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MODULE 3

GYEST203 FOUNDATIONS OF COMPUTING: FROM HARDWARE

ESSENTIALS TO WEB DESIGN (2024 SCHEME)

Computer System Software

Introduction to Computer System Software

● Computer system software acts as an intermediary between the

computer hardware and application software. Without it,
applications couldn't effectively utilize the hardware's capabilities.
● It handles fundamental tasks like memory allocation, file
management, and input/output operations, allowing applications
to focus on their specific functions.
● Think of it as the "traffic controller" of the computer, ensuring
 to focus on their specific functions.
● Think of it as the "traffic controller" of the computer, ensuring
everything runs smoothly and efficiently.
● Importance:
○ It provides a consistent and standardized environment for
applications to run, regardless of the specific hardware
configuration.
○ It enhances system security by managing access to
resources and protecting against unauthorized access.
○ It simplifies user interaction with the computer through
graphical user interfaces (GUIs) or command-line interfaces
(CLIs).
Types of System Software

1. Operating System (OS):

○ Management of Hardware and Software:
■ The OS is the most crucial piece of system software. It
controls and coordinates all hardware components,
including the CPU, memory, storage devices, and
peripherals.
■ It manages software resources by allocating memory,
scheduling tasks, and handling file system operations.
○ Resource Allocation:
■ It allocates system resources, such as CPU time and
memory, to different applications and processes,
ensuring fair and efficient utilization.
■ For example, when you run multiple programs
simultaneously, the OS manages how the CPU's
 ■ For example, when you run multiple programs
simultaneously, the OS manages how the CPU's
processing power is shared among them.

○ Examples:
■ Windows: A widely used OS known for its user-friendly
interface and extensive software compatibility.
■ Linux: An open-source OS known for its stability,
security, and flexibility, commonly used in servers and
embedded systems.
■ macOS: Apple's OS, known for its elegant design and
seamless integration with Apple hardware.
2. Utility Software:
○ System Maintenance Tools:
 ■ Utility software provides tools for maintaining and
optimizing the computer system.
■ These tools help improve system performance,
security, and reliability.
○ Examples:
■ Antivirus Software: Protects against malware, viruses,
and other security threats.
■ Disk Cleanup/Defragmentation Tools: Optimize
storage space by removing unnecessary files and
rearranging fragmented data.
■ Backup and Recovery Software: Creates copies of
important data and allows for system restoration in
case of data loss.
■ File compression utilities: Reduce file sizes.
3. Device Drivers:
3. Device Drivers:
○ Hardware Communication:
■ Device drivers are software programs that enable the
OS to communicate with specific hardware devices.
■ Each hardware device, such as a printer, graphics card,
or network adapter, requires a corresponding driver.
○ Translation Layer:
■ Drivers act as a translation layer between the OS and
the hardware, converting general OS commands into
specific instructions that the hardware can
understand.
■ If a driver is missing or outdated, the hardware device
may not function correctly.
○ Examples:
 ■ Printer drivers, graphics card drivers, sound card
drivers, network adapter drivers.
4. Firmware:
○ Embedded Software:
■ Firmware is software that is permanently embedded in
hardware devices. It is stored in non-volatile memory,
such as ROM or flash memory.
■ This software is usually used to provide the basic
instructions for how the hardware device should
operate.
○ Hardware Functionality Control:
■ Firmware controls the fundamental functions of
hardware devices, such as initializing the hardware
during startup and managing low-level operations.
○ Examples:
 ○ Examples:
■ BIOS (Basic Input/Output System) or UEFI (Unified
Extensible Firmware Interface): Firmware that
initializes the computer's hardware during startup and
loads the OS.
■ Embedded system firmware: This is used in devices
like routers, modems, and embedded controllers.
■ Firmware within hard drives, and other peripherals.

Operating Systems

What is an Operating System (OS)?

An Operating System (OS) is system software that manages computer

hardware, software, and resources, providing an interface for users to
interact with the system. It acts as a bridge between the user and the
computer’s hardware.

Functions of an Operating System

● Process Management:
○ The OS is the traffic director for running programs
(processes). It enables multitasking, allowing you to run
multiple applications simultaneously.
○ It schedules which processes get CPU time, preventing any
single program from hogging resources. It also handles
process creation, termination, and communication between
them.
○ Essentially, it keeps everything running in an orderly fashion.
● Memory Management:
○ RAM is a valuable resource, and the OS manages its
 ○ RAM is a valuable resource, and the OS manages its
allocation to running programs. It ensures each program has
the necessary memory to function without interfering with
others.
○ It uses techniques like virtual memory to extend RAM
capacity by using hard drive space.
○ It also protects memory spaces, preventing programs from
crashing due to memory conflicts.
● File Management:
○ The OS organizes files and directories on storage devices
(hard drives, SSDs).
○ It provides a structured file system, allowing you to easily
locate and access files.
○ It controls file access permissions, ensuring that only
authorized users can read, write, or execute files.
 ○ It handles file operations like creating, deleting, renaming,
and moving files.
● Device Management:
○ The OS acts as an intermediary between the computer and
its hardware devices (printers, keyboards, mice, etc.).
○ It uses device drivers, which are software programs, to
enable communication between the OS and hardware.
○ It manages input/output operations, ensuring smooth data
transfer between the CPU and peripheral devices.
○ It allocates hardware resources to various running
programs.
● Security & Access Control:
○ The OS safeguards the computer system from unauthorized
access and malicious activities.
○ It provides authentication mechanisms (usernames and
 ○ It provides authentication mechanisms (usernames and
passwords) to verify user identities.
○ It enforces access control policies, granting different levels
of permissions to users and groups.
○ It implements security features like firewalls and encryption
to protect sensitive data.
● User Interface:
○ The OS provides a means for users to interact with the
computer.
○ It offers two primary types of user interfaces:
■ Command-Line Interface (CLI): A text-based interface
where users type commands.
■ Graphical User Interface (GUI): A visual interface with
windows, icons, and menus.
 ○ The user interface is what allows the user to give
instructions to the computer, and to receive information
back from the computer.

Types of Operating Systems

● Single-user OS:
○ This type of operating system is made for one person to use
at a time.
○ It's what you find on most home computers and laptops.
○ It focuses on making things easy for one person to do their
work or play games.
○ Examples are the regular versions of Windows and macOS.
● Multi-user OS:
○ This lets many people use the same computer at the same
time.
 time.
○ It's like a big computer that many people can log into and
use for different things.
○ These are often used for big systems in businesses or
schools, where many people need to share resources.
○ Examples are different versions of Linux and UNIX.
● Real-Time OS (RTOS):
○ This type of OS is very fast and reliable, and it's used for
things where timing is super important.
○ It's used in things like medical devices or car systems, where
a delay of even a second could be dangerous.
○ It makes sure that certain tasks always happen at the exact
right time.
● Distributed OS:
 ○ This OS runs on many computers that are connected
together, but it makes them look like one big computer.
○ It helps to share the workload across many machines, so
things can run faster.
○ These are used in big systems like cloud computing, where a
lot of processing power is needed.
● Mobile OS:
○ This is made specifically for phones and tablets.
○ It's designed to work with touchscreens and to save battery
life.
○ It also lets you use apps from app stores.
○ Examples are Android and iOS.

Popular Operating Systems

● Windows:
● Windows:
○ Known for its widespread use in personal computers and its
user-friendly graphical interface.
○ Has a massive library of compatible software, including
productivity tools, games, and creative applications.
○ Continually updated with new features and security patches.
○ Dominates the desktop operating system market.
● Linux:
○ An open-source operating system, meaning its source code
is freely available and modifiable.
○ Highly versatile and customizable, used in servers,
supercomputers, embedded systems, and increasingly on
desktop computers.
○ Known for its stability, security, and strong command-line
interface.
 ○ A cornerstone of web servers, cloud infrastructure, and
cybersecurity tools.
● macOS:
○ Developed by Apple, designed to work seamlessly with
Apple's hardware.
○ Emphasizes a clean, intuitive user interface and strong
integration with Apple's ecosystem (iPhones, iPads, etc.).
○ Popular among creative professionals due to its support for
multimedia applications.
○ Known for a strong focus on security.
● Android & iOS:
○ Mobile operating systems that power the vast majority of
smartphones and tablets.
○ Android, developed by Google, is open-source and highly
customizable, with a wide range of device support.
 customizable, with a wide range of device support.
○ iOS, developed by Apple, is closed-source and tightly
integrated with Apple's hardware, offering a consistent user
experience.
○ Both offer app stores that provide a wide range of
applications.

Basic Commands in Linux / Windows

Operating systems provide command-line interfaces (CLI) for users to
interact with the system. Linux uses the Terminal, while Windows
supports both Command Prompt (CMD) and PowerShell for
executing commands.

Basic Linux Commands (Terminal - Bash Shell)

Comman Description Example
d

ls Lists files and directories ls -l (detailed list)

cd Changes directory cd Documents/

pwd Shows current directory path pwd

mkdir Creates a new directory mkdir new_folder

rm Deletes files or directories rm file.txt, rm -r folder/

cp Copies files or directories cp file1.txt file2.txt

mv Moves/renames files or mv old.txt new.txt

directories

chmod Changes file permissions chmod 755 script.sh

chmod Changes file permissions chmod 755 script.sh

chown Changes file ownership chown user:group

file.txt

ps Displays running processes ps aux

kill Terminates a process kill PID

grep Searches for text in files grep "error" log.txt

tar Compresses/extracts files tar -cvf archive.tar

folder/

ping Tests network connectivity ping google.com

df Displays disk space usage df -h

Basic Windows Commands (CMD / PowerShell)

Comma Description Example

nd

dir Lists files and directories dir C:\Users

cd Changes directory cd Documents

mkdir Creates a new directory mkdir NewFolder

del Deletes a file del file.txt

copy Copies files copy file1.txt file2.txt

move Moves/renames files move old.txt new.txt

move Moves/renames files move old.txt new.txt

attrib Changes file attributes attrib +h file.txt (hide file)

tasklist Lists running processes tasklist

taskkill Terminates a process taskkill /PID 1234

ipconfig Displays network ipconfig /all

configuration

ping Checks network ping google.com

connectivity

netstat Shows active network netstat -an

connections

shutdow Shuts down the computer shutdown /s /t 60 (shuts

n down in 60 sec)
cls Clears the command cls
prompt screen
Shell Scripting (Bash)
You've got a good, concise overview! Let's just slightly expand on a few
points to give a bit more context:

What is Shell Scripting?

● A text file of commands:

○ Essentially, a shell script is a simple text file, like a document,
but instead of words, it contains commands that the Linux
operating system understands.
○ When you run the script, the shell (the command-line
interpreter) reads the file line by line and executes each
command in sequence.
● Bash as the primary tool:
 command in sequence.
● Bash as the primary tool:
○ While there are various shells (like sh, csh, zsh), Bash
(Bourne Again Shell) is the most prevalent in Linux
distributions.
○ It's powerful, versatile, and has a rich set of features that
make it ideal for scripting.
○ Bash is the default shell for many Linux systems.
● Automation of repetitive tasks:
○ Shell scripts are particularly valuable for automating tasks
that you'd otherwise have to perform manually, saving you
time and reducing the risk of errors.
○ Examples include batch file renaming, system backups, log
file analysis, and automated system monitoring.

Why Use Shell Scripting?

● Automates tasks and saves time:
○ Instead of typing long sequences of commands repeatedly,
you can write them once in a script and execute them with a
single command.
○ This is very useful for tasks that need to be run on a
schedule.
● Reduces human errors in repetitive operations:
○ By automating tasks, you minimize the chance of typos or
mistakes that can occur when manually entering commands.
○ This improves the accuracy of the process.
● Useful for system administration and network automation:
○ System administrators rely on shell scripts for tasks like user
management, software installations, and system
configuration.
○ Network administrators use them for network monitoring,
 ○ Network administrators use them for network monitoring,
configuration, and troubleshooting.
● Customizable for different environments:
○ Shell scripts are portable and can be easily adapted to
different Linux distributions and system configurations.
○ This flexibility makes them a valuable tool in diverse
environments.

Computer Communications

What is Computer Communication?

● Computer communication refers to the exchange of data between

computing devices over a network.
● Enables file sharing, remote access, cloud computing, and internet
services.
● Uses different network types, protocols, and communication
models.

Types of Computer Networks

Network Type Description Example

LAN (Local Area Covers a small area Office Wi-Fi,

Network) like homes, offices, college
or schools network

MAN Covers a city or large City-wide

(Metropolitan area broadband
Area Network) network
 Area Network) network

WAN (Wide Covers large The

Area Network) distances, often Internet
global

Network Communication Models

● Client-Server Model:

○ A server provides resources/services, and clients request

them.
○ Example: Websites, cloud storage, email servers.
● Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Model:
 ○ No central server; all devices share resources directly.
○ Example: Torrent file sharing, local file transfers.

Introduction to Network Types

● Network Definition:
○ A network is fundamentally a system that links computers
and other devices together.
○ This connection allows these devices to share resources,
such as files, printers, and internet access, and to
communicate with each other.
● Classification by Scale:
○ Networks are categorized primarily by their geographical
size and the area they cover.
○ This classification helps to determine the appropriate
technologies and infrastructure needed for each type of
 technologies and infrastructure needed for each type of
network.
● Main Network Types:
○ The three primary network types, based on scale, are Local
Area Networks (LANs), Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs),
and Wide Area Networks (WANs).

2. Local Area Network (LAN)

● Definition:
○ A LAN is a network designed to connect devices within a
relatively small geographical area.
○ This area could be a single room, a home, an office building,
or a school campus.
● Examples:
 ○ Your home Wi-Fi network that connects your computers,
smartphones, and smart devices.
○ An office network that allows employees to share files and
printers.
○ A computer lab in a school where students can access
shared resources.
● Key Features:
○ High Speed: LANs offer high-speed data transfer, typically
ranging from 100 Mbps (megabits per second) to 10 Gbps
(gigabits per second) or even faster.
○ Limited Coverage: The coverage area is limited, usually
spanning a few kilometers at most.
○ Resource Sharing: LANs are commonly used for file sharing,
printer access, and internal communication within an
organization.
 organization.
● Devices Used:
○ Switches: To connect devices within the LAN.
○ Routers: To connect the LAN to other networks or the
internet.
○ Network Cables: For wired connections.
○ Wi-Fi Routers: For wireless connections.

3. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

● Definition:
○ A MAN is a network that covers a larger geographical area
than a LAN, typically a city or a metropolitan region.
○ It bridges the gap between LANs and WANs.
● Examples:
○ City-wide broadband internet services provided by an ISP.
 ○ A network connecting multiple buildings within a university
campus.
○ Municipal Wi-Fi networks that provide internet access to
residents.
● Key Features:
○ Multiple LANs: MANs connect multiple LANs within a city or
town.
○ Medium Speed: Speed ranges from 10 Mbps to 1 Gbps,
offering a balance between LAN and WAN speeds.
○ Usage: Commonly used by universities, Internet Service
Providers (ISPs), and municipalities.
● Devices Used:
○ Fiber Optic Cables: For high-speed data transmission over
longer distances.
○ Wireless Access Points: To extend coverage in areas where
 ○ Wireless Access Points: To extend coverage in areas where
cabling is difficult.
○ Routers: For network traffic management.

4. Wide Area Network (WAN)

● Definition:
○ A WAN is a network that spans a large geographical area,
such as cities, countries, or even the entire globe.
○ It connects devices and networks over long distances.
● Examples:
○ The Internet, which connects billions of devices worldwide.
○ Global enterprise networks that connect offices in different
countries.
○ Satellite networks used for communication in remote areas.
● Key Features:
 ○ Large Coverage: WANs cover vast geographical areas,
spanning nationwide or worldwide.
○ Lower Speed: Compared to LANs, WANs typically have
slower speeds due to the long-distance transmission and the
infrastructure involved.
○ Infrastructure: WANs use leased telecommunication lines,
satellites, and fiber optic cables to connect devices over long
distances.
● Devices Used:
○ Routers: To direct network traffic across the WAN.
○ Modems: To convert digital signals to analog signals for
transmission over telephone lines or other media.
○ Satellites: For long-distance communication.
○ Cloud Infrastructure: for the many services that are now
cloud based.
 cloud based.

Comparison of LAN, MAN, and WAN

Feature LAN MAN WAN

Coverage Small (building, Medium (city, Large (country,

Area office) town) world)

Speed Very fast (100 Moderate (10 Slower (1 Mbps –

Mbps – 10 Gbps) Mbps – 1 Gbps) 100 Mbps)

Cost Low Moderate High

Ownershi Private Public/Private Public/Private

p
Usage File sharing, City-wide ISP, Global
printers, Wi-Fi college networks communication,
internet

What is a Client/Server Network?

● A client/server network is a network model where multiple

client devices request services from a central server.
● The server provides resources, processes requests, and manages
network operations.
● The client is a device (computer, smartphone) that sends
requests to the server.

How Client/Server Networks Work

1. Clients (computers, mobile devices) send requests for resources

or services.
 1. Clients (computers, mobile devices) send requests for resources
or services.
2. The Server processes the request and sends the appropriate
response.
3. Clients receive data or requested services (e.g., websites, files,
applications).

Example:

● A web browser (client) requests a webpage from a web server.

● The web server sends the webpage data to the browser.

omponents of a Client/Server Network

Compone Description Example

nt
Client Requests services or data from the Laptops,
server smartphones,
workstations

Server Provides services like file storage, Web server,

applications, and databases database server

Network Connects clients and servers using LAN, WAN, Internet

wired or wireless communication
Types of Client/Server Networks

● File Server Network:

○ This type of network is centered around a server that acts as
a centralized storage location for files.
○ Clients can access, retrieve, and store files on the server.
○ This is essential for collaborative work environments where
 ○ This is essential for collaborative work environments where
multiple users need to share documents and other data.
○ It simplifies file management, backups, and access control.
● Web Server Network:
○ Web servers host websites and web applications, making
them accessible over the internet.
○ When a client (web browser) requests a webpage, the web
server sends the necessary files (HTML, CSS, JavaScript,
images) to the client.
○ This is the foundation of the World Wide Web.
○ Web servers make e-commerce, social media, and online
services possible.
● Database Server Network:
○ Database servers manage and provide access to structured
data stored in databases.
 ○ Applications and clients can query the database server to
retrieve, update, or insert data.
○ Examples like MySQL and PostgreSQL are used to store data
for applications and websites.
○ This is crucial for applications that require organized and
efficient data management.
● Email Server Network:
○ Email servers handle the sending, receiving, and storage of
email messages.
○ Clients (email applications or webmail interfaces) connect to
the email server to access their mailboxes.
○ Services like Gmail and Outlook rely on robust email server
infrastructure.
○ This type of server enables communication via electronic
mail.
 mail.
● Application Server Network:
○ Application servers run software applications that are used
by multiple clients.
○ They provide the application logic and data processing,
allowing clients to access and use the application through a
network.
○ This is used for complex business applications, and online
games.
○ This allows many users to use complex programs at the
same time.

Advantages of Client/Server Networks

● Centralized Management:
 ○ Administrators can easily manage and update the network
from a central location.
○ This simplifies tasks like software updates, security patches,
and user account management.
○ This reduces the workload of network administration.
● Scalability:
○ Client/server networks can easily accommodate more clients
as the network grows.
○ Servers can be upgraded or expanded to handle increased
traffic and demands.
○ This allows a network to grow with a company.
● Data Security:
○ Centralized storage and security measures enhance data
protection.
○ Backups and recovery are easier to implement on a central
 ○ Backups and recovery are easier to implement on a central
server.
○ This makes it easier to keep sensitive information safe.
● Efficient Resource Sharing:
○ Servers can efficiently handle requests from multiple clients,
optimizing resource utilization.
○ This allows many users to access shared resources without
significant performance degradation.
○ This optimizes hardware usage.

Disadvantages of Client/Server Networks

● Server Failure Impact:

○ If the server fails, all clients lose access to the network's
resources.
○ This can cause significant downtime and disruption.
 ○ This is a single point of failure.
● Expensive Setup:
○ Setting up and maintaining a client/server network requires
powerful servers, specialized software, and skilled network
administrators.
○ This can be costly, especially for large networks.
○ This can be a large initial expense.
● Network Dependency:
○ Clients rely on a stable network connection to communicate
with the server.
○ Network congestion or outages can disrupt access to
resources.
○ This makes the network reliant on the connection.

Real-World Examples of Client/Server Networks

Real-World Examples of Client/Server Networks

● The Internet:
○ The internet is a vast client/server network where web
servers host websites and web applications, and users
access them through web browsers.
○ This is the largest example of this type of network.
● Corporate Networks:
○ In corporate environments, employees use their computers
(clients) to access centralized databases, shared files, and
applications hosted on company servers.
○ This allows for company wide data sharing.
● Online Gaming Servers:
○ Multiplayer online games rely on dedicated gaming servers
to manage player interactions, game data, and real-time
communication.
 ○ This allows for many people to play the same game
together.

Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Networks

What is a Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Network?

● A P2P network is a decentralized network where all devices

(peers) share resources directly with each other.
● Unlike Client/Server networks, there is no central server; each
device acts as both a client and a server.

How Peer-to-Peer Networks Work

1. Each device (peer) can send and receive data.

2. No central authority – resources are distributed among all
peers.
3. Peers communicate directly to share files, applications, or
 peers.
3. Peers communicate directly to share files, applications, or
services.

Example:

● When downloading a file using BitTorrent, multiple peers share

and receive pieces of the file simultaneously.

Types of Peer-to-Peer Networks

● Unstructured P2P:
○ Peers connect to each other randomly, without any
organized structure.
○ Searching for files or resources involves flooding the
network with queries, which can be inefficient.
 ○ Resilient to peer failures, as there's no central point of
control.
○ Example: Gnutella, early file-sharing networks.
● Structured P2P:
○ Peers are organized into a specific architecture, often using
a Distributed Hash Table (DHT).
○ This structure enables efficient searching for resources, as
each peer knows where to find specific data.
○ More efficient than unstructured P2P, but can be more
complex to implement.
○ Example: DHT-based networks.
● Hybrid P2P:
○ Combines elements of P2P and client/server models.
○ A central server assists in managing connections and
facilitating communication between peers.
 facilitating communication between peers.
○ Peers still exchange data directly, but the server helps with
discovery and coordination.
○ Examples: Skype, some blockchain networks.

Advantages of Peer-to-Peer Networks

● No Central Failure Point:

○ The network doesn't rely on a single server, so if one peer
goes down, the network continues to function.
○ This redundancy makes P2P networks robust and resilient.
● Cost-Effective:
○ P2P networks don't require expensive server infrastructure,
reducing costs.
○ This makes them attractive for applications where
centralized servers are impractical.
 ● Scalability:
○ P2P networks can easily scale by adding more peers, without
needing major infrastructure changes.
○ The more peers join, the more resources the network has.
● Faster Data Transfer:
○ Files can be downloaded from multiple peers
simultaneously, leading to faster download speeds.
○ This distributed approach can improve performance for
large file transfers.

Disadvantages of Peer-to-Peer Networks

● Security Risks:
○ The lack of centralized control can make P2P networks
vulnerable to security threats like malware and data
breaches.
 breaches.
○ It is harder to ensure security protocols are followed by all
peers.
● Difficult to Manage:
○ Without central administration, it's challenging to manage
updates, monitor network activity, or enforce policies.
○ Trouble shooting network issues can be very difficult.
● Performance Issues:
○ For large-scale applications or high-demand services, P2P
networks can be slower than client/server networks.
○ Network congestion can heavily effect performance.
● Legal Issues:
○ P2P networks have been associated with illegal file sharing
and piracy, leading to legal challenges.
 ○ Copyright infringement is a common problem with these
types of networks.

Comparison: P2P vs. Client/Server

Feature Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Client/Server

Architectu Decentralized Centralized

re

Data Distributed across Stored on central server

Storage peers

Performan Varies based on peer More stable & controlled

ce availability

Security Less secure, no central More secure with centralized

Security Less secure, no central More secure with centralized
control management

Best For File sharing, Websites, business networks

decentralized apps

Network Topologies

What is Network Topology?

● Network topology refers to the physical or logical

arrangement of devices in a network.
● Defines how computers, cables, routers, and other devices are
connected.
● Affects network performance, scalability, and fault tolerance.

Types of Network Topologies

1⃣ Bus Topology

● Structure:
○ All devices in the network are connected to a single, shared
communication line, often called the "backbone" or "bus."
○ Data travels along this backbone, and all devices receive it,
but only the intended recipient processes it.
● Pros:
○ Easy Setup: Relatively simple to set up and configure,
making it cost-effective for small networks.
○ Less Cabling: Requires less cabling compared to other
topologies, reducing installation costs.
● Cons:
○ Single Point of Failure: If the backbone cable fails, the
entire network goes down, causing a complete network
outage.
 entire network goes down, causing a complete network
outage.
○ Performance Degradation: As more devices are added,
network performance decreases due to increased traffic and
collisions.
● Example:
○ Early Ethernet networks, which used coaxial cables as the
backbone.

2⃣ Star Topology

● Structure:
○ All devices are connected to a central device, such as a
switch or hub.
○ All communication between devices goes through this
central point.
● Pros:
 ○ Fault Tolerance: If one device or cable fails, only that device
is affected; the rest of the network remains operational.
○ Easy Expansion: Easy to add or remove devices without
disrupting the network.
● Cons:
○ Central Point of Failure: If the central switch or hub fails,
the entire network becomes inoperative.
○ More Cabling: Requires more cabling compared to a bus
topology, as each device has a dedicated connection to the
central hub.
● Example:
○ Modern office Local Area Networks (LANs) and Wi-Fi
networks.

3⃣ Ring Topology
3⃣ Ring Topology

● Structure:
○ Devices are connected in a closed loop, forming a circular
ring.
○ Data travels in one direction (or both directions in dual-ring
topologies) around the ring.
● Pros:
○ Predictable Performance: Data transmission follows a
predictable path, ensuring consistent performance.
○ No Central Device: Eliminates the single point of failure
associated with a central hub or switch.
● Cons:
○ Single Point of Failure: A single cable or device failure can
disrupt the entire network.
 ○ Slower Transmission: Data must pass through each device
in the ring, which can lead to slower transmission speeds
compared to star topologies.
● Example:
○ Older Token Ring networks used in some legacy systems.

4⃣ Mesh Topology

● Structure:
○ Devices are interconnected with multiple redundant
connections.
○ Provides multiple paths for data transmission.
● Types:
○ Full Mesh: Every device is directly connected to every other
device in the network.
○ Partial Mesh: Some devices are connected to multiple other
 ○ Partial Mesh: Some devices are connected to multiple other
devices, while others have fewer connections.
● Pros:
○ High Reliability: Redundant connections provide fault
tolerance, ensuring network availability even if some
connections fail.
○ Enhanced Security: Multiple paths make it difficult for
unauthorized access or data interception.
● Cons:
○ High Cost: Requires extensive cabling and network devices,
making it expensive to implement.
○ Complex Implementation: Complex setup and
maintenance due to the large number of connections.
● Example:
 ○ Military and mission-critical networks, financial institutions,
and some backbone internet connections.

5⃣ Hybrid Topology

● Structure:
○ Combines two or more different topologies to create a more
flexible and efficient network.
○ Allows for customization to meet specific network
requirements.
● Pros:
○ Scalability: Can be easily scaled to accommodate growing
network needs.
○ Flexibility: Adaptable to various network environments and
requirements.
○ Optimization: Can be optimized for performance, reliability,
 ○ Optimization: Can be optimized for performance, reliability,
and security.
● Cons:
○ Complexity: Can be complex to design, implement, and
manage.
○ High Cost: May involve significant costs due to the
combination of different technologies.
● Example:
○ Large corporate networks that combine star, mesh, and bus
topologies to meet diverse needs.

Comparison of Network Topologies

Topolo Cost Reliability Scalability Example
gy

Bus Low Low (single point Low Small office

of failure) networks

Star Modera High (except hub High Office LANs,

te failure) Wi-Fi

Ring Modera Moderate (if Low Older networks

te dual-ring)
Mesh High Very High (multiple Moderate Critical systems
connections) to High

Hybrid High High High Enterprise and

ISP networks

This is a great, clear, and conversational summary of IP addresses!

You've captured the key points effectively. Here are a couple of very
minor tweaks for even more clarity, but your original is excellent:

Basics of IP Addresses

● What is an IP Address?
 ○ Think of an IP address as a computer's "address" on a
network. It's a unique number that lets devices find each
other and communicate.
○ It's how your computer sends and receives data over the
internet or within your home network.
○ We have two main types:
■ IPv4: The older, 32-bit version (like 192.168.1.1). It's
running out of available addresses.
■ IPv6: The newer, 128-bit version (like 2001:db8::1). It
provides a massive amount of addresses to support all
the devices connecting to the internet.
● Types of IP Addresses
○ Public IP Address:
■ This is the address your internet service provider (ISP)
gives you to connect to the wider internet.
 gives you to connect to the wider internet.
■ It's like your house's street address, making you
reachable from anywhere in the world.
○ Private IP Address:
■ This is used within your local network (like your home
Wi-Fi).
■ It's how devices within your home or office
communicate with each other.
■ Common examples are 192.168.x.x or 10.x.x.x.
○ Static IP Address:
■ This is an IP address that you set manually and it stays
the same.
■ Useful for devices that need a consistent address, like
servers or printers.
○ Dynamic IP Address:
 ■ This is an IP address that's assigned automatically by a
network server (DHCP) and can change periodically.
■ Most home networks use dynamic IP addresses.

DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol)

● What is DHCP?
○ DHCP is a network protocol that automates the process of
assigning IP addresses and other network configuration
parameters to devices on a network.
○ It eliminates the need for manual configuration, which can
be time-consuming and prone to errors.
○ DHCP allows a network to run smoothly, by automatically
assigning needed network data.
● How DHCP Works?
 assigning needed network data.
● How DHCP Works?
○ 1⃣ Client Request:
■ When a device (client) joins a network, it broadcasts a
request for an IP address.
○ 2⃣ DHCP Server Assignment:
■ A DHCP server on the network receives the request
and assigns an available IP address from its pool of
addresses.
■ The server also provides other network configuration
information, such as the subnet mask, default gateway,
and DNS server addresses.
○ 3⃣ Client Usage:
■ The client uses the assigned IP address and network
configuration to communicate on the network.
○ 4⃣ IP Lease Renewal:
 ■ The assigned IP address is typically leased for a specific
period.
■ Before the lease expires, the client attempts to renew
the IP address with the DHCP server.
■ This allows the DHCP server to reclaim IP addresses
that are no longer in use.
● Advantages of DHCP:
○ ✅ Reduces Manual Configuration Errors:
■ Automating IP address assignment eliminates the risk
of human errors, such as assigning duplicate IP
addresses.
○  Efficiently Manages Large Networks:
■ DHCP simplifies network administration, especially in
large networks with numerous devices.
○  Ensures IP Reuse and Prevents Conflicts:
 ○  Ensures IP Reuse and Prevents Conflicts:
■ DHCP reuses IP addresses when devices leave the
network, preventing IP address conflicts.
● Example:
○ Your home Wi-Fi router acts as a DHCP server, automatically
assigning IP addresses to your laptops, smartphones, and
other connected devices.

NAT (Network Address Translation)

● What is NAT?
○ NAT is a network technique that translates private IP
addresses used within a local network into a single public IP
address used for communication on the internet.
○ It allows multiple devices on a private network to share a
single public IP address, conserving valuable IPv4 addresses.
● Types of NAT:
○ ✔ Static NAT:
■ A one-to-one mapping between a private IP address
and a public IP address.
■ Used for devices that need to be accessible from the
internet, such as web servers.
○ ✔ Dynamic NAT:
■ A pool of public IP addresses is assigned dynamically to
internal devices as needed.
■ When a device initiates a connection to the internet,
it's assigned a public IP address from the available
pool.
○ ✔ PAT (Port Address Translation) / NAT Overloading:
■ Multiple private IP addresses share a single public IP
address by using different port numbers.
 address by using different port numbers.
■ This is the most common type of NAT used in home
routers.
■ This is how many devices can use the internet at the
same time, from one public IP.
● Advantages of NAT:
○ ✅ Conserves IPv4 Addresses:
■ NAT allows multiple devices to share a single public IP
address, mitigating the scarcity of IPv4 addresses.
○  Provides Basic Security:
■ NAT hides the internal network's IP addresses from the
internet, providing a basic level of security.
○  Reduces IP Conflicts in Private Networks:
 ■ NAT allows for the use of private IP ranges, that can be
duplicated between many networks, without causing
internet wide IP conflicts.
● Example:
○ Your home router uses NAT to translate the private IP
addresses of your devices into your ISP-assigned public IP
address, allowing all your devices to access the internet.

What is Network Security?

Network Security refers to protecting network infrastructure, devices,

and data from unauthorized access, cyber threats, and attacks. It
involves hardware, software, policies, and best practices to ensure
security.

Desktop Security (Endpoint Security)

Desktop Security (Endpoint Security)

● What is Desktop Security?

○ Protects individual computers (endpoints) from malware,
unauthorized access, and cyber threats.
○ Essential for personal computers, workstations, and
employee devices in an organization.
● Key Desktop Security Measures:
○ Antivirus & Anti-malware Software – Detects and removes
threats.
○ Firewalls – Blocks unauthorized access to and from the
computer.
○ Patch Management – Ensures software and OS updates to
fix vulnerabilities.
○ User Authentication – Uses strong passwords, biometric
authentication, and 2FA.
 ○ Data Encryption – Encrypts sensitive files and
communications.
○ Device Control – Restricts the use of USBs, external storage,
and other peripherals.
● Example:
○ Microsoft Defender, Norton Antivirus, and Bitdefender
protect personal computers.

Perimeter Security

● What is Perimeter Security?

○ Protects the network’s outer boundary (the perimeter) from
external cyber threats.
○ Used in corporate networks, data centers, and cloud
environments.
● Key Perimeter Security Measures:
● Key Perimeter Security Measures:
○ Firewalls – Filter incoming/outgoing traffic and block
malicious access.
○ Intrusion Detection & Prevention Systems (IDS/IPS) – Detects
and stops cyberattacks.
○ VPN (Virtual Private Network) – Secures remote access by
encrypting connections.
○ DDoS Protection – Prevents Distributed Denial of Service
attacks.
○ Email Security (Spam & Phishing Filters) – Protects against
email-based threats.
○ Zero Trust Security – Ensures continuous verification of
users and devices.
● Example:
 ○ Corporate firewalls and security appliances (Cisco ASA, Palo
Alto, FortiGate) protect enterprise networks.

1. DNS (Domain Name System)

● What is DNS?
○ Translates domain names (e.g., www.google.com) into IP
addresses (e.g., 142.250.182.206).
○ Works like the phonebook of the internet, allowing users to
access websites without remembering IPs.
● How DNS Works?
4. User enters a website address (e.g.,
www.example.com).
5. Browser queries the DNS server.
6. DNS resolves the domain name to an IP address.
7. The website loads using the IP address.
 7. The website loads using the IP address.
● Types of DNS Servers:
○ Recursive Resolver – Finds the IP address requested by the
user.
○ Root Name Server – Directs queries to the right TLD
(Top-Level Domain) server.
○ TLD Server – Handles domains like .com, .org, .edu.
○ Authoritative Name Server – Provides the final IP address of
the domain.
● Example:
○ Google’s Public DNS: 8.8.8.8 and 8.8.4.4

2. VPN (Virtual Private Network)

● What is a VPN?
 ○ A VPN encrypts internet traffic and hides the user’s IP
address, enhancing security and privacy.
○ Securely connects users to private networks over the
internet.
● How VPN Works?
3. User connects to a VPN server.
4. The VPN encrypts data before sending it over the
internet.
5. The destination server sees the VPN’s IP instead of the
user’s real IP.
● Benefits of VPN:
○ Privacy Protection – Hides browsing activity from ISPs and
hackers.
○ Secure Remote Access – Allows employees to work remotely.
○ Bypasses Geo-Restrictions – Access restricted content (e.g.,
 ○ Bypasses Geo-Restrictions – Access restricted content (e.g.,
Netflix, blocked websites).
● Example:
○ NordVPN, ExpressVPN, Cisco AnyConnect (for businesses).

3. Routers

● What is a Router?
○ A network device that connects multiple networks and
directs data between them.
○ Uses IP addresses to determine the best path for forwarding
packets.
● Types of Routers:
○ Wired Routers – Use Ethernet cables for connections.
○ Wireless Routers (Wi-Fi) – Provide wireless internet access.
 ○ Core Routers – Used in large networks (e.g., ISPs, data
centers).
● Functions of a Router:
○ Assigns IP addresses to devices.
○ Implements NAT (Network Address Translation) for internet
access.
○ Uses firewall rules to enhance security.
● Example:
○ Home routers like TP-Link, Netgear, Cisco.

4. Client-Server Model

● What is the Client-Server Model?

○ Client: A device or application that requests services.
○ Server: A system that provides services/data to clients.
● Examples of Client-Server Applications:
 ● Examples of Client-Server Applications:
○ Web Browsing: Chrome (Client) requests web pages from a
Web Server.
○ Email Services: Outlook (Client) connects to an Email Server.
○ Database Access: A frontend app requests data from a
Database Server.
● Advantages:
○ Centralized management and control.
○ Efficient resource utilization.
○ Secure data storage.
● Example:
○ Google Drive (Cloud Storage Server), Gmail (Email Server).

5. Internet & WWW (World Wide Web)

● What is the Internet?

 ○ A global network connecting billions of computers, devices,
and servers.
○ Uses TCP/IP protocols for communication.
● What is the WWW (World Wide Web)?
○ A system of interlinked web pages and resources accessed
via the internet.
○ Uses HTTP/HTTPS protocols for communication.

Difference Between Internet & WWW:

Feature Internet WWW

Definition A network of A collection of web pages

networks

Protocols TCP/IP HTTP/HTTPS

 networks

Protocols TCP/IP HTTP/HTTPS

Used

Components Routers, servers, Websites, web pages,

ISPs browsers
Web Servers

● What is a Web Server?

○ A server that stores, processes, and delivers web pages to
clients (browsers).
○ Uses HTTP/HTTPS for communication.
● Types of Web Servers:
○ Apache HTTP Server – Open-source, widely used.
○ NGINX – High-performance, used for load balancing.
 ○ Microsoft IIS (Internet Information Services) –
Windows-based web server.
● How Web Servers Work?
○ 1⃣ User enters a URL (e.g., www.example.com).
○ 2⃣ The browser sends a request to the web server.
○ 3⃣ The web server processes the request and returns a web
page (HTML, CSS, JS).
○ 4⃣ The browser displays the web page.
● Example:
○ Google’s Web Servers handle billions of search queries daily.

Concept Definition Example

DNS Translates domain names to Google DNS (8.8.8.8)
IPs

VPN Encrypts internet traffic for NordVPN, Cisco

security AnyConnect

Routers Direct network traffic between TP-Link, Cisco routers

devices

Client-Ser Clients request, servers provide Gmail, Google Drive

ver services
Internet Global network of connected ISP networks, fiber-optic
devices connections

WWW Collection of web pages Wikipedia, YouTube

accessed via the internet

Web Delivers web content to clients Apache, NGINX, IIS

Server
text