3 decomposition will cause
3 2 2 1 2 2 information lost, let’s try to
3 1 3 2 1 3
4 2 2 3 2 2 join R1 and R2 and see if we
4 1 3 3 2 3 can recover R.
3 1 2 As we see that R1 ⋈ R2 ≠ R,
Decompose 3 1 3
4 2 2 the decomposition has
4 2 3 information lost.
R1 = A, B(R) R2 = A, C(R) 4 1 2
This is NOT a lossless-join
4 1 3
A B A C decomposition.
1 1 1 3
1 2 1 2
2 1 2 3
3 2 3 2
3 1
This is a bad
3 3
4 2 4 2 decomposition
4 1 4 3
20
 Example 2
R Functional dependencies R1 ⋈ R2 = A, B(R) ⋈ B, C(R)
A B C F = {B →C} A B C How about
1 1 3 1 1 3
decomposing the

=
1 2 2 1 2 2
2 1 3
2
3
1
2
3
2 3 2 2 relation R(A,B,C)
3 1 3 3
4
1
2
3
2
into R1(A,B) and
4 2 2
4 1 3 4 1 3 R2(B,C)?
Decompose

R1 = A, B(R) R2 = B, C(R) Well done! Since

A B B C R1 ⋈ R2 = R, breaking down
1 1 1 3 R to R1 and R2 in this way
1 2 2 2
2 1 has no information lost.
3 2
3 1
This decomposition is a
4 2 lossless-join decomposition.
4 1
21
 Lossless-join decomposition
R Functional dependencies

A B C F = {B →C}
1 1 3
1 2 2
2
3
1
2
3
2
What is/are the condition(s)
3 1 3
4
4
2
1
2
3
for a decomposition to be
lossless-join?
Example I Example II
NOT Lossless-join decomposition Lossless-join decomposition

R1 = A, B(R) R2 = A, C(R) R1 = A, B(R) R2 = B, C(R)

A B A C A B B C
1 1 1 3 1 1 1 3
1 2 1 2 1 2 2 2
2 1 2 3 2 1
3 2 3 2 3 2
3 1 3 3 3 1
4 2 4 2 4 2
4 1 4 3 4 1 22
 Lossless-join decomposition
R Functional dependencies

A B C F = {B →C}
1 1 3
1
2
2
1
2
3
1
3 2 2
A B
1 1
3 1 3
4 2 2
Let’s consider the first
4 1 3
tuple (1,1,3) in R.

Example I Note that there is only

ONE tuple in R1 with
NOT Lossless-join A=1, B=1.
decomposition
R1 = A, B(R) R2 = A, C(R)
A B A C
1 1 1 3
1 2 1 2
2 1 2 3
3 2 3 2
3 1 3 3
4 2 4 2 23
4 1 4 3
 Lossless-join decomposition
R Functional dependencies

A B C F = {B →C}
1 1 3
1
2
2
1
2
3
1 2 A C
3 2 2
A B
1 1 1 3
3 1 3 1 2
4 2 2
Let’s consider the first
4 1 3 Since A →AC is NOT a
tuple (1,1,3) in R.
functional dependency
in F+, there can be more
Example I Note that there is only
than one tuples with
ONE tuple in R1 with
NOT Lossless-join A=1, B=1.
A=1 in R2
(e.g., (1,3), (1,2) ) .
decomposition
R1 = A, B(R) R2 = A, C(R)
A B A C
1 1 1 3
1 2 1 2
2 1 2 3
3 2 3 2
3 1 3 3
4 2 4 2 24
4 1 4 3
 Lossless-join decomposition
R Functional dependencies

A B C F = {B →C}
1 1 3
1
2
2
1
2
3
1 2 A C
3 A B C
A B
3
3
2
1
2
3
1 1 ⋈ 1
1
3
2
= 1 1 3
1 1 2
4 2 2
Let’s consider the first
4 1 3 Since A →AC is NOT a
tuple (1,1,3) in R. Therefore when we join
functional dependency
in F+, there can be more R1 and R2, more than one
Example I Note that there is only tuples will be generated
than one tuples with
ONE tuple in R1 with (i.e., (1,1) in R1 combine
NOT Lossless-join A=1, B=1.
A=1 in R2
with (1,3) and (1,2) in R2 )
(e.g., (1,3), (1,2) ) .
decomposition
R1 = A, B(R) R2 = A, C(R)
A B A C Observation:
1 1 1 3 The decomposition of R(A,B,C) into R1(A,B) and R2(A,C)
1 2 1 2
2 1 2 3
is NOT lossless-join because
3 2 3 2 A→ AC
3 1 3 3
4 2 4 2
is NOT in F+ , and … (to be explained in the next slide)
4 1 4 3 25
 Lossless-join decomposition
R Functional dependencies

A B C F = {B →C}
1 1 3
1
2
2
1
2
3
1
3 2 2
A C
1 3
3 1 3
4 2 2
Let’s consider the
4 1 3
first tuple (1,1,3) in R.

Example I Note that there is

only ONE tuple in R2
NOT Lossless-join with A=1, C=3.
decomposition
R1 = A, B(R) R2 = A, C(R)
A B A C
1 1 1 3
1 2 1 2
2 1 2 3
3 2 3 2
3 1 3 3
4 2 4 2 26
4 1 4 3
 Lossless-join decomposition
R Functional dependencies

A B C F = {B →C}
1 1 3
1
2
2
1
2
3
1 2 A B
3 2 2
A C
1 1
1 3
3 1 3 1 2
4 2 2
Let’s consider the Since A →AB is NOT a
4 1 3
first tuple (1,1,3) in R. functional dependency
in F+, there can be
Example I Note that there is more than one tuples
only ONE tuple in R2 with A=1 in R1
NOT Lossless-join with A=1, C=3. (i.e., (1,1), (1,2) ) .
decomposition
R1 = A, B(R) R2 = A, C(R)
A B A C
1 1 1 3
1 2 1 2
2 1 2 3
3 2 3 2
3 1 3 3
4 2 4 2 27
4 1 4 3
 Lossless-join decomposition
R Functional dependencies

A B C F = {B →C}
1 1 3
1
2
2
1
2
3
1 2 A B 3 A B C
A C
3
3
2
1
2
3
1 3 ⋈ 1
1
1
2
= 1
1
1
2
3
3
4 2 2
Let’s consider the Since A →AB is NOT a
4 1 3 Therefore when we join
first tuple (1,1,3) in R. functional dependency
in F+, there can be R1 and R2, more than one
tuples will be generated
Example I Note that there is more than one tuples
(i.e., (1,3) in R2 combine
only ONE tuple in R2 with A=1 in R1
NOT Lossless-join with A=1, C=3. (i.e., (1,1), (1,2) ) . with (1,1) and (1,2) in R1 )
decomposition
R1 = A, B(R) R2 = A, C(R)
A B A C Observation:
1 1 1 3 The decomposition of R(A,B,C) into R1(A,B) and R2(A,C)
1 2 1 2
2 1 2 3
is NOT lossless-join because
3 2 3 2 A→ AC (explained in previous slide), and
3 1 3 3 A→ AB
4 2 4 2
4 1 4 3 are NOT in F+ . 28
 Lossless-join decomposition
R Functional dependencies

A B C F = {B →C}
1 1 3
1
2
2
1
2
3
1
3 2 2
A B
1 1
3 1 3
4 2 2
4 1 3 Let’s consider the
first tuple (1,1,3) in R.
Note that there is
Example II only ONE tuple in R1
Lossless-join with A=1, B=1.
decomposition
R1 = A, B(R) R2 = B, C(R)
A B B C
1 1 1 3
1 2 2 2
2 1
3 2
3 1
4 2 29
4 1
 Lossless-join decomposition
R Functional dependencies

A B C F = {B →C}
1 1 3
1
2
2
1
2
3
1 2
A B B C
3 2 2
1 1 1 3
3 1 3
4 2 2
4 1 3 Let’s consider the Since B →BC is a
first tuple (1,1,3) in R. functional dependency
Note that there is in F+, there is only one
Example II only ONE tuple in R1 tuple with B=1 in R2.
Lossless-join with A=1, B=1.
decomposition
R1 = A, B(R) R2 = B, C(R)
A B B C
1 1 1 3
1 2 2 2
2 1
3 2
3 1
4 2 30
4 1
 Lossless-join decomposition
R Functional dependencies

A B C F = {B →C}
1 1 3
1
2
2
1
2
3
1 2 3
A B B C A B C
3
3
2
1
2
3
1 1 ⋈ 1 3 = 1 1 3
4 2 2
4 1 3 Let’s consider the Since B →BC is a Therefore when we join R1
first tuple (1,1,3) in R. functional dependency and R2, there will be ONLY
Note that there is in F+, there is only one ONE tuple generated, and
Example II only ONE tuple in R1 tuple with B=1 in R2. that must be the
Lossless-join with A=1, B=1. corresponding tuple (1,1,3)
decomposition in R.

R1 = A, B(R) R2 = B, C(R)

A B B C Observation:
1 1 1 3
1 2 2 2
The decomposition of R(A,B,C) into R1(A,B) and
2 1 R2(B,C) is lossless-join because
3 2
3 1
B→ BC
+
is in F .
4 2
4 1 31
Testing for lossless-join decomposition

Consider a decomposition of R into R1 and R2.

Schema of R = schema of R1  schema of R2.

Let schema of R1  schema of R2 be R1 and R2’s

common attributes.
A decomposition of R into R1 and R2 is lossless-join if and
only if at least one of the following dependencies is in F+ .

Schema of R1  schema of R2 → schema of R1

OR
Schema of R1  schema of R2 → schema of R2
32
Example
Question: Given R(A,B,C), F={B→C}, is the following
a lossless join decomposition of R?
R1(A, B) , R2(B, C)
Answer: To see if (R1, R2) is a lossless join
decomposition of R, we do the following:
Find common attributes of R1 and R2 : B
Verify if any of the FD below holds in F+, if one of the FD
holds, then the decomposition is lossless join.
B → R1 (i.e., B → AB?)
B → R2 (i.e., B → BC?)
Since B → BC (by Augmentation rule on B→C ), R1 and R2 are
lossless join decomposition of R. 33
Section 2

Dependency preserving
Decomposition
Dependency preserving
When decomposing a relation, we also want to keep
the functional dependencies.
A FD X → Y is preserved in a relation R if R contains all the
attributes of X and Y.
If a dependency is lost when R is decomposed into R1
and R2:
When we insert a new record in R1 and R2, we have to
obtain R1⋈ R2 and check if the new record violates the lost
dependency before insertion.
It could be very inefficient because joining is required in
every insertion! 35
Dependency preserving
Note that A→CD is in F+ because R
of the Transitivity axiom.
A B C D
Consider R(A,B,C,D), F = {A → B, B →CD} 1
2
1
1
3
3
4
4
F+ = {A → B, B →CD, A →CD, trivial FDs} 3
4
2
1
2
3
3
4

If R is decomposed to R1(A,B) , R2(B,C,D): Decompose

R1 = A, B(R) R2=B, C, D(R)

F1 = {A → B, trivials}, the projection of on R1
F+
A B B C D
F2 = {B → CD, trivials}, the projection of F+ on R2 1 1 1 3 4
2 1 2 2 3
3 2
4 1
This is a dependency preserving
decomposition as:
(F1  F2)+ = F+
Let us illustrate the implication of
dependency preserving in the next slide. 36
Dependency preserving
R
A B C D
Consider R(A,B,C,D), F = {A → B, B →CD} 1
2
1
1
3
3
4
4
F+ = {A → B, B →CD, A →CD, trivial FDs} 3
4
2
1
2
3
3
4
Is this a lossless join decomposition?
Decompose
Yes! As B→R2 (i.e., B→BCD) holds in F+. R1 = A, B(R) R2=B, C, D(R)
That mean we can recover R by R1⋈ R2.
A B B C D
Why it is dependency preserving? 1 1 1 3 4
2 1 2 2 3
Think about it… 3 2
A B C D
If we insert a new record 5 1 4 4 into R1 and R2: 4 1
A B B C D
R1 5 1 R2 1 4 4

We need to check if the new record will make the database

violate any FDs in F+.
Is such decomposition allow us to do the validation on R1
and R2 ONLY? (But no need to join R1 and R2 to validate it?) 37
Dependency preserving
R
A B C D
F+ = { A → B, B →CD, A →CD , trivials} 1 1 3 4
2 1 3 4
Inserting tuple (5,1,4,4) violates B →CD. 3
4
2
1
2
3
3
4
5 1 4 4

The decomposition is dependency Decompose

R1 = A, B(R) R2=B, C, D(R)

preserving as we only need to check:
A B B C D
A B
Inserting 5 1violate any F1 in R1? 1
2
1
1
1 3 4
2 2 3
3 2
This involves checking F1={A→B}. 4 1
1 4 4

B C D 5 1
Inserting 1 4 4 violate any F2 in R2? Although among the two
validations we haven’t checked
This involves checking F2={B →CD}. A→CD, but since A→B is
checked in F1, and B →CD is
We can check F1 on R1 and F2 on R2 only because checked in F2, if we pass both F1
(F1  F2)+ = F+ and F2, it implies A →CD. 38
Dependency preserving
R
A B C D
What about decompose R to R1(A,B), 1
2
1
1
3
3
4
4
R2(A,C,D) ? 3
4
2
1
2
3
3
4
R is decomposed to R1(A,B) , R2(A,C,D)
Decompose
F+ = {A → B, B →CD, A →CD, trivial FDs} R1 = A, B(R) R2=A, C, D(R)
F1 = {A → B, trivials}, the projection of F+ on R1 A B A C D
1 3 4
F2 = {A → CD , trivials}, the projection of F+ on R2 12 11 2 3 4
3 2 3 2 3
4 1 4 3 4
This is NOT a dependency preserving
decomposition as:
(F1  F2)+ ≠ F+
Let us illustrate the implication of NOT
dependency preserving in the next slide. 39
Dependency preserving
R
A B C D
What about decompose R to R1(A,B), 1
2
1
1
3
3
4
4
R2(A,C,D) ? 3
4
2
1
2
3
3
4

Is this a lossless join decomposition? Decompose

Yes! As A→R1 (i.e., A→AB) holds in F+. R1 = A, B(R) R2=A, C, D(R)
That mean we can recover R by R1⋈ R2. A B A C D
Is it dependency preserving? 1
2
1
1
1
2
3
3
4
4
3 2 3 2 3
Think about it… 4 1 4 3 4
A B C D
If we insert a new record 5 1 4 4 into R1 and R2:
A B A C D
R1 5 1 R2 5 4 4

We need to check if the new record will make the database

violate any FDs in F+. Is such decomposition allow us to do the
validation on R1 and R2 only (but no need to join R1 and R2)? 40
Dependency preserving
R
A B C D
F+ = { A → B, B →CD, A →CD } 1 1 3 4
2 1 3 4
Inserting tuple (5,1,4,4) violates B →CD. 3 2 2 3
4 1 3 4
The decomposition is NOT dependency 5 1 4 4
Decompose
preserving as if we only check: R1 = A, B(R) R2=A, C, D(R)
A B
Inserting 5 1 violate any F1 in R1? A B A C D
1 3 4
This involves checking F1={A→B}. 1
2
1
1 2 3 4
3 2 3 2 3
Inserting A
5
C
4
D
4 violate any F2 in R2? 4 1 4 3 4
5 1 5 4 4
This involves checking F2={A →CD}.
Although we passed F1 and F2,
We CANNOT check F1 on R1 and F2 on R2 only because it doesn’t mean that we
(F1  F2)+  F+ passed all FDs in F!
Decomposition in this way requires joining tables to It is because we lost the FD
validate B →CD for EVERY INSERTION! B →CD in the decomposition.
41
Dependency preserving
What is the condition(s) for a decomposition
to be dependency preserving?

Let F be a set of functional dependencies on R.

R1, R2, …, Rn be a decomposition of R.
Fi be the set of FDs in F+ that include only attributes in Ri.

A decomposition is dependency preserving if and

only if
(F1  F2  …  Fn)+ = F+
Where Fi is the set of FDs in F+ that include only attributes in Ri.
42
Example 1
Given R(A, B, C) , F = {A → B , B → C}
Is R1(A, B), R2(B, C) a dependency preserving decomposition?

First we need to find F+ , F1 and F2.

F+ = {A→B , B→C, A→C, some trivial FDs}
F1 = {A→B and trivial FDs } Note that A→C is in F+ because of
the Transitivity axiom.
F2 = {B→C and trivial FDs }
Then we check if (F1  F2)+ = F+ is true.
Since F1  F2 = F ,this implies (F1  F2)+ = F+.

This decomposition is dependency preserving.

43
Example 2
Given R(A, B, C) , F = {A → B , B → C}
Is R1(A, B), R2(A, C) a dependency preserving decomposition?

First we need to find F+ , F1 and F2.

F+ = {A→B , B→C, A→C, some trivial FDs}
F1 = {A→B and trivial FDs } Note that A→C is in F+ because of
the Transitivity axiom.
F2 = {A→C and trivial FDs }
Then we check if (F1  F2)+ = F+ is true.
Since B→C disappears in R1 and R2, (F1  F2)+  F+ .

This decomposition is NOT dependency preserving.

44
Section 3

Boyce-Codd
Normal Form
FD and redundancy
Consider the following relation: Customer
id name dptID
Customer( id, name, dptID ) 1 Kit 1
2 David 1
F = { {id} → {name, dptID} } 3 Betty 2
4 Helen 2

{id} is a key in Customer.

Because the attribute closure of {id} (i.e., {id}+ = {id, name,
dptID} ), which covers all attributes of Customer.
Observation: All non-trivial FDs in F form a
key in the relation Customer.
This implies that there are no other FD that is just
involve a subset of columns in the relation.
This implies that Customer has no redundancy.
46
FD and redundancy
As another example: Customer
id name dptID building
Customer( id, name, dptID, building) 1 Kit 1 CYC
2 David 1 CYC
F = { {id} → {name, dptID , building} 3 Betty 2 HW
{dptID} → {building} } 4 Helen 2 HW

{dptID} → {building} brings redundancy. Why?

Tuples have the same dptID must have the same building
(e.g., dptID=1, building=“CYC”).
But those tuples can have different values in id and name.
For each different id values with the same dptID, building will
be repeated (redundancy). For example, for tuples with (id=1,
dptID=1) and (id=2, dptID=1) , building
must equal “CYC” (redundancy).
47
FD and redundancy
As another example: Customer
id name dptID building
Customer( id, name, dptID, building) 1 Kit 1 CYC
2 David 1 CYC
F = { {id} → {name, dptID , building} 3 Betty 2 HW
{dptID} → {building} } 4 Helen 2 HW

How to check?
Check if the attribute set closure of {dptID} covers all
attributes in Customer. ({dptID}+ = {dptID, building} ≠ Customer)

Redundancy is related to FDs. If there is an FD

→ , where {}+ does not cover all attributes in
R, then we will have redundancy in R!
48
Boyce-Codd Normal Form
Summarizing the observations, a relation R has no
redundancy, or in Boyce-Codd Normal Form (BCNF),
if the following is satisfied:
For all FDs in F+ of the form  → , where   R and   R,
at least one of the following holds:
We won’t border with trivial
 →  is trivial (i.e.,   ) FDs such as A→A, AB→A …etc

i.e., The attribute set closure of

 is a key (superkey) for R , represented as {}+ , covers
all attributes in R.

In other words, in BCNF, every

non-trivial FD forms a key. 49
How to test for BCNF?
Formally, for verifying if R is in BCNF
For each non-trivial dependency  →  in F+ (the
functional dependency closure), check if + covers the
whole relation (i.e., whether  is a superkey).
If any + does not cover the whole relation, R is not in BCNF.
Simplified test:
It suffices to check only the dependencies in the given F for
violation of BCNF, rather than check all dependencies in F+

For example, given R(A,B,C); F = {A→B, B→C},

we only need to check if both {A}+ and {B}+ cover {A,B,C}.
We do not need to derive F+ = {A→B, B→C, A→C, …etc} and check
each FD because A→C already considered when computing {A}+.
50
How to test for BCNF?
However, if we decompose R into R1 and R2, we cannot
use only F to check if the “decomposed” relations (i.e.,
R1 and R2) is BCNF, we have to use F+ instead.
Illustration R
A B C D

R(A, B, C, D), F = {A → B, B → C} 1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
1 1 1 3
1 1 1 4
To test if R is in BCNF, it suffices to check 1 1 1 5
only the dependencies in F (but not F+) An example R that satisfies F

{A}+ covers all {A,B,C,D}? As illustrated through this instance, since

Since {A}+ = {A,B,C} ≠ {A,B,C,D}, {A}+ = {A,B,C} ≠ {A,B,C,D}, this implies
that it will cause redundancy when we
R is not in BCNF. have tuples with the same value across
{ABC} but different values in D.
51
How to test for BCNF?
To illustrate why we cannot use only F to test
decomposed relations for BCNF, let’s try to
decompose R into R1(A, B) and R2(A, C, D)

Illustration R
A B C D

R(A, B, C, D), F = {A → B, B → C} 1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
1 1 1 3
Is R2(A, C, D) in BCNF? 1 1 1 4
1 1 1 5

When we check R2, none of FDs in F is R1(A, B) R2(A, C, D)

contained in R2. Does this mean no non-trivial A B A C D
FDs are in R2, and R2 is in BCNF? 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 2
1 1 3
No! We need to use F+ to verify if R2 is BCNF 1
1
1
1
4
5
52
How to test for BCNF?
In R2(A, C, D), A→C is in F+, because:
A→C can be obtained by transitivity rule on A→B and B→C
There is a non trivial FD A→C in R2 that we have missed!
R
Therefore in R2 we check {A}+ = {A,C} ≠ {A,C,D} A
1
B
1
C
1
D
1
1 1 1 2
Thus, A is not a key in R2 1 1 1 3
1 1 1 4
R2 is NOT in BCNF. 1 1 1 5

R1(A, B) R2(A, C, D)
Conclusion: When we test whether a A B A C D
decomposed relation is in BCNF, we must 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 2
project F+ onto the relation (e.g., R2), not F! 1 1 3
1 1 4
1 1 5
53
Section 4

Normalization
Normalization goal
When we decompose a relation R with a set of
functional dependencies F into R1, R2, …, Rn, we try
to meet the following goals:
1. Lossless-join – Avoid the decomposition result in
information loss.

2. No Redundancy – The decomposed relations Ri should be

in Boyce-Codd Normal Form (BCNF). (There are also other
normal forms.)

3. Dependency preserving – Avoid the need to join the

decomposed relations to check the functional dependencies.
55
Illustration
Consider R(A, B, C), F = {A→B , B→C}, is R in BCNF?
If not, decompose R into relations that are in BCNF.
R
A B C
Is R in BCNF? 1 1 2
2 1 2
Because {B}+={B,C} ≠ {A,B,C} 3 1 2
4 1 2
Since {B}+ does not cover all attributes in R, R is NOT in BCNF.
How should we decompose R such that the decomposed
relations are always lossless join?
Note: A decomposition is lossless join if at least one of the
following dependencies is in F+
Schema of R1  schema of R2 → schema of R1
OR
Schema of R1  schema of R2 → schema of R2 56
Illustration
Idea: To make the decomposition always lossless join, we can
pick the FD A→B and make the decomposed relation as:
R1(A,B) – the attributes in the L.H.S. and R.H.S. of the FD.
R2(A,C) – the attribute(s) in the L.H.S. of the FD, and
the remaining attributes that does not appear in R1.
If we decompose the relation R in this way the
following must be true:
Schema of R1  schema of R2 → schema of R1
Schema of R1  schema of R2 is A.
A→R1= A→AB must be true because R1 must consists of the
L.H.S. and R.H.S. of the FD A→B in F.
57
Illustration R1(A, B) R2(A, C)
F = {A→B , B→C} F+ = {A→B , B→C, A→C, trivial FDs}
Fx A→B A→C
Is R1(A, B) in BCNF?
F1 = {A→B, trivial FDs}, it is a projection of F+ on R1.
R
Since {A}+ = {A,B} = R1, {A} is a key in R1. A B C
1 1 2
Since all FDs in F1 forms a key, R1 is in BCNF. 2 1 2
3 1 2
4 1 2
Is R2(A, C) in BCNF?
F2 = {A→C, trivial FDs}, it is a projection of F+ on R2. R1 R2
A B A C
Since {A}+
= {A,C} = R2, {A} is a key in R2. 1 1 1 2
2 1 2 2
Since all FDs in F2 forms a key, R2 is in BCNF. 3 1 3 2
4 1 4 2
Therefore, decomposing R(A, B, C) with F = {A→B , B→C} to
R1(A, B) and R2(A, C) result in a lossless join decomposition
(no information lost), and BCNF relations (no redundancy) 58
Illustration
Is the decomposition dependency preserving ?
F = {A → B , B → C}
(F1  F2) = (A → B , A→C)

Since B→ C disappears in R1 and R2, (F1  F2)+  F+ .

The decomposition is NOT dependency preserving.

Note: Although the decomposition is

not dependency preserving, but it is
lossless join, so we can join R1 and R2 to
test B→C.
59
 BCNF decomposition algorithm
result = {R};
done = false;
compute F+;  is not a key;
while (done == false) { →  causes Ri
to violate BCNF
if (there is a schema Ri in result and Ri is not in BCNF)
let  →  be a non-trivial FD that holds on Ri s.t. {}+  Ri
result = (result – Ri)  ( )  (Ri – )
else
done = true; 3. Create a relation containing
} Ri but with  removed.

1. Delete Ri 2. Create a relation with only  and 

Each Ri is in BCNF, and the

decomposition must be lossless-join 60
Example 1 R1(B, C) R2(A, B)

Fx B→C A→B

Consider R(A, B, C), F = {A→B , B→C},

decompose R into relations that are in BCNF.
R
A B C
Alternative decomposition: To make the 1 1 2
2 1 2
decomposition always lossless join, we can pick the FD 3 1 2
4 1 2
B→C and make the decomposed relation as:
R1(B,C) – the attributes in the L.H.S. and R.H.S. of R1 R2
the FD. B C A B
R2(A,B) – the attribute(s) in the L.H.S. of the FD, and 1 2 1 1
2 1
the remaining attributes that does not appear in R1. 3 1
4 1

61
Example 1 R1(B, C) R2(A, B)

F = {A→B , B→C} F+ = {A→B , B→C, A→C, trivial FDs} Fx B→C A→B

Decomposition: R1(B, C), R2(A, B)

Is R1(B, C) in BCNF? R
A B C
F1 = {B→C, trivial FDs}, it is a projection of F+ on R1. 1 1 2
2 1 2
Since {B}+ = {B,C} = R1, {B} is a key in R1. 3 1 2
4 1 2
Since all FDs in F1 forms a key, R1 is in BCNF.
Is R2(A, B) in BCNF? R1 R2
B C A B
F2 = {A→B, trivial FDs}, it is a projection of F+ on R2. 1 2 1 1
Since {A}+ = {A,B} = R2, {A} is a key in R2. 2
3
1
1
4 1
Since all FDs in F2 forms a key, R2 is in BCNF.

62
Example 1 R1(B, C) R2(A, B)

Fx B→C A→B

Is the decomposition lossless join?

From the illustration in example 1, the R
A B C
decomposition must be lossless join. 1 1 2
2 1 2
Is the decomposition dependency preserving ? 3 1 2
4 1 2
F = {A→B , B→C}
(F1  F2) = (B → C , A→B) R1 R2

Since F = (F1  F2) , this implies (F1  F2)+ = F+ . B C

1 2
A
1
B
1
2 1
The decomposition is dependency preserving. 3 1
4 1
That means if we insert a new tuple, if the new tuple does
not violate F1 in R1, and F2 in R2, it won’t violate F+ in R. 63
Example 2
Consider a relation R in a bank:
R (b_name, b_city, assets, c_name, l_num, amount)
Each specific value in bname is
F = { {b_name} → {assets, b_city}, corresponds to at most one {asset ,
b_city} value
{l_num} → {amount, b_name}, Each l_num corresponds to at most
{l_num, c_name} → {all other attributes}} one {amount, b_name} value.
Each { l_num, c_name} corresponds
to at most one {b_name, b_city,
Decomposition assets, amount} value.

With {b_name} → {assets, b_city}, {b_name}+ ≠ R,

R is not in BCNF.
Decompose R into R1(b_name, assets, b_city) and
R2(b_name, c_name, l_num, amount). 64
Example 2
Is R1(b_name, assets, b_city) in BCNF?
Projection of F+
F1 = { {b_name} → {assets, b_city}, trivial FDs} on F1.

{b_name}+ = {b_name, assets, b_city} = R1,

so {b_name} is a key in R1.
Since all FD in F1 forms a key in R1, R1 is in BCNF.
Is R2(b_name, c_name, l_num, amount) in BCNF?
F2 = { {l_num} → {amount, b_name} , Projection of F+
{l_num, c_name} → {all attributes} } on F2.

{l_num}+ = {l_num, amount, b_name} ≠ R2,

so {l_num} is NOT a key in R2.
Since NOT all FD in F2 forms a key in R2, R2 is NOT in BCNF.
65
Example 2
Picking {l_num} → {amount, b_name}, R2 is further
decomposed into:
R3(l_num, amount, b_name)
R4(c_name, l_num)

Is R3(l_num, amount, b_name) in BCNF?

F3 = {{l_num} → {amount, b_name}, trivial FDs}
{l_num}+ = {l_num, amount, b_name} = R3, so {l_num} is a
key in R3.
Since all FD in F3 forms a key in R3, R3 is in BCNF.
66
Example 2
Is R4(c_name, l_num) in BCNF?
F4 = {trivial FDs}
Since all FD in F4 forms a key in R4, R4 is in BCNF.
Now, R1, R3 and R4 are in BCNF;

The decomposition is also lossless-join.

67
Example 2

The decomposition is also dependency preserving.

F1 = { {b_name} → {assets, b_city}, trivial FDs}
F3 = {{l_num} → {amount, b_name}, trivial FDs}
{l_num} → {b_name} … (i)
by Decomposition of {l_num} → {amount, b_name}
{l_num} → {assets, b_city} … (ii)
by Transitivity of (i) and {b_name} → {assets, b_city}
{l_num} → {b_name ,assets, b_city, amount} by Union of F3 and (ii)

{l_num, c_name} → {l_num ,c_name, b_name ,assets, b_city, amount} by

Augmentation

Therefore F1  F3  F4 = F, which implies (F1  F3  F4)+ = F+ .

The decomposition is dependency preserving. 68
 BCNF doesn’t imply dependency preserving
R
A B C
1 1 2
It is not always possible to get a BCNF 2 1 2
1 2 3
decomposition that is dependency preserving.
R1 R2
Consider R(A, B, C); F = { AB→C, C→B } A B B C
Not lossless
1 1 1 2
2 1 decomposition
There are two candidate keys: 1 2
2 3

{AB}, and {AC}. R1 R2

A B A C
{AB}+ = {A,B,C} = R 1 1 1 2 Not lossless
2 1 2 2 decomposition
{AC}+ = {A,B,C} = R 1 1 1 3

R is not in BCNF, since C is not a key. R1 R2 lossless

A C B C F1= {Ø}
Decomposition of R must fail to 1 2 1 2 F2= {C→B}
2 2 2 3
preserve AB→C. 1 3 Not dependency
preserving
69
Motivating example
Back to our motivating example, we have:
Employees( eid, name, parkingLot, did, since)
Departments( did, dname, budget)

“Employees who work in the same department must

park at the same parkingLot.” implies the following FD:
FD: did → parkingLot
Is Employees in BCNF?
{did}+ = {parkingLot} ≠ {eid, name, parkingLot, did, since}
Since did is not a key, Employees is NOT in BCNF.
70
Normalization
Employees( eid, name, parkingLot, did, since) is
decomposed to
Employees2( eid, name, did, since)
Dept_Lots( did, parkingLot)
With Departments( did, dname, budget), the above
two decomposed relations are further refined to
Employees2( eid, name, did, since)
Departments( did, dname, parkingLot, budget)

Good design: parking lots for all employees can be updated

by changing their department-specific parkingLot. 71
Summary
Relational database design goals
Lossless-join
No redundancy (BCNF)
Dependency preservation

It is not always possible to satisfy the three goals.

A lossless join, dependency preserving decomposition into
BCNF may not always be possible.

SQL does not provide a direct way of specifying FDs

other than superkeys.
Can use assertions to check FD, but it is quite expensive.
72
 Question 1
Given a relation R(A,B,C) and a functional dependency {A→B} that holds on R,
which of the following statements is/are correct?
a. {A,C} is a candidate key for R.
b. The decomposition of R into R1(A,B) and R2(A,C) is a lossless-join decomposition.
c. The decomposition of R into R1(A,B) and R2(B,C) is a lossless-join decomposition.

73
 Question 1
Given a relation R(A,B,C) and a functional dependency {A→B} that holds on R,
which of the following statements is/are correct?
a. {A,C} is a candidate key for R.
b. The decomposition of R into R1(A,B) and R2(A,C) is a lossless-join decomposition.
c. The decomposition of R into R1(A,B) and R2(B,C) is a lossless-join decomposition.

Question: How to test if {A,C} is

a candidate key of R or not?

74
 Question 1
Given a relation R(A,B,C) and a functional dependency {A→B} that holds on R,
which of the following statements is/are correct?
a. {A,C} is a candidate key for R.
b. The decomposition of R into R1(A,B) and R2(A,C) is a lossless-join decomposition.
c. The decomposition of R into R1(A,B) and R2(B,C) is a lossless-join decomposition.

Question: How to test if {A,C} is Answer:

a candidate key of R or not? 1) [Superkey] A candidate key is a superkey. If {A,C} is a
superkey, its attribute closure {A,C}+ must contains all
attributes in R!
2) [Minimal] If {A,C} is minimal, it is a candidate key!
Is {A,C} a superkey?
1) Find attribute closure of A: {A}+ = {A,B}. It is not a superkey.
2) Find attribute closure of C: {C}+ = {C}. It is not a superkey.
3) Find attribute closure of {A,C}: {A,C}+ = {A,B,C}. Since it contains all attributes of R, it is a superkey.
Is {A,C} minimal?
75
4) Since none of subset of {A,C} is a key, {A,C} is minimal, it is a candidate key.
 Question 1
Given a relation R(A,B,C) and a functional dependency {A→B} that holds on R,
which of the following statements is/are correct?
a. {A,C} is a candidate key for R.
b. The decomposition of R into R1(A,B) and R2(A,C) is a lossless-join
decomposition.
c. The decomposition of R into R1(A,B) and R2(B,C) is a lossless-join
decomposition.
Answer: A decomposition is lossless-join decomposition if
Question: What do we mean by the original relation can be obtained after joining the
lossless-join decomposition? decomposed relations.

Question: How to test if a Answer: A decomposition is lossless-join decomposition

decomposition is lossless-join iff at least one of the following dependencies is in F+:
decomposition? 1) common attribute of R1 and R2 → schema of R1
2) common attribute of R1 and R2 → schema of R2
1) Common attribute of R1 and R2:

76
 Question 1
Given a relation R(A,B,C) and a functional dependency {A→B} that holds on R,
which of the following statements is/are correct?
a. {A,C} is a candidate key for R.
b. The decomposition of R into R1(A,B) and R2(A,C) is a lossless-join
decomposition.
c. The decomposition of R into R1(A,B) and R2(B,C) is a lossless-join
decomposition.
Answer: A decomposition is lossless-join decomposition if
Question: What do we mean by the original relation can be obtained after joining the
lossless-join decomposition? decomposed relations.

Question: How to test if a Answer: A decomposition is lossless-join decomposition

decomposition is lossless-join iff at least one of the following dependencies is in F+:
decomposition? 1) common attribute of R1 and R2 → schema of R1
2) common attribute of R1 and R2 → schema of R2
1) Common attribute of R1 and R2: A
2) A →AB in F +?
Since A →B , A →AB is true (Augmentation), A →AB in F+!
77
3) Therefore, the decomposition is a lossless-join decomposition.
 Question 1
Given a relation R(A,B,C) and a functional dependency {A→B} that holds on
R, which of the following statements is/are correct?
a. {A,C} is a candidate key for R.
b. The decomposition of R into R1(A,B) and R2(A,C) is a lossless-join
decomposition.
c. The decomposition of R into R1(A,B) and R2(B,C) is a lossless-join
decomposition.

Question: How to test if a Answer: A decomposition is lossless-join decomposition

decomposition is lossless-join iff at least one of the following dependencies is in F+:
decomposition? 1) common attribute of R1 and R2 → schema of R1
2) common attribute of R1 and R2 → schema of R2
1) Common attribute of R1 and R2:

78
 Question 1
Given a relation R(A,B,C) and a functional dependency {A→B} that holds on R,
which of the following statements is/are correct?
a. {A,C} is a candidate key for R.
b. The decomposition of R into R1(A,B) and R2(A,C) is a lossless-join
decomposition.
c. The decomposition of R into R1(A,B) and R2(B,C) is a lossless-join
decomposition.

Question: How to test if a Answer: A decomposition is lossless-join decomposition

decomposition is lossless-join iff at least one of the following dependencies is in F+:
decomposition? 1) common attribute of R1 and R2 → schema of R1
2) common attribute of R1 and R2 → schema of R2
1) Common attribute of R1 and R2: B
2) B →AB in F+?
3) B →BC in F+?
4) Therefore, the decomposition is NOT a lossless-join decomposition.
79
 Question 2 a
Consider the relation R(A,B,C,D,E) with the following functional dependencies F =
{A→E, BCE→D, CD→BE, C→AB, BD→AC} which hold in it.
i) Which of the following attributes is NOT in the attribute closure
of C (i.e., C+)?
A. A.
B. B. Question: What do we mean by Answer: The attribute closure of C is
C. D. the attribute closure of C? the set of attributes that can be
functionally determined by C.
D. E.
E. None of the above.

80
 Question 2 a
Consider the relation R(A,B,C,D,E) with the following functional dependencies F =
{A→E, BCE→D, CD→BE, C→AB, BD→AC} which hold in it.
i) Which of the following attributes is NOT in the attribute closure
of C (i.e., C+)?
A. A.
B. B. Question: What do we mean by Answer: The attribute closure of C is
C. D. the attribute closure of C? the set of attributes that can be
functionally determined by C.
D. E.
E. None of the above.

Question: C→A holds? 1. Since C→AB,

2. C→A and C→B (decomposition)

81
 Question 2 a
Consider the relation R(A,B,C,D,E) with the following functional dependencies F =
{A→E, BCE→D, CD→BE, C→AB, BD→AC} which hold in it.
i) Which of the following attributes is NOT in the attribute closure
of C (i.e., C+)?
A. A.
B. B. Question: What do we mean by Answer: The attribute closure of C is
C. D. the attribute closure of C? the set of attributes that can be
functionally determined by C.
D. E.
E. None of the above.

Question: C→B holds? 1. Since C→AB,

2. C→A and C→B (decomposition)

82
 Question 2 a
Consider the relation R(A,B,C,D,E) with the following functional dependencies F =
{A→E, BCE→D, CD→BE, C→AB, BD→AC} which hold in it.
i) Which of the following attributes is NOT in the attribute closure
of C (i.e., C+)?
A. A.
B. B. Question: What do we mean by Answer: The attribute closure of C is
C. D. the attribute closure of C? the set of attributes that can be
functionally determined by C.
D. E.
E. None of the above.

Question: C→D holds? Think in this way :

1. Since we have BCE→D , can we have C→ BCE?
2. We have C→B, therefore C→BC (augmentation), can we
show that C→E?
3. Since C→A and A→E, C→E (transitivity)
4. Since C→BC and C→E, C→BCE (union)
5. Since C→BCE 83 and BCE→D , C →D (transitivity)
 Question 2 a
Consider the relation R(A,B,C,D,E) with the following functional dependencies F =
{A→E, BCE→D, CD→BE, C→AB, BD→AC} which hold in it.
i. Which of the following attributes is NOT in the attribute closure
of C (i.e., C+)?
A. A.
B. B. Question: What do we mean by Answer: The attribute closure of C is
C. D. the attribute closure of C? the set of attributes that can be
functionally determined by C.
D. E.
E. None of the above.

Question: C→E holds? Think in this way :

1. Since we have BCE→D , can we have C→ BCE?
2. We have C→B, therefore C→BC (augmentation),
can we show that C→E?
3. Since C→A and A→E, C→E (transitivity)
4. Since C→BC and C→E, C→BCE (union)
5. Since C→BCE 84 and BCE→D , C →D (transitivity)
 Question 2 a
• Since C→AB,
• C→A and C→B (decomposition)
• Since C→A and A→E,
• C→E (transitivity)
• Since C→B and C→E,
• C→BE (union)
• Since C→BE,
• C→BCE (augmentation)
• Since BCE→D and C→BCE,
• C→D (transitivity)
• Hence, C+ = {A,B,C,D,E}
• Answer: E

85
 Question 2 b
Consider the relation R(A,B,C,D,E) with the following functional dependencies F =
{A→E, BCE→D, CD→BE, C→AB, BD→AC} which hold in it.
• Which of the following functional dependencies is NOT in the closure of F
(i.e., F+)?
i. BE→D
ii. BD→ABCDE Question: What do we mean by Answer: The set of all functional
the FD closure? dependencies that can be logically
iii. AB→D
implied by F is called the closure of
iv. CE→A F (or F+).

86
 Question 2 b
Consider the relation R(A,B,C,D,E) with the following functional dependencies F =
{A→E, BCE→D, CD→BE, C→AB, BD→AC} which hold in it.
• Which of the following functional dependencies is NOT in the closure of F
(i.e., F+)?
i. BE→D
ii. BD→ABCDE Question: What do we mean by Answer: The set of all functional
the FD closure? dependencies that can be logically
iii. AB→D
implied by F is called the closure of
iv. CE→A F (or F+).

87
 Question 2 b
Consider the relation R(A,B,C,D,E) with the following functional dependencies F =
{A→E, BCE→D, CD→BE, C→AB, BD→AC} which hold in it.
• Which of the following functional dependencies is NOT in the closure of F
(i.e., F+)?
i. BE→D
ii. BD→ABCDE Question: What do we mean by Answer: The set of all functional
the FD closure? dependencies that can be logically
iii. AB→D
implied by F is called the closure of
iv. CE→A F (or F+).

Think in this way :

1. Start from BD→AC , can we make R.H.S. more close to ABCDE?
2. BD→ABCD (augmentation), can we show that ABCD →ABCDE?
3. Since A→E, we have ABCD→ABCDE (augmentation)
4. Therefore, we can show that BD→ABCDE is true!

88
 Question 2 b
Consider the relation R(A,B,C,D,E) with the following functional dependencies F =
{A→E, BCE→D, CD→BE, C→AB, BD→AC} which hold in it.
• Which of the following functional dependencies is NOT in the closure of F
(i.e., F+)?
i. BE→D
ii. BD→ABCDE Question: What do we mean by Answer: The set of all functional
the FD closure? dependencies that can be logically
iii. AB→D
implied by F is called the closure of
iv. CE→A F (or F+).

89
 Question 2 b
Consider the relation R(A,B,C,D,E) with the following functional dependencies F =
{A→E, BCE→D, CD→BE, C→AB, BD→AC} which hold in it.
• Which of the following functional dependencies is NOT in the closure of F
(i.e., F+)?
i. BE→D
ii. BD→ABCDE Question: What do we mean by Answer: The set of all functional
the FD closure? dependencies that can be logically
iii. AB→D
implied by F is called the closure of
iv. CE→A F (or F+).

Think in this way :

1. We have C→AB, and therefore we have C→A (decomposition); can we show that
CE→C ?
2. CE→C is always true due to reflexivity!
3. Therefore, we have CE→C and C→A, we can show that CE→A is true (transitivity)!

90
 Question 2 c
Consider the relation R(A,B,C,D,E) with the following functional dependencies F =
{A→E, BCE→D, CD→BE, C→AB, BD→AC} which hold in it.
• Which of the following is/are candidate key(s) of R?
i. {B,E}
Question: How to show if a set
ii. {B,D} of attribute is a candidate key
iii. {C,E} or not?

91
 Question 2 c
Consider the relation R(A,B,C,D,E) with the following functional dependencies F =
{A→E, BCE→D, CD→BE, C→AB, BD→AC} which hold in it.
• Which of the following is/are candidate key(s) of R?
i. {B,E}
Question: How to show if a set Answer: 1) It has to be a super key.
ii. {B,D} of attribute is a candidate key 2) It has to be minimal.
iii. {C,E} or not?

Question: Does {B,E}+ covers all attributes in R? i.e. BE→ABCDE?

92
 Question 2 c
Consider the relation R(A,B,C,D,E) with the following functional dependencies F =
{A→E, BCE→D, CD→BE, C→AB, BD→AC} which hold in it.
• Which of the following is/are candidate key(s) of R?
i. {B,E}
Question: How to show if a set Answer: 1) It has to be a super key.
ii. {B,D} of attribute is a candidate key 2) It has to be minimal.
iii. {C,E} or not?

Question: Does {B,D}+ covers all attributes in R? i.e. BD→ABCDE?

Think in this way :

1. BD →BD must be true, therefore, we have to show
1) BD→A, 2) BD→C, and 3) BD→E.
2. Since BD→AC, BD→A and BD→C are true (decomposition)
3. How about BD→E? We have A→E, can we show that BD→A?
4. BD→A already shown to be true, so now we have BD→A and A→E, therefore
BD→E is true!
93
 Question 2 c
Consider the relation R(A,B,C,D,E) with the following functional dependencies F =
{A→E, BCE→D, CD→BE, C→AB, BD→AC} which hold in it.
• Which of the following is/are candidate key(s) of R?
i. {B,E}
Question: How to show if a set Answer: 1) It has to be a super key.
ii. {B,D} of attribute is a candidate key 2) It has to be minimal.
iii. {C,E} or not?

1. Since we have already shown in part a) that {C}+covers all attributes of R,

therefore C is a candidate key of R.
2. Hence, {C,E} must NOT be a candidate key of R because {C,E} is not minimal.

94
 Question 2 d
Consider the relation R(A,B,C,D,E) with the following functional dependencies F =
{A→E, BCE→D, CD→BE, C→AB, BD→AC} which hold in it.
• Suppose that relation R is decomposed into R1(A,B,C,D) and
R2(A,C,E). Which of the following statements is/are correct?
i. This is a lossless-join decomposition.
ii. The decomposition is dependency preserving.
iii. R1 and R2 are in BCNF.

95
 Question 2 d
Consider the relation R(A,B,C,D,E) with the following functional dependencies F =
{A→E, BCE→D, CD→BE, C→AB, BD→AC} which hold in it.
• Suppose that relation R is decomposed into R1(A,B,C,D) and
R2(A,C,E). Which of the following statements is/are correct?
i. This is a lossless-join decomposition.
ii. The decomposition is dependency preserving.
iii. R1 and R2 are in BCNF.
Answer: A decomposition is lossless-join decomposition
iff at least one of the following dependencies is in F+:
Question: How to test if a
1) common attribute of R1 and R2 → schema of R1
decomposition is lossless-join
2) common attribute of R1 and R2 → schema of R2
decomposition?

1. Common attribute of R1 and R2 is {A,C}.

2. Test if any of the following FD are in F+ :
1. AC →ABCD
2. AC →ACE
3. Since A→E , AC →ACE is true (augmentation).
96
4. Therefore, this is a lossless-join decomposition.
 Question 2 d
Consider the relation R(A,B,C,D,E) with the following functional dependencies F =
{A→E, BCE→D, CD→BE, C→AB, BD→AC} which hold in it.
• Suppose that relation R is decomposed into R1(A,B,C,D) and
R2(A,C,E). Which of the following statements is/are correct?
i. This is a lossless-join decomposition.
ii. The decomposition is dependency preserving.
iii. R1 and R2 are in BCNF.
Answer: A decomposition is dependency preserving iff:
Question: How to test if a
(F1 U F2 U …. U Fn)+ = F+
decomposition is dependency
Where Fi is the set of FDs in F+ that include only attributes in
preserving or not?
Ri.
1. +
Determine F1 and F2, the projection of F on R1 and R2
1. F1 = {CD→B , C→ABD , BD→AC }.
2. F2 = { A→E , C→AE }.
2. Although {BCE→D, CD→BE} are missing, but we know that {C}+= R, so we have C→ABD in F1 and
C→AE in F2
▪ BCE→D and CD→BE both have C on L.H.S., so these two FDs are in (F1 U F2)+
3. Therefore (F1 U F2)+ = F+. 97
4. Therefore, this decomposition is dependency preserving.
 Question 2 d
Consider the relation R(A,B,C,D,E) with the following functional dependencies F =
{A→E, BCE→D, CD→BE, C→AB, BD→AC} which hold in it.
• Suppose that relation R is decomposed into R1(A,B,C,D) and
R2(A,C,E). Which of the following statements is/are correct?
i. This is a lossless-join decomposition.
ii. The decomposition is dependency preserving.
iii. R1 and R2 are in BCNF.

Question: How to test if the

decomposed relations are in BCNF? Answer: In
BCNF, every non-trivial
Test if R1 is in BCNF: FD forms a key!
1. Determine F1 , the projection of F+ on R1.
1. F1 = {CD→B , C→AB , BD→AC , C→D}.
2. Determine if all FDs in F1 forms a key of R1.
1. Is {CD} a key in R1? Yes! Because {CD}+={ABCD} in R1, contains all attributes in R1.
2. Is {C} a key in R1? Yes! Because {C}+={ABCD} in R1, contains all attributes in R1.
3. Is {BD} a key in R1? Yes! Because {BD}+={ABCD}, contains all attributes in R1.
3. Since all non-trivial FDs in F1 forms a key, R198
is in BCNF.
 Question 2 d
Consider the relation R(A,B,C,D,E) with the following functional dependencies F =
{A→E, BCE→D, CD→BE, C→AB, BD→AC} which hold in it.
• Suppose that relation R is decomposed into R1(A,B,C,D) and
R2(A,C,E). Which of the following statements is/are correct?
i. This is a lossless-join decomposition.
ii. The decomposition is dependency preserving.
iii. R1 and R2 are in BCNF.

Question: How to test if the

decomposed relations are in BCNF? Answer: In BCNF, every non-trivial
Test if R2 is in BCNF:
+
FD forms a key!
1. Determine F2 , the projection of F on R2.
1. F2 = {A→E , C→A}.
2. Determine if all FDs in F2 forms a key of R2.
1. Is {A} a key in R2? No! Because {A}+={AE}, not covering all attributes in R2.
3. Since not all non-trivial FDs in F2 forms a key, R2 is NOT in BCNF.

99
 Question 3
Consider the schema R(A, B, C, D, E) and the set of functional dependencies
F={ D→A, C→BDE } which holds in the schema.

a) Find all candidate keys of R. Show your steps.

b) Give a lossless join decomposition of R into relations in BCNF. Is the

decomposition dependency preserving?

100
 Question 3
Consider the schema R(A, B, C, D, E) and the set of functional dependencies
F={ D→A, C→BDE } which holds in the schema.

a) Find all candidate keys of R. Show your steps.

◼ Is C a candidate key?
◼ Since C+ is {A, B, C, D, E}, C is a superkey, and since C is minimal, it is a
candidate key.
◼ Since C is a candidate key, any supersets of C are not candidate keys.
◼ How about the combinations of other attributes?
◼ C does not appear on the RHS of any non-trivial FD, therefore the
value of C cannot be functionally determined by other attribute(s).
◼ All combinations of other attributes (i.e. A,B,D, and E) cannot form a
key. (Their attribute closure must not contain C)
◼ Thus, R has only one candidate key, which is C.

101
 Question 3
Consider the schema R(A, B, C, D, E) and the set of functional dependencies
F={ D→A, C→BDE } which holds in the schema.
b) Give a lossless join decomposition of R into relations in BCNF. Is the
decomposition dependency preserving?
◼ R1 (A,D), R2 (B,C,D,E)
◼ R1 in BCNF ?
❑ F1 is the projection of F+ on R1: F1 = {D→A, and the trivial FDs}
❑ Is D a key in R1?
❑ Since D is a key in R1, all non-trivial FDs in F1 forms a key, thus R1 is in BCNF.
◼ R2 in BCNF?
❑ F2 is the projection of F+ on R2: F2 = {C→BDE, and the trivial FDs}
❑ Is C a key in R2?
❑ Since C is a key in R2, all non-trivial FDs in F2 forms a key, thus R2 is in BCNF.

Step 1. Decompose R into two relations R1 Step 2. Check if R1 and R2 are in BCNF.
and R2, and make R1 a BCNF. If not, further decompose it using
Look at D→A in F, make R1 as (A,D). Step 1.
Then R2 is (B,C,D,E). In BCNF, every non-trivial FD forms a
Why include D in R2? 102 key!
 Question 3
Consider the schema R(A, B, C, D, E) and the set of functional dependencies
F={ D→A, C→BDE } which holds in the schema.
b) Give a lossless join decomposition of R into relations in BCNF. Is the
decomposition dependency preserving?
◼ R1 (A,D), R2 (B,C,D,E)
◼ R1 in BCNF ?
❑ F1 is the projection of F+ on R1: F1 = {D→A, and the trivial FDs}
❑ Is D a key in R1?
❑ Since D is a key in R1, all non-trivial FDs in F1 forms a key, thus R1 is in BCNF.
◼ R2 in BCNF?
❑ F2 is the projection of F+ on R2: F2 = {C→BDE, and the trivial FDs}
❑ Is C a key in R2?
❑ Since C is a key in R2, all non-trivial FDs in F2 forms a key, thus R2 is in BCNF.
◼ Is it a lossless-join decomposition?
❑ Common attribute among R1 and R2 = D
❑ D→R1 (i.e. AD) holds in F+ Answer: A decomposition is lossless-join decomposition iff
❑ Therefore it is a lossless-join decomposition. at least one of the following dependencies is in F+:
1) common attribute of R1 and R2 → schema of R1
2) common attribute of R1 and R2 → schema of R2

103
 Question 3
Consider the schema R(A, B, C, D, E) and the set of functional dependencies
F={ D→A, C→BDE } which holds in the schema.
b) Give a lossless join decomposition of R into relations in BCNF. Is the
decomposition dependency preserving?
◼ R1 (A,D), R2 (B,C,D,E)
◼ R1 in BCNF ?
❑ F1 is the projection of F+ on R1: F1 = {D→A, and the trivial FDs}
❑ Is D a key in R1?
❑ Since D is a key in R1, all non-trivial FDs in F1 forms a key, thus R1 is in BCNF.
◼ R2 in BCNF?
❑ F2 is the projection of F+ on R2: F2 = {C→BDE, and the trivial FDs}
❑ Is C a key in R2?
❑ Since C is a key in R2, all non-trivial FDs in F2 forms a key, thus R2 is in BCNF.
◼ Is it a lossless-join decomposition?
❑ Common attribute among R1 and R2 = D
Answer: A decomposition is dependency preserving iff:
❑ D→R1 (i.e. AD) holds in F+
❑ Therefore it is a lossless-join decomposition. (F1 U F2 U …. U Fn)+ = F+
◼ Is it a dependency preserving decomposition? Where Fi is the set of FDs in F+ that include only attributes in
R i.
❑ Since ( F1 U F2 )+ = F+, it is a dependency preserving decomposition.

104
 Question 4
Given R=(A, B, C, D), F={A→B, BC→D, D→A}

a) Find A+ and C+.

b) Find a candidate key of R.
c) Is B→D in F+ ?
d) Is D→BC in F+ ?
e) Is AC→D in F+ ?
f) R is decomposed into R1(A, B, C) and R2(B, C, D). Is the
decomposition lossless? Is the dependency preserving?
g) Is R in BCNF? If not, decompose R into relations in BCNF.
105

105
 Question 4
Given R=(A, B, C, D), F={A→B, BC→D, D→A}

a) Find A+ and C+.

– A+ = {AB}
– C+ = {C}
b) Find a candidate key of R.
– AC or BC or CD

106

106
 Question 4
Given R=(A, B, C, D), F={A→B, BC→D, D→A}

c) Is B→D in F+ ?
– No. Because B+ = {B}
d) Is D→BC in F+ ?
– No. Because D + ={ABD}
e) Is AC→D in F+ ?
– Yes. Because A→B and BC→D, we know that AC→D (pseudo-
transitivity)

107

107
 Question 4
Given R=(A, B, C, D), F={A→B, BC→D, D→A}

f) R is decomposed into R1(A, B, C) and R2(B, C, D). Is the

decomposition lossless? Is the dependency preserving?

• Lossless?
– R1∩R2=(B,C)
– (B,C)→R2
– Hence, it is a lossless decomposition.

Question: How to test if a Answer: A decomposition is lossless-join decomposition

decomposition is lossless-join iff at least one of the following dependencies is in F+:
decomposition? 1) common attribute of R1 and R2 → schema of R1 108
2) common attribute of R1 and R2 → schema of R2
108
 Question 4
Given R=(A, B, C, D), F={A→B, BC→D, D→A}

f) R is decomposed into R1(A, B, C) and R2(B, C, D). Is the

decomposition lossless? Is the dependency preserving?
Answer: A decomposition is dependency preserving iff:
• Lossless? (F1 U F2 U …. U Fn)+ = F+
Where Fi is the set of FDs in F+ that include only attributes
– R1∩R2=(B,C)
in Ri.
– (B,C)→R2
– Hence, it is a lossless decomposition.
• Dependency preserving? Question: How to test if a
decomposition is dependency
– F1 = {A→B} ; F2={BC→D, D → B} preserving or not?
– Since ( F1U F2)+ does not equal to F+ (D→A is not preserved),
the decomposition is not dependency preserving 109

109
 Question 4
Given R=(A, B, C, D), F={A→B, BC→D, D→A}

g) Is R in BCNF? If not, decompose R into relations in BCNF.

• Is R in BCNF?
– No. A→B and D→A violate BCNF as neither A nor D is a super
key in R.

Question: How to test if the Answer: In

BCNF, every non-trivial
decomposed relations are in
BCNF? FD forms a key!
110

110
 Question 4
Given R=(A, B, C, D), F={A→B, BC→D, D→A}

g) Is R in BCNF? If not, decompose R into relations in BCNF.

• If not, decompose R into relations in BCNF.

– Decompose R into R1(A, B) and R2(A, C, D)
– R1 is in BCNF?
• F1 = {A →B}, A is a key in R1, R1 is in BCNF!
– R2 is in BCNF?
• F2 = {D→A}, D is not a key in R2, R2 is not in BCNF!

Step 1. Decompose R into two relations R1 and Step 2. Check if R1 and R2 are in BCNF. If not,
R2, and make R1 a BCNF. further decompose it using Step 1.
Look at A→B in F, make R1 as (A,B). In BCNF, every non-trivial FD forms a key! 111
Then R2 is (A,C,D).

111
 Question 4
Given R=(A, B, C, D), F={A→B, BC→D, D→A}

g) Is R in BCNF? If not, decompose R into relations in BCNF.

• If not, decompose R into relations in BCNF.

– Decompose R into R1(A, B) and R2(A, C, D)
– R1 is in BCNF?
• F1 = {A →B}, A is a key in R1, R1 is in BCNF!
– R2 is in BCNF?
• F2 = {D→A}, D is not a key in R2, R2 is not in BCNF!
– We further decompose R2 into R3(A, D) and R4(C, D).
– R3 is in BCNF?
• F3 = {D→A}, D is a key in R3, R3 is in BCNF!
– R4 is in BCNF? 112
• F4 = {empty}, R4 is in BCNF!
– Hence, we can decompose R into R112
1, R3 and R4 in BCNF.