ADVANCED

ENGLISH
GRAMMAR
Table of contents
Present simple ...........................................................................................................................
Present continuous (present progressive) ................................................................................
Past simple ................................................................................................................................
Present perfect continuous .......................................................................................................
Past continuous tense ...............................................................................................................
Present perfect simple ..............................................................................................................
Future simple tense (will and be going to) ...............................................................................
Past perfect simple and continuous ..........................................................................................
Past perfect exercises ................................................................................................................
Countable and uncountable nouns ...........................................................................................
Countable and uncountable nouns - more rules ......................................................................
Direct and indirect questions ....................................................................................................
Gerunds and infinitives .............................................................................................................
Adjective order ..........................................................................................................................
Articles (a, an, the and Ø) ..........................................................................................................
Participle clauses .......................................................................................................................
Parts of speech ..........................................................................................................................
Simple, compound and complex sentences ............................................................................
Conditional sentences .............................................................................................................
Irregular verbs list ...................................................................................................................
Make uncountable nouns countable ......................................................................................
Modal verbs (modal auxiliary verbs) .......................................................................................
Passive voice ............................................................................................................................
Prepositions of place (1) ..........................................................................................................
Prepositions of time (1) ...........................................................................................................
Dependent prepositions with verbs, adjectives and nouns ....................................................
Transitive and intransitive verbs .............................................................................................
So and such (for emphasis) .....................................................................................................
Question tags (tag questions) .................................................................................................
Relative clauses – defining and non defining ..........................................................................
Inversion ..................................................................................................................................
Causative verbs .......................................................................................................................
Reported speech .....................................................................................................................
Stative and dynamic verbs ......................................................................................................
Superlative adjectives .............................................................................................................
The subjunctive .......................................................................................................................
Present simple

In English grammar, the present simple is used to talk

about habits and routines. Here is an example of the
present simple in a sentence:

I work on weekdays.

The present simple can also be used to talk about

something you don’t do.

I don’t eat meat.

The present simple verb can change if you talk about other people.

Positive + Negative –

I work don’t work.

You work don’t work.

We work don’t work.

He works doesn’t work.

She works doesn’t work.

It works doesn’t work.

They work don’t work.

The present simple also changes if you ask questions about other people.

Do I work?

Do you work?

Do we work?

Does he work?

Does she work?

Does it work?

Do they work?

For he, she or it, the present simple changes:

I miss He misses verb ends in ‘s’ add +es

I fly He flies verbs ends in consonant + ‘y’ add +ies

I wash He washes verb ends in ‘sh’ add +es

I fix He fixes verb ends in ‘x’ add +es

I buzz It buzzes verb ends in ‘z’ add +es

Another change that happens with the present simple is with have.
 I have a new car. I don’t have a new car. Do I have a new car?

You have a car. You don’t have a new car. Do you have a new car?

We have a car. We don’t have a new car. Do we have a new car?

He has a new car. He doesn’t have a new car. Does he have a new car?

She has a new car. She doesn’t have a new car. Does she have a new car?

It has new tyres. It doesn’t have new tyres. Does it have new tyres?

They have a new car. They don’t have new car. Do they have a new car?

Complete the present simple exercises below to test your knowledge of the present simple.

Example: I work on weekdays. He works on weekdays.

1. We listen to the teacher. She _______________ the teacher.

2. I watch television in the evenings. He _______________ television in the evenings.

3. They like playing computer games. He _________________ playing computer games.

4. They taste delicious. It ____________ delicious.

5. We fix computers for our job. She _______________ computers for her job.

6. I write to my brother every week. My brother ________________ to me every week.

7. I have a dog. She ___________ a dog.

8. I don’t eat chocolate. He _________________ chocolate.

9. They do not have bicycles. She ________________ a bicycle.

10. They don’t like dogs. He ___________________ dogs.

11. We don’t eat meat. I ___________________ meat.

12. She doesn’t have a computer. You ___________________ a computer.

13. Do you work in the city? ______ they _______ in the city?

14. Do you like him? _______ he ________ her?

15. Does he go to your school? ________ you _________ to his school?

16. What time do you get up in the mornings? What time _________ she __________ in the
mornings?

17. Does he usually walk to work? ________ they usually __________ to work?

18. Do you go to the gym on Friday evenings? ________ he __________ to the gym on Friday
evenings?

Answers

1. listens 10. doesn’t like

2. watches 11. don’t eat
3. likes 12. don‘t have
4. tastes 13. Do they work
5. fixes 14. Does he like
6. writes 15. Do you go
7. has 16. Does she get up
8. doesn’t eat 17. Do they usually walk
9. does not have 18. Does he go
Present continuous (present progressive)

This is also known as the present progressive

In English grammar, the present continuous is used to talk about something that is happening
now or around now. Here are some examples:

• I am studying English grammar now.

• They are visiting friends at the moment.
• He is playing football.

The present continuous can also be used to talk about something you are not doing now.

• I am not sleeping right now.

• They are not working today. They have the day off.
• She isn’t watching the TV, she’s playing a computer game.

The present continuous verb can change when you talk about other people.

Positive + Negative –

I am working am not / I’m not working.

You are working are not / aren’t working.

We are working are not / aren’t working.

He is working is not / isn’t working.

She is working is not / isn’t working.

It is working is not / isn’t working.

They are working are not / aren’t working.

The present continuous verb changes when you ask questions.

Am I working?

Are you working?

Are we working?

Is he working?

Is she working?

Is it working?

Are they working?

Some verbs cannot be used in the present continuous form.

For example:

I like Coca-Cola

I am liking Coca-Cola

Present continuous for future

We can also use the present continuous tense to talk about arrangements we make with other
people that are planned and will happen in the future.
For example:

I am meeting David next week.

My company is moving to a new office next year.

They are flying to Thailand tomorrow.

……………..

Are you having dinner with Louise tomorrow?

Is your mother visiting you next week?

Are they coming to the party on Saturday?

Complete the present continuous exercises below to test your knowledge of the present
continuous.

A. Present continuous exercises – use the correct form of the present continuous to complete
the sentences and question below.

Example: Right now I ______________ (take) a grammar test.

Right now I am taking a grammar test.

1. John ______________ (watch) television in the lounge.

2. It is a national holiday so I __________________ (not work) today.

3. What is that noise? Someone ______________ (sing) really badly!

4. I’ll call you back, I _____________ (eat) dinner at the moment.

5. _______ they still _____________ (sleep)? I can call again later.

B. Present continuous exercises – use the correct form of the present continous OR present
simple to complete the sentences and questions below.

Tip: When you complete these present continuous exercises remember to watch our for static
verbs (they do not take the continuous form!)

6. He isn’t here, he _____________ (visit) his sister in France.

7. This is a lovely meal – it _____________ (taste) delicious.
8. These flowers _____________ (smell) wonderful!
9. I _________________ (meet) my sister for lunch every Tuesday.
10. ___________ you _____________ (meet) Susan later?
11. He normally tells the truth but this time I _____________ (not believe) him.
12. I _____________________ (read) a book about New Zealand at the moment – it looks like
such a beautiful country.
13. What are you doing? I __________________ (check) my emails.
14. I’m sorry, I ____________________ (not know) the answer to that question.
15. __________ you ______________ (play) tennis very often?

Answers

1. is watching 6. is visiting 12. am reading

2. am not working 7. tastes 13. am checking
3. is singing 8. smell 14. don’t know
4. am eating 9. meet 15. Do you play
5. Are they still 10. Are you meeting

sleeping 11. don’t believe

Past simple

In English grammar, the past simple is used to talk about finished events or actions in the past.
Here are some example sentences including regular past simple verbs:

A. I worked last Monday.

B. They studied for an English test last week.
C. She smiled when she saw him.

The past simple can also be used to talk about something you did not do.

A. I didn’t work last weekend.

B. He didn’t do his homework.
C. You didn’t tell me!

The past simple verb doesn’t change when you talk about other people.

Positive + Negative –

I worked didn’t work.

You worked didn’t work.

We worked didn’t work.

He worked didn’t work.

She worked didn’t work.

It worked didn’t work.

They worked didn’t work.

The past simple verb doesn’t change when you ask questions.

Did I work?

Did you work?

Did we work?

Did he work?

Did she work?

Did it work?

Did they work?

To make the past simple tense form of regular verbs, we add +ed .

Present Past

I work I worked

He works He worked

However, pronunciation of regular past tense tense verbs can change.

For example, ‘He worked’ sounds like ‘He workt’

Base verb Sounds like /t/ Sounds like /d/ sounds like /id/

Work Worked
 Look Looked

Talk Talked

Like Liked

Watch Watched

Laugh Laughed

Wish Wished

Listen Listened

Open Opened

Learn Learned

Change Changed

Climb Climbed

Try Tried

Paint Painted

Want Wanted

End Ended

Decide Decided
Present perfect continuous

Present perfect continuous (also known as the present perfect progressive)

Present perfect tenses are used to talk about

situations that connect the past to now.

Present perfect continuous is formed using:

have / has + been + [verb] + ing

For example:

I have been running.

Have you been running?

He has been studying?

Has he been studying?

Do you know when to use present perfect simple and when to use present perfect continuous?

Read the information that follows to check your ideas…..

When to use present perfect continuous instead of present perfect simple

1. Using present perfect continuous to focus on a recent but unfinished activity

Look at these examples.

I have been reading that book you gave me. (present perfect continuous)

I have read the book you gave me. (present perfect simple)
In the present perfect continuous sentence, the person is focussing on the recent action of
reading. Using present perfect continuous does not tell us that the reading is actually finished –
the person wants to emphasise their recent activities.

In the present perfect simple sentence, the person is focussing on the recently completed
activity. Using present perfect tells us that the reading is finished with a present result (nothing
left to read in the book).

2. Using present perfect continuous to focus on the duration of a recent activity (how long)
instead of quantity (how much)

Compare these two sentences.

I have been reading the book you gave me all afternoon. (present perfect continuous)

I have read four chapters of the book you gave me. (present perfect simple)

In the present perfect continuous sentence, the person is focussing on the recent action of
reading and the time they have spent doing it, using present perfect continuous does not tell us
that the reading is actually finished, the person wants to emphasise their recent activities and
the length of time spent doing it.

In the present perfect simple sentence, the person is focussing on the recently completed
activity and quantity completed. Using present perfect tells us that they have finished four
chapters of their book.

BUT some verbs in this situation could be used in both forms to talk about duration.

For example: I have studied English for 4 years / I have been studying English for four years.

3. Using present perfect continuous where a recent activity is more temporary

Compare these two sentences.

I usually work in Auckland, but for the last month I have been working in Wellington. (present
perfect continuous)

I have worked for the same company since I left school. (present perfect simple)

In the present perfect continuous sentence, the person is focussing on the recent action of
working in Wellington, but use of present perfect continuous there instead of present perfect
simple in the second sentence indicates that the work situation is more temporary.

Past continuous tense

The past continuous is also known as the past progressive tense.

Example:

• He was washing his hands when the phone rang.

• We were singing and they were dancing all night.

Past continuous form:

was / were + [verb -to] + ing

Uses of past continuous:

1. To talk about an activity in progress at a particular time in the past

2. To talk about two actions happening at the same time in the past
3. To talk about a longer activity that was interrupted by a shorter activity
4. To give a background to an event

Past continuous use #1:

To talk about an activity in progress at a particular time in the past

1. This time last week, I was relaxing on the beach.

The particular time is ‘this time last week’, and we are referring to an activity (relaxing).

Past continuous use #2:

To talk about two actions happening at the same time in the past

1. Last night I was cooking dinner while my friends were watching television.

Using was cooking and were watching tells the listenener that both actions were happening at
the same time.

Past continuous use #3:

To talk about a longer activity that was interrupted by a shorter activity

1. I was reading a book when the doorbell rang.

The longer activity = ‘was reading a book’

The interruption or shorter activity = ‘the doorbell rang‘

We would not say:

I was reading a book when the doorbell was ringing.

This would mean that the two actions were happening together over the same length of time.

Past continuous use #4:

To give a background to an event

 • It was a quiet night. The moon was shining and the wind was blowing gently.

In this example, you are simply describing the background of what was happening that night.

Present perfect simple

Present perfect simple tense examples:

I have cleaned my shoes.
He has gone to America.
I have travelled through Asia, but I haven’t been to
Africa.

Uses of the present perfect simple:

1. To talk about something completed some time in the

(recent) past that has an effect now
2. To talk about an experience we have had in our lives.

Present perfect simple form:

have / has + [3rd form of the verb / past participle]

Present perfect simple use #1:

We can use present perfect simple to talk about something completed in the past that has an
effect now.

• I have cleaned my shoes.

This tells us that:

a) the speaker cleaned his/her shoes in the past

b) that there is a present effect of this – probably that they are now clean.

• I haven’t finished my homework!

a) the speaker did not do their homework in the past

b) that there is a present effect of this – that they are not prepared for class.

NOTE: you cannot use present perfect simple with a specific time in the past – you have to use
past simple.

e.g. I didn’t finish my homework last night. NOT I haven’t finished my homework last night.

Present perfect simple use #2:

We can use present perfect simple to talk about an experience we have had in our lives.

“Have you ever visited New Zealand?”

“No, I haven’t” been there yet. I have been to Australia though!

“I have eaten tofu but I have never eaten crocodile meat”

NOTE:

American English does not use this form of the present perfect. In American English, the past
simple is used instead.

“Have you ever visited New Zealand?” (British English)

“Did you ever visit New Zealand?” (American English)

‘Ever’, ‘never’, ‘yet’ with present perfect simple

Have you ever…..?

Used for questions about experience up to now.

Example:

• Have you ever taken an over night train?

• Has he ever met your wife?

Have you…… yet?

Used for questions and negative sentences about experience up to now.

• Have you seen that new film yet?

• I haven’t asked him yet.

NOT: Have you ever visited New York yet.

Never

Used for negative sentences about experience up to now.

I have never climbed a mountain.

I have never spoken to her.

NOT: I have never drunk champagne yet.

Future simple tense (will and be going to)

The future simple tense has two forms in English

– ‘will’ and ‘(be) going to’.

When you use the future simple tense to talk

about the future , using ‘will’ or ‘(be) going to’
can alter the meaning of what you are saying.

Read the information below to see what the

differences are and when to use which form of the future simple tense.

Future simple tense – differences between ‘will’ and ‘(be) going to’

will: will + (base form of the verb)

(be) going to: be (am, are is) + going to + (base form of the verb)

Will

1. To talk about a future ‘fact’.

The population of New Zealand will be 6 million by 20**.

2. To talk about something we have just decided to do (had no plan – decision made at the time
of speaking).

Person A: “I feel really ill.’ Person B: Do you? I‘ll drive you home.

3. To make a promise.

I will love you forever.

(Be) going to
1. When we have evidence that something will happen (we can see something or know
something that gives us evidence).

You’ve eaten so many chocolates! You are going to be sick!

2. To talk about something we will do in the future and have already planned

I’m going to have a holiday next week.

Future simple tense – will – more examples

Use #1: To talk about a future ‘fact’

‘The sun will rise at 6.10 a.m. tomorrow.’

Using ‘will’ means that this is fact.

Remember that a ‘fact’ can be subjective.

For example:

‘My team will win the World Cup’ is a ‘fact’ for the speaker, but not necessarily for the listener.

Use #2

A: “I have a headache!”
B: “Really? I will (I’ll) get you a tablet”

Speaker B has made a decision at the same time as speaking, so uses will.

Use #3

To make a promise (about something you will definitely do in the future).

I will call you as soon as I arrive.

I will remember and follow your advice!

Future simple tense – (be) going to – more examples

Use #1: When we have evidence (we can see something or know something) that something
will happen in the future

Look at those clouds! It is going to rain!

We can say ‘going to’ because we have evidence – we can see the clouds.

Use #2: To talk about something we will do in the future and have already planned.

‘I’m going to have my hair cut tomorrow – I booked the appointment last week’

We say ‘going to’ because this must have been decided last week when the appointment was
booked.

Compare:

A: I’m going to see that new film at the cinema today with John. (speaker is talking about
something they will do in the future and have already planned)

B: But John can’t go – he asked me to tell you that he’s not feeling well.

A: Oh, OK. I‘ll go to the library instead then. (speaker is talking about something they have just
decided to do (they had no plan – the decision was made at the time of speaking).

Now try these exercises!

Example: He __________________ (resign) today as he accepted a new job offer last week.
He is going to resign today as he accepted a new job offer last week.

1. “Why don’t you come to my house this evening?”. “Oh, okay. I _______________ (bring)
some pizza.”

2. Look at that driver! He’s on the wrong side of the road and he’s travelling too fast. I’m
sure he ______________________ (crash)!

3. By 2014, the global population ______________________ (be) nearly 7 billion.

4. A: we need some more milk. B: I know. I ___________________ (get) some later – it’s
on my shopping list.

5. He _______________________ (win) the race easily. Look, he’s so far ahead of the
others!

6. I promise I _______________________ (send) you an email at least once a week while

I’m away!

7. I _______________________ (exercise) more regularly from now on. I joined the local
gym yesterday.

8. Future generations _______________________ (live) longer than people do now.

9. I didn’t know he needed a lift. I _____________________ (take) him home if you like.

10. I _____________________ (have) a check up at the dentist tomorrow – I booked the

appointment last week.

Answers
 1. will bring
2. is going to crash
3. will be
4. am going to get
5. is going to win
6. will send
7. am going to exercise
8. will live
9. will take
10. am going to have

Past perfect simple and continuous

Past perfect simple and continuous are used to talk about an ‘earlier’ past when you are also
talking about another (more recent) past situation.

In general terms, while both past perfect simple and continuous actions are finished, past
perfect simple emphasises the ‘completion’ of the action and past perfect continuous
emphasises the ‘length’ of that completed action.

Term The past perfect simple

Example When I arrived at the office, my boss had

already gone home.

Form had + [3rd form]

 Uses 1. To talk about an action that happened at
some point before another action in the
past.

Example:

I saw John at the conference yesterday. It was not the first time – I had met him before.

2007: First time you met John

Yesterday: You saw John again
NOW: You are talking about the two times in the past when you met John.

Term The past perfect continuous

Example It was clear she had been crying when I saw her.

Form had + been + [3rd form] + ing

Uses 1. To talk about a longer action that continued up until (or finished shortly before)
another action in the past.

Example:

He had been driving for 6 hours without a break before he crashed the car.
4pm to 10pm: He was driving and didn’t take a break
10.01 pm: He crashed the car
NOW: You are talking about a longer action in the past (6 hours of driving without a break) that
happened before another past action (the car crash).

Past perfect simple and continuous differences

Past perfect simple Past perfect continuous

To emphasise longer lasting or To talk about more temporary past actions before
permanent situations. another past event.His legs were tired because he had
The castle had stood for 500 years been standing for hours. (though continuous could be
before the storm destroyed it. used here without any real difference in meaning)
(though continuous could be used
here without any real difference in
meaning)

To emphasise the completion of an To emphasise the duration of the action before another
action before another action in the action in the past. He had been studying the chapter all
past. He had studied the chapter his day, so decided to take a break. (indicates he stopped
teacher told him to, so he decided to studying because he had studied for a long time that
take a break. (indicates the chapter day – doesn’t confirm that he finished the chapter, we
was finished) jusy know that he finished the action of studying)

Remember that some verbs are not used in the continuous form! e.g. stative verbs such as:

1. he had believed NOT he had been believing

2. it had tasted NOT it had been tasting
3. she had belonged NOT she had been belonging…. etc
Past perfect exercises

Complete the past perfect simple and continuous exercises below to test your knowledge of the
past perfect simple and continuous.

Example: He __________________ (work) for 8 hours without a break before his boss arrived.
He had been working for 8 hours without a break before his boss arrived.

1. By the time I got to the party John ____________________ (left).

click here to see the answer

had left

2. I couldn’t wait any longer because I ______________________ (already / arranged) to meet

Debbie in the city.

click here to see the answer

had already arranged

3. He ______________________ (completed) the task by the time he went home.

click here to see the answer

had completed

4. They ___________________ (paint) all morning before they ran out of paint and went to buy
more.

click here to see the answer

had been painting

5. He _______________________ (not finish) work when I called him at 7pm.

click here to see the answer

had not finished

6. She _______________________ (run) for over an hour so she was very hot and sweaty.

click here to see the answer

had been running

7. They _______________________ (date) for several years before they got engaged.

click here to see the answer

had been dating

8. She _______________________ (watch) the movie before but wanted to see it again.

click here to see the answer

had watched

9. He _____________________ (studied) all week so decided to take some time off.

click here to see the answer

had been studying

10. I _____________________ (not eat) all day so I was so hungry when we arrived at the
restaurant.

click here to see the answer

had not eaten

11. I _____________________ (not see) Jake for 10 years when I met him unexpectedly at the
conference.

click here to see the answer

had not seen

12. __________________ you _________________ (know) Jenny long before you went on
holiday together?

click here to see the answer

Had you known

Countable and uncountable nouns

The English language has different rules about countable and uncountable nouns than some
other languages. Basic rules about countable and uncountable nouns are –

1. A countable noun can be counted (e.g. one apple, two apples).

 2. An uncountable noun cannot be counted (e.g. sugar – it’s hard to ‘count’ the number of
small sugar grains).

Abstract nouns (things you cannot can’t feel, touch, see, hear, or taste) are usually uncountable
too. For example: knowledge, leisure.

Here are some examples of countable and uncountable nouns.

There are more examples of uncountable and uncountable nouns in the picture too.

Countable nouns:

car, table, pencil, computer

Uncountable nouns:

water, bread, milk, information, education

When you learn new words in English, it is important to know whether the nouns you are
learning are countable or uncountable nouns because the words and the grammar you use in
sentences are different.

Remember that the rules in English might be different to the rules about countable and
uncountable nouns in your own language!

Countable and uncountable nouns – ‘a‘ or ‘an‘ and making plurals

1. Use a or an before a single countable noun.

Single countable noun examples:

1. a car
2. an apple

2. Don’t use a or an before an uncountable noun

Uncountable noun examples:

• water (not a water),

• information (not an information)

3. Add +s or +es after more than one countable noun (plural countable nouns).

Plural countable noun examples:

• two cars
• five potatoes

Remember though that some nouns are irregular – you don’t add ‘s’ or ‘es’ when you make
them plural and you just need to learn them! e.g. child / children, man / men, tooth / teeth etc.

4. Don’t add +s or +es after an uncountable noun (they have no plural)

Uncountable noun examples:

1. milk (not milks)

2. leisure (not leisures)

Countable and uncountable nouns – ‘some’ and ‘no’

1. Use some when talking about more than one countable noun and with uncountable nouns
in positive sentences.

For example:

• There are some cars parked on the street. (there is more than one car on the street)
• There is some milk in the fridge. (there is milk in the fridge)

Also note the differences is grammar. Remember uncountable nouns have no plural form so in
the example above ‘milk’ takes the ‘is’ form of the verb ‘to be’.
There are some cars. (NOT There is some cars or There are some car)

There is some milk. (NOT There are some milk or There is some milks)

2. The opposite of ‘some‘ is ‘none‘. You can use ‘no‘ in a ‘positive’ sentence structure to say that
something is not present.

For example:

A There are no cars parked on the street. (there zero cars on the street)
B There is no milk in the fridge. (milk is not in the fridge)

Also note the differences is grammar. Remember uncountable nouns have no plural form so in
the example above ‘milk’ takes the ‘is’ form of the verb ‘to be’.

There are no cars. (NOT There is no cars or There are no car)

There is some milk. (NOT There are no milk or There is no milks)

Countable and uncountable nouns rule – ‘any‘

Use any when talking about more than one countable noun and with uncountable nouns in
negative sentences and in questions.

1. There aren’t any books about that topic at the library.

2. Are there any books about that topic at the library?
3. There isn’t any information about that topic at the library.
4. Is there any information about that topic at the library?

Also note the differences is grammar. Remember uncountable nouns have no plural form so in
the example above ‘information’ takes the ‘is’ form of the verb ‘to be’.

There aren’t any books. (NOT There aren’t some books or There isn’t no books)

Are there any books? (NOT Is there some books? or Are there any book?)
There isn’t any information. (NOT There isn’t no information or There aren’t any information)

Is there any information? (NOT Is there some informations? or Are there any information?)

Countable and uncountable nouns rule – ‘many’ and ‘much’

Use many when talking about more than one countable noun in negative sentences and in
questions.

Use much when talking about uncountable nouns in negative sentences and in questions.

Much and many follow the same rules as ‘any‘ but the meaning is different.

Can you see the difference? Look at the examples below.

1. Countable nouns – ‘any‘ and ‘many‘

• There aren’t any books about that topic at the library. (there are zero books on the
topic)
• There aren’t many books about that topic at the library. (there are a small number of
books on the topic)

• Are there any books about that topic at the library? (the speaker wants to know if the
library has books on the topic)
• Are there many books about that topic at the library? (the speaker wants to to know the
quantity of books on the topic at the library)

2. Uncountable nouns – ‘any‘ and ‘much‘

A. There isn’t any information about that topic at the library. (there is zero information on
the topic)
B. There isn’t much information about that topic at the library. (there is a small amount of
information on the topic)
 1. Is there any information about that topic at the library? (the speaker wants to know if
the library has information on the topic)
2. Is there much information about that topic at the library? (the speaker wants to to know
the quantity of information on the topic)

Also note the differences is grammar. Remember uncountable nouns have no plural form so in
the example above ‘information’ takes the ‘is’ form of the verb ‘to be’.

There aren’t many books. (NOT There aren’t much books or There isn’t many books)

Are there many books? (NOT Is there many books? or Are there much books?)

There isn’t much information. (NOT There isn’t many information or There aren’t much
information)

Is there much information? (NOT Is there many information? or Is there much informations?)

Countable and uncountable nouns – a lot of (lots of), too many, too much

A lot of (lots of), too many and too much can be used with countable and uncountable nouns
to talk about quantity (bigger amounts).

Here are some rules and information about when to use them and the differences in meaning.

1. Use a lot of (lots of) and too many when talking about plural countable nouns. Be careful as
the meanings are different!

Compare these examples:

1. There were some people at the party. (There was more than one person at the party)
2. There were a lot of people at the party. (There were a large number of people at the
party)
 3. There were lots of people at the party. (There were a large number of people at the
party)

Note: Too many describes the quantity in a negative way.

• There were too many people at the party (negative – the speaker thinks the party was
so crowded they didn’t enjoy it)

2. Use a lot of (lots of) and too much when talking about uncountable nouns. Be careful as the
meanings are different!

Compare these examples:

• The manager gave his staff some information to read before the meeting. (The staff had
something to read)
• The manager gave his staff a lot of information to read before the meeting. (The staff
had a large amount of information to read)
• The manager gave his staff lots of information to read before the meeting. (The staff
had a large amount of information to read)

Note: Too much describes the quantity in a negative way.

1. The manager gave his staff too much information to read before the meeting. (negative
– the speaker thinks the boss was treating his staff unfairly)

Countable and uncountable nouns – (a) few, (a) little

Few, a few, little, and a little can be used with countable and uncountable nouns to talk about
quantity (smaller amounts).

Here are some rules and information about when to use them and the differences in meaning.

1. Use few or a few when talking about plural countable nouns.

Examples:

1. There were a few people waiting in the queue. (There were a small number of people in
the queue)
2. There were few people waiting in the queue. (There were a very small number of
people)

Note: Few describes the quantity in a negative way.

• He has a few friends (neutral)

• He has few friends (negative – the speaker probably thinks the person doesn’t have
enough friends)

2. Use little or a little when talking about uncountable nouns.

Examples:

I have a little money left. (I have a small amount of money)

I have little money left. (My money is almost all gone)

Examples:

Note: Little describes the quantity in a negative way.

• He has a little understanding of the subject. (neutral)

• He has little understanding of the subject. (negative – the speaker thinks the person

doesn’t have enough knowledge about the subject)

Complete the countable and uncountable noun exercises below to test your knowledge of
countable and uncountable nouns.

Are the following nouns usually countable or uncountable?

 1. Computer
2. Milk
3. Telephone
4. Bread
5. Rice
6. Cup
7. Coffee
8. Friend
9. Pasta
10. Flower
11. Flour
12. Knowledge
13. Education
14. Money
15. Coin
16. Ink
17. Photograph
18. Vehicle

Choose the correct words to complete each of the sentences below.

19. Do you have _________________ (many / much) money with you? Could I borrow some
please?

20. There isn’t ___________________ (some / any) bread left. I’ll get some when I go shopping.

21. I have ___________________ (some / any) coins in my purse if you need some change.
22. There were ___________________ (too many / too much) vehicles on the motorway today.
I was stuck in a traffic jam for hours!

23. ________________________ (a few / a little) of my friends are going to the party on

Saturday. I’m so glad I’ll know some people there!

24. There were ______________________ (too many / a lot of) people at the party – it was
such a great atmosphere I had a brilliant time!

25. I can’t help you I’m sorry. I have ______________________ (few / little) knowledge of that
subject.

Answers

1. countable
2. uncountable
3. countable
4. uncountable
5. uncountable
6. countable
7. uncountable
8. countable
9. uncountable
10. countable
11. uncountable
12. uncountable
13. uncountable
14. uncountable
15. countable
16. uncountable
17. countable
18. countable
19. much
20. any
21. some
22. too many
23. a few
24. a lot of
25. little
Countable and uncountable nouns - more rules

Sometimes nouns can act as both countable and

uncountable nouns (often with a slight difference in meaning). This can make learning the rules
even more complicated!

For example, coffee is generally used as an uncountable noun. However, it is acceptable to say
“I’d like two coffees please” because in this case the speaker is thinking about 2 cups of coffee.

This rule also applies when thinking of other uncountable liquids and the container they might
come in.

For example: “Do you want a (bottle of / glass of) beer? Beer is uncountable, but the speaker is
thinking about the bottle / glass it comes in.

The table below shows usage of the same words as countable and uncountable nouns – note
the different forms of the same word.

Countable – There is a hair in my soup! (one countable strand of hair)

Uncountable – He doesn’t have much hair. (usually uncountable – all the hair on a person’s
head)

……
Countable – Do you often read a paper? (the speak means a newspaper – newspapers are
countable)

Uncountable – Do you have some paper I can use? (paper is uncountable, BUT pieces / sheets
of paper are countable)

……

Countable – Did you leave a light on? (a light in the building that the person is talking about)

Uncountable – He couldn’t sleep because of the light coming through the curtains. (the speaker
means ‘sunlight’ – uncountable noun)

……

Countable – On the farm they have a few chickens. (the birds – they are countable)

Uncountable – I love chicken – it’s my favourite meat! (the meat – uncountable. The same
applies to lambs (animals) lamb (the meat) / ducks (the birds) duck (the meat) etc.

……

Countable – They had a terrible time last week! (the speaker is talking about one specific
situation in the past)

Uncountable – Do you have time to help me? (‘time’ in general – uncountable noun)

Direct and indirect questions

When asking for information in English you can use direct and indirect questions. There are
differences in sentence structure and levels of politeness and formality.
In English, a basic question can be formed using either an auxiliary verb or a question word.

For example:

Does he like swimming? (Auxiliary verb)

Where is the library? (Question word)

These are both examples of direct questions.

However, in English there are situations where it can be considered impolite to ask a direct
question so we might ask an indirect question.

Whether we use direct and indirect questions depends on the situation, who we are talking to
and what we are talking about. We tend to use direct questions with people we know well, in
more informal situations and / or when the topic is not ‘sensitive’. Indirect questions are often
used when talking to someone we don’t know well, in formal / professional situations, and / or
where the topic might be ‘sensitive’.

Indirect questions are a little more formal and polite. We use them when talking to a person we
don’t know very well, or in professional situations – See more at:
http://www.espressoenglish.net/direct-and-indirect-questions-in-
english/#sthash.umRljxmT.dpuf

Compare the following direct and indirect questions:

When can we discuss this problem? – Direct question which in some cases is not very polite;
e.g. when asking your boss to discuss a payment problem.

Would it be possible to discuss this problem soon? – Indirect question which is considered more
polite; e.g. a politer way of stating that there is a problem you want to talk about.
Here are some ways of asking indirect questions. NOTE: some indirect questions are technically
not questions at all – they are simply a way to encourage a response from the person we are
talking too.

Direct question Indirect question

How old are you? Would you mind telling me how old you are?

Where’s the bank? Could you tell me where the bank is?

Why are they late? I wonder why they are late?

What time is it? Do you have any idea what time it is?

Help me! Is there any chance you could help me?

Who’s that? Do you happen to know who that is?

Grammar differences in direct and indirect questions

There are three important grammatical changes between direct and indirect sentences.

1. When we start using an indirect question form (such as those on the right hand side of the
table above), the word order is the same as a positive statement, not a question.

Direct question Indirect question

Do you know what his name is?NOT Do you

What is his name?
know what is his name?
 Can you tell me what you are doing?NOT Can
What are you doing?
you tell me what are you doing?

2. If the direct question uses the auxiliary verb ‘do’ (i.e. does, did, do), it is left out of the
indirect question.

Direct question Indirect question

Where does she

Do you know where she lives?NOT Do you know where she does live?
live?

Who did she work Can you tell me who she worked for?NOT Can you tell me who she did
for? work for?

3. If the direct question can be answered with ‘Yes’ or ‘No’, the indirect question needs ‘if’ or
‘whether’.

Direct question Indirect question

Is she coming back soon? Do you know if she is coming back soon?

Have you seen this man before? Can you tell me whether you have seen this man before?

Gerunds and infinitives

Gerunds and infinitives and when to use each form can be confusing.

When there are two main verbs in a sentence, the second verb must be either a gerund (+ing)
or an infinitive form of the verb. There are some rules to help you decide when to use gerunds
and infinitives.
Gerunds and infinitives rule #1: Use the gerund as the subject

If a sentence uses a verb as the subject of a sentence, it is most common to use a gerund.

For example:

Swimming is good for your health. (not To swim is good for your health.)

Learning is important. (not To learn is important.)

Gerunds and infinitives rule #2: Decided by the main verb

If a sentence uses a verb as the object of a sentence, the decision of whether to use a gerund of
an infinitive is made by the main verb in the sentence..

For example:

The thief admitted stealing the money. (the main verb ADMIT is followed by a gerund)

He can’t afford to buy a new car. (the main verb AFFORD is followed by the infinitive).

Unfortunately, there are no reliable rules for deciding whether a main verb should be followed
by gerunds and infinitives. It is simply something that needs to be learned. You can use the
table below to help.

Gerunds and infinitives rule #3: Either can be used as the object and have the
same meaning

Sometimes the object of a sentence can be either a gerund or an infinitive with no difference in
the meaning (see the table below for a more complete list of these words)

For example:

It started raining OR It started to rain

I began playing the guitar last year OR I began to play the guitar last year

Gerunds and infinitives rule #4: Either can be used as the object but they have a
different meaning

Sometimes using gerunds and infinitives as the object of a sentence can make a difference to
the meaning.

For example, look at the use of gerunds and infinitives below, we have these two possible
meanings:

Stop reading that magazine and get back

Gerund This means that you should not read
to work!

Stop to read the instructions before you

Infinitive This means you should start reading
break it!

Gerunds and infinitives rule #5: use the gerund after prepositions

If there is a preposition after the main verb, then you always use a preposition.

For example:

I’m tired of waiting for you every day!

Many people surf the internet without having a website of their own.

Gerunds and infinitives – general rules

Look at the table below to learn more about general rules when using gerunds and infinitives.
 Verbs that can be followed
Verbs by either gerund or Verbs that can be followed by
Verbs followed infinitive with no real either gerund or infinitive but
followed by difference with a significant difference
by gerund
infinitive

acknowledge afford begin forget

admit agree continue remember
adore appear hate stop
anticipate arrange like regret
appreciate ask love
avoid attempt prefer
celebrate care start
confess choose
contemplate claim
delay come
deny consent
describe dare
detest decide
discuss demand
dislike deserve
dread determine
endure elect
enjoy endeavour
fancy expect
finish fail
imagine get
involve guarantee
keep help
justify hesitate
 mention hope
mind hurry
miss incline
omit intend
postpone learn
practise long
quit manage
recall mean
recommend need
regret offer
report plan
resent prepare
resume pretend
risk promise
suggest refuse
tolerate resolve
understand say
seem
tend
threaten
want
wish

NOTE: The table above is not a complete list (a complete list would be pages and pages long!)

Gerunds and infinitives exercises

Gerunds and infinitives exercises practice A

Complete the gerunds and infinitives exercises by choosing the correct option (a) or (b) to
complete each of the sentences.

1. _______________________ is not just fun, it is also great exercise.

(a) To dance (b) Dancing

click here to see the answer

Correct answer is B.

2. I find __________________________ movies very relaxing.

(a) to watch (b) watching

click here to see the answer

Correct answer is B.

3. I can’t afford ___________________ my car at the moment.

(a) to replace (b) replacing

click here to see the answer

Correct answer is A.

4. I am contemplating ___________________ a new hobby.

(a) to take up (b) taking up

click here to see the answer

Correct answer is B.

5. I demanded ___________________ the manager so I could make a complaint.

(a) to see (b) seeing

click here to see the answer

Correct answer is A.

6. I keep ___________________ you every time you come back to visit!

(a) to miss (b) missing

click here to see the answer

Correct answer is B.

7. He resents ___________________ so early every day.

(a) to get up (b) getting up

click here to see the answer

Correct answer is B.

8. He came ___________________ with me yesterday.

(a) to talk (b) talking

click here to see the answer

Correct answer is A.

9. I fail ___________________ what the problem is.

(a) to see (b) seeing

click here to see the answer

Correct answer is A.

10. ___________________ a book is more interesting than watching a film.

(a) To read (b) Reading

click here to see the answer

Correct answer is B.

11. They acknowledged ___________________ the letter.

(a) to receive (b) receiving

click here to see the answer

Correct answer is B.

12. She adores ___________________.

(a) to ski (b) skiing

click here to see the answer

Correct answer is B.

13. I chose ___________________ during the holidays.

(a) to work (b) working

click here to see the answer

Correct answer is A.

14. I hope ___________________ the opportunity to work with him.

(a) to get (b) getting

click here to see the answer

Correct answer is A.

15. They have delayed ___________________ a decision until the boss returns.

(a) to make (b) making

click here to see the answer

Correct answer is B.

16. The customer threatened ___________________ the company for incompetence.

(a) to sue (b) suing

click here to see the answer

Correct answer is A.

17. He deserves ___________________ a holiday; he has been working so hard.

(a) to have (b) having

click here to see the answer

Correct answer is A.

18. The teachers discussed ___________________ a new course at their last meeting.

(a) to introduce (b) introducing

click here to see the answer

Correct answer is B.

19. I recall ___________________ the issue during a previous meeting.

(a) to discuss (b) discussing

click here to see the answer

Correct answer is B.

Gerunds and infinitives exercises practice B

The verbs in the sentences below can take either a gerund or an infinitive form but the meaning
changes.

Complete the gerunds and infinitives exercises below by selecting the correct meaning (a) or
(b).

20a. He forgot posting the letter.

(a) He had posted the letter, but didn’t remember doing it

(b) He didn’t post the letter because he didn’t remember to do it

click here to see the answer

Correct answer is A.

20b. He forgot to post the letter.

(a) He had posted the letter, but didn’t remember doing it

(b) He didn’t post the letter because he didn’t remember to do it

click here to see the answer

Correct answer is B.

21a. He stopped drinking coffee.

(a) He paused what he was doing to drink some coffee

(b) He no longer drinks coffee – he gave it up

click here to see the answer

Correct answer is B.

21b. He stopped to drink coffee.

(a) He paused what he was doing to drink some coffee

(b) He no longer drinks coffee – he gave it up

click here to see the answer

Correct answer is A.

22a. I regret to inform you about this situation.

(a) I have to give bad news in a formal situation

(b) I said something I wish I hadn’t

click here to see the answer

Correct answer is A.

22b. I regret informing you about this situation.

(a) I have to give bad news in a formal situation

(b) I said something I wish I hadn’t

click here to see the answer

Correct answer is B.
23a. I remember locking the door.

(a) Action then memory – I locked the door and now remember doing it

(b) Memory then action – I remembered I had to lock the door, then I did it

click here to see the answer

Correct answer is A.

23b. I remembered to lock the door.

(a) Action then memory – I locked the door and now remember doing it

(b) Memory then action – I remembered I had to lock the door, then I did it

click here to see the answer

Correct answer is B.

Adjective order

Adjective order is important if you are using more than one adjective before a noun. There is
often a specific order in which they must be placed. For example:

A black leather jacket

A leather black jacket

Here is a short acronym to help you remember:

OSASCOMP
opinion – size – age – shape – colour – origin – material – purpose

Below you will find an explanation for each letter and some example sentences.

Adjective Order Rule 1: OSASCOMP – O for opinion

Adjectives that talk about opinions, judgements or attitudes usually come first.

Opinions, judgements or attitudes Noun

a lovely jacket.

a perfect plate.

an expensive bike.

Adjective Order Rule 2: OSASCOMP – S for size

Adjectives relating to size, length and height come next. For example:

Judgements, opinions or attitudes Size, length, height Noun

a lovely large jacket.

a perfect big plate.

an expensive – bike.

Adjective Order Rule 3: OSASCOMP – A for age

Next are any adjectives relating to age

 Judgements, opinions or attitudes Size, length, height Age Noun

a lovely large new jacket.

a perfect big old plate.

an expensive – modern bike.

Adjective Order Rule #4: OSASCOMP – S for shape

Judgements, opinions or attitudes Size, length, height Age Shape Noun

a lovely large new – jacket.

a perfect big old round plate.

an expensive – modern – bike.

Adjective Order Rule #5: OSASCOMP – C for colour

Next are the adjectives that talk about colour.

Judgements, opinions or Size, length,

Age Shape Colour Noun
attitudes height

a lovely large new – black jacket.

a perfect big old round white plate.

an expensive – modern – red bike.

Adjective Order Rule #6: OSASCOMP – O for origin

This refers to adjectives that say where the noun is from.

Judgements, opinions or Size, length,

Age Shape Colour Origin Noun
attitudes height

a lovely large new – black – jacket.

a perfect big old round white Chinese plate.

an expensive – modern – red Italian bike.

Adjective Order Rule #7: OSASCOMP – M for material

This refers to what the noun is made of.

Size,
Judgements, length, Age Shape Colour Origin Material Noun
opinions or attitudes
height

a lovely large new – black – leather jacket.

a perfect big old round white Chinese porcelain plate.

an expensive – modern – red Italian – bike.

Adjective Order Rule #8: OSASCOMP – P for purpose

This refers to what the noun is used for (e.g. wedding ring). They are often nouns used as
adjectives.
 Judgements, Size,
opinions or length, Age Shape Colour Origin Material Purpose Noun
attitudes height

a lovely large new – black – leather – jacket.

a perfect big old round white Chinese porcelain dinner plate.

an expensive – modern – red Italian – sports bike.

Important notes:

1. The adjectives used in the tables above are examples only. It is uncommon in English to use
more than three adjectives in the same sentence to describe a noun.

2. Some adjectives can be found in different positions, but if you follow the OSASCOMP rule you
won’t be wrong!

Complete the adjective order exercises below to test your knowledge.

Adjective order exercises practice

Complete the adjective order exercises by putting the words into the correct order to make a
correctly ordered sentence.

1. red / drives / a / truck / Australian / he / big

2. these / old / I / replace/ shoes / must / cheap
3. such / old / a / man / he / is / kind
4. lovely / is / she / a / wearing / red / dress /

new
 5. a / meal / Indian / we / had / delicious
6. lives / a / lovely / apartment / she / modern /

in
7. garden / beautiful / he / porcelain / has / a /
Italian / statue / in / his
8. dining / an / bought / wooden / antique / he /
table
9. face / my / watch / has / red / a / round / big
10. wearing / my / I / love / pants / black /
comfortable / cotton

Answers

1. He drives a big, red, Australian truck.

2. I must replace these cheap, old shoes.
3. He is such a kind, old man.
4. She is wearing a lovely, new, red dress.
5. We had a delicious, Indian meal.
6. She lives in a lovely, modern apartment.
7. He has a beautiful, Italian, porcelain statue in his garden.
8. He bought an antique, wooden, dining table.
9. My watch has a big, round, red face.
10. I love wearing my comfortable, black, cotton pants.

Articles (a, an, the and Ø)

Using articles correctly in English can be very difficult as there are a lot of rules to remember.
There are three articles in English ‘a’, ‘an’, ‘the’ and sometimes no article Ø is needed.
1. The indefinite article – A or AN

Examples of use of indefinite articles: Do you have a pen? I need an umbrella.

2. The definite article – THE

Examples of use of definite articles: The boy lives at home. Here is the book I borrowed.

3. The zero article – this is used when no article is used, often shown as Ø in
grammar books

Examples of zero articles: I like (Ø) dogs. (Ø) English exercises can be difficult.

Below are the common rules for when to use articles.

Articles – rule #1

We use ‘a’ or ‘an’ when there are many of something and you are talking generally about a
single one.

Examples:

Do you have a pen I can borrow? (it doesn’t matter which pen)

I would like an apple (it doesn’t matter which apple)

Articles – rule #2

We use ‘the’ when there is only one of the thing we are talking. It could be that it is unique, or
it could that there is only one that you could logically be talking about.
Examples:

The sun rises in the east. (it is unique – there is only one sun)

Have you fed the dog? (logically the people speaking must only have one dog)

Who’s the girl over there? (we identify the girl so now the speaker and listening know which
one)

Articles – rule #3

We use ‘an’ in front of words that begin a vowel sound, and ‘a’ in front of words with a
consonant sound.

Examples:

• a potato
• a carrot
• an egg
• an apple
• an hour (the word hour sounds like ‘our’, so has a vowel sound to start)
• a university (the word university sounds like ‘you-niversity’ so has a consonant sound to

start).

Articles – rule #4

We use ‘a’ or ‘an’ the first time we talk about something; we use ‘the’ for the second, third,
fourth etc time we talk about it.

Examples:
She has a dog and a cat. The dog is friendly but I don’t like the cat.

Articles – rule #5

With uncountable nouns, we often use no article (Ø).

Examples:

• I like wine (not the wine or a wine)

• I listen to good advice (not the good advice or a good advice)

NOTE: Some nouns can be countable and uncountable.

Example:

• Sleep is important
• I am tired. I need a good sleep.

Articles – rule #6

‘The’ is used for a lot of expressions regarding the physical environment

Examples:

• They live in the country.

• They went hiking in the mountains.
• The problem with Wellington is the wind.
• I love holidays by the seaside.

Articles – rule #7
The is used with superlatives.

Examples:

• The Pacific Ocean is the largest ocean in the world.

• Lake Baikal in Russia is the deepest lake in the world.
• Elephants are the biggest animals in Africa.

Articles – rule #8

‘A’ or ‘an’ can be used when a single member is referred to but actually refers to the whole
group.

Examples:

• A doctor must be kind. (meaning all doctors / any doctor)

• A dog can make a very good pet. (meaning all dogs / any dogs)

Articles – rule #9

Sometimes we talk about things in general by using ‘the’ with a countable noun.

Examples:

A. The panda is an endangered species.

B. Email is replacing the telephone as the most common way of communicating.

Articles – rule #10

Whether or not we use ‘the’ or Ø (no article) can sometimes depend on whether the speaker is
describing a physical building or the purpose of a building.
Examples:

A. Jane is in Ø hospital for her operation. (No article here because we are referring to the
purpose of a hospital – for surgery, health etc)
B. Go straight along this street, turn left at the hospital and it’s just on the right (now we
use the because we are NOT thinking about the purpose of the building, but a specific
physical landmark).
C. Other examples that follow this rule: Prison, school, church and university – almost any

occasion where the name that describes the building also describes the function.

Articles – rule #11

The media also has similar rules. When we are referring to ‘a means of entertainment’ we use
no article’ when we talk about the actual place or item, we use the.

Examples:

• I’m going to the cinema (we are thinking of the actual place)
• Cinema is different from television in many ways (we are thinking of the types of media)
• The clock is on the television. (thinking of the actual tv set)
• There is too much violence on television. (thinking of the media)

Articles – rule #12

We use ‘the’ with:

• the names of seas (the Pacific, the Atlantic)

• mountain ranges (the Andes, the Himalayas)
• a few mountains when the name is translated (Das Matterhorn = The Matterhorn)
• countries made up of different islands (the West Indies)
 • countries with state, union or republic (the People’s Republic of China, The United
States)
• rivers (the Thames, the Mississippi)
• deserts (the Sahara, the Gobi)
• most hotels, cinemas, museums and art galleries (The Ritz, The Tate)

Articles – rule #13

We usually use Ø (no article) with:

• continents (Africa, Europe)

• countries (except countries made up of different islands)
• lakes (Lake Mead, Lake Placid)
• towns (Chester, Auckland)
• streets (Sunnyvale Road, Simmonds Street)
• most single mountains (Everest, Kilimanjaro)

Complete the articles exercises below to test your knowledge.

Articles exercises practice

Complete the articles exercises by choosing the correct option (a), (b), (c) or (d) to complete
each of the sentences with ‘a‘, ‘an‘, ‘the‘ or no article ‘Ø‘.

1. I am going shopping to buy ____ new jacket.

(a) a (b) an (c) the (d) no article ‘Ø’

2. Sue went to ____ China last week.

(a) a (b) an (c) the (d) no article ‘Ø’

3. That is ____ man I was telling you about.

(a) a (b) an (c) the (d) no article ‘Ø’

4. I read ____ brilliant book last week!

(a) a (b) an (c) the (d) no article ‘Ø’

5. My friend doesn’t eat ____ meat.

(a) a (b) an (c) the (d) no article ‘Ø’

6. I have never been to ____ USA.

(a) a (b) an (c) the (d) no article ‘Ø’

7. I went to ____ great Italian restaurant last night.

(a) a (b) an (c) the (d) no article ‘Ø’

8. ____ town I grew up in is in the middle of England.

(a) a (b) an (c) the (d) no article ‘Ø’

9. I don’t play ____ football.

(a) a (b) an (c) the (d) no article ‘Ø’

10. Winston Churchill was ____ famous English Prime Minister.

(a) a (b) an (c) the (d) no article ‘Ø’

11. Could you lend me ____ jacket please? It’s so cold.

(a) a (b) an (c) the (d) no article ‘Ø’

12. ____ moon looks beautiful tonight; it’s so bright!

(a) a (b) an (c) the (d) no article ‘Ø’

13. Jenny is ____ English.

(a) a (b) an (c) the (d) no article ‘Ø’

14. I’ll pick you up in ____ hour.

(a) a (b) an (c) the (d) no article ‘Ø’

15. He is such ____ unique individual!

(a) a (b) an (c) the (d) no article ‘Ø’

16. I have two dogs. ____ smaller one is three years old

(a) a (b) an (c) the (d) no article ‘Ø’

17. Mount Cook is ____ highest mountain in New Zealand.

(a) a (b) an (c) the (d) no article ‘Ø’

18. I am cooking ____ chicken and rice for dinner.

(a) a (b) an (c) the (d) no article ‘Ø’

19. It is such ____ ugly ornament!

(a) a (b) an (c) the (d) no article ‘Ø’

20. We always took holidays by ____ seaside when I was a child.

(a) a (b) an (c) the (d) no article ‘Ø’

21. It is clear that ____ pets are good company for people who live alone.

(a) a (b) an (c) the (d) no article ‘Ø’

22. Susan is going to ____ university next semester.

(a) a (b) an (c) the (d) no article ‘Ø’

23. I feel like going to the cinema – ____ film I most want to see is on at 4pm.

(a) a (b) an (c) the (d) no article ‘Ø’

24. ____ Thames river runs through London.

(a) a (b) an (c) the (d) no article ‘Ø’

25. I like going out to ____ restaurants but I don’t like nightclubs.

(a) a (b) an (c) the (d) no article ‘Ø’

1. Correct answer is A. 9. Correct answer is D.

2. Correct answer is D. 10. Correct answer is A.
3. Correct answer is C. 11. Correct answer is A.
4. Correct answer is A. 12. Correct answer is C.
5. Correct answer is D. 13. Correct answer is D.
6. Correct answer is C. 14. Correct answer is B.
7. Correct answer is A. 15. Correct answer is A.
8. Correct answer is C. 16. Correct answer is C.
 17. Correct answer is C. 22. Correct answer is D.
18. Correct answer is D. 23. Correct answer is C.
19. Correct answer is B. 24. Correct answer is C.
20. Correct answer is C. 25. Correct answer is D.
21. Correct answer is D.

Participle clauses

Participle clauses are used in some tenses, but they also have another use – they can combine
information into one sentence.

Participle clauses often express condition, reason, cause, result or time.

For example:

Jim walked past the old school. He got to the shop. > Walking past the old school, Jim got to
the shop.

The section in bold is participle clause.

There are three types of participle clause:

Present participle Walking past the old school, Jim got to the shop.

Past participle Founded in 1912, the club has a long history.

Perfect participle After they had finished their homework, the boys went out to play.
Notes:

1. The participle clause and the main sentence must have either a cause/effect relationship or
show a sequential relationship (one thing happened before the other).

Participle clause with a cause/effect relationship: Having studied hard, he passed the exam.

Participle clause with a sequential relationship: Locking the door, John walked to his car.

2. Both the clause and the main sentence normally need to have the same subject

Driving home, Mary thought about what she would cook for dinner (Mary was both driving and
thinking about dinner)

Parts of speech

In order to improve your result in the IELTS test, both for speaking and writing, it is important to
be aware of the ‘parts’ of speech that create sentences in English. It is commonly accepted that
there are only 9* different parts of speech from which all sentences, phrases or utterances are
made.

*Some schools believe that there are only 8 parts of speech, with articles being part of the
adjective group.

The different parts of speech are as follows:

• nouns
• verbs
• adverbs
 • adjectives
• articles
• pronouns
• prepositions
• conjunctions
• interjections

Understanding which groups words are in can also help you to break down sentences, making
the passive skills (reading and listening) easier.

Below is a table showing the different parts of speech and an example.

Part of speech Common use Example

Verb to describe an action He sat.

Noun To describe a thing He sat on the chair.

Adverb To describe the verb He slowly sat on the chair.

Adjective To describe the noun He slowly sat on the tall chair.

Pronoun To talk about who He slowly sat on the tall chair.

To talk about where or

Preposition He slowly sat on the tall chair.
when

Conjunction Used to join ideas He slowly sat on the tall chair but fell off.
 Used to give more
Article information about the He slowly sat on the tall chair but fell off.
noun

A short exclamation –
Interjection Ouch! He hit the floor.
not a full sentence

Improving your knowledge of English

It is also useful to keep a vocabulary list and group words together that come from the same
parts of speech.

For example:

adjectives – e.g. glamorous

You should try to also learn their antonyms and synonyms to build your vocabulary.

e.g. alluring, attractive (synonyms) – dowdy, plain (antonyms)

and think about their comparatives and superlatives e.g. – (adj) more glamorous (comparative)
the most glamorous (superlative)

nouns – e.g. accommodation

(check spelling and think about articles etc) – uncountable, no ‘a’ or ‘an’

You should try to also learn their synonyms to build your vocabulary.

e.g. place of residence, dwelling, abode (synonyms)

verbs – e.g. drive

(and their past and participle forms);

drove, driven

prepositions – e.g. on

(with examples of their different uses),

e.g. on the sofa, but in an arm chair.

conjunctions – e.g. moreover

(with examples of use and punctuation)

Smoking is expensive; moreover, it is detrimental to health.

Complete the parts of speech exercises below to test your knowledge of the different parts of
speech.

What parts of speech are the words in red?

1. I prefer writing with a black pen.

2. The children were sleeping so their parents quietly closed the door.

3. I like most sports, especially basketball and tennis.

4. Woah! You shouldn’t drive so fast!

5. I have a dog called ‘Genie’.

6. Most people these days have a computer at home.

7. David will be here on Tuesday.

8. They played well but didn’t win the match.

9. My uncle enjoys all kinds of sports events.

10. He had always wanted to travel to Asia.

11. She wanted to get fit so she joined a gym.

12. She lives beside a lake.

13. It was an extraordinary evening.

14. I have an umbrella if you need it.

15. They play football so skillfully.

16. A sound education is very important.

17. He knows as much about art.

18. Wow! You look amazing!

Answers

1. adjective 7. preposition 13. adjective

2. adverb 8. pronoun 14. article
3. conjunction 9. verb 15. adverb
4. interjection 10. pronoun 16. noun
5. article 11. conjunction 17. verb
6. noun 12. preposition 18. interjection
Simple, compound and complex sentences

When writing in your IELTS test it is essential that you use a range of sentence structures, from
simple to complex sentence forms. In order to write good sentences for IELTS means you will
need how to form each type of sentence.

Start by looking at these examples:

SIMPLE SENTENCE:

• Smoking can cause cancer.

COMPOUND SENTENCE:

• Smoking can cause cancer, so should be banned.

COMPLEX SENTENCE:

A. Even though smoking can cause cancer, many people continue to buy cigarettes.

Now let’s look at each type of sentence in more detail.

Simple sentences

As the name suggests, simple sentences are quite basic in structure. They need only a subject
and a verb. Because they are the easiest form of sentence structure, it is important to make
sure that your essay does not overly used this form of sentence structure.
Compound sentences

Compound sentences are formed when simple sentences are combined using a linking word
(called a ‘conjunction’ word). There are seven conjunctions that can be used to combine simple
sentences:

FOR, AND, NOR, BUT, OR, YET and SO (looking at the first letter of each of this conjunctions, you
can spell ‘FANBOYS‘ – a useful way to help you remember!). In the example sentence used at
the beginning of this page, SO has been used to combine Smoking can cause cancer SO
(smoking) should be banned.

Complex sentences

These are the most important sentences for a good IELTS result – they are more difficult to
accurately build, but are essential to make your writing ‘academic’. Complex sentences are
created from 2 or more phrases joined together with a conjunction, but not the conjunctions
used in compound sentences (FANBOYS). Instead, there are considerable more conjunctions
that can be used. Here are some examples: even if, so that, unless, even so.

Conditional sentences

This section of our website focuses on essential grammar for IELTS, with tips, hints and
exercises that you can use both in the writing and the speaking test.

Conditional sentences are ‘if’ sentences. There are five types of conditional sentences:
 • zero conditional sentences
• first conditional sentences
• second conditional sentences
• third conditional sentences
• mixed conditional sentences

*Mixed conditionals are created from two different conditional forms.

Look at the table that follows for examples of each of the different types of conditional
sentences.

The zero conditional If you heat ice, it melts.

The first conditional If I learn better English, I will get a better job.

The second conditional If I won the lottery, I would buy a big house.

The third conditional If I had studied harder, I would have passed my exam.

Mixed conditionals If I hadn’t broken my leg, I would be skiing right now.

The zero conditional

Structure 1 If + present simple + comma (,) + present simple

Example If you heat ice, it melts.

Structure 2 Present simple + if + present simple

Example Ice melts if you heat it.

Use We use the zero conditional to talk about rules, laws or truths.
Using the example above, we know that if you heat ice, it melts; it
is a fact that if the first part happens, then the second action will
also happen.

The first conditional

Structure 1 If + present simple + comma (,) + will + base verb

Example If I learn better English, I will get a better job.

Structure 2 Will + base verb + if + present simple

Example I will get a better job if I learn better English.

Use We use the first conditional to talk about results that are likely; if
the first part happens, then the second action will probably / be
likely to also happen.

The second conditional

Structure 1 If + past simple + comma (,) + would + base verb

Example If I won the lottery, I would buy a big house in the country.

Structure 2 Would + base verb + if + past simple

Example I would buy a big house in the country if I won the lottery.

Use We use the second conditional to talk about a situation that is

either not likely or even impossible; the speaker believes that they
probably won’t win the lottery.

The third conditional

 Structure 1 If + past perfect + comma (,) + would have + past participle

Example If I had studied harder, I would have passed my exam.

Structure 2 Would have + past participle + if + past perfect

Example I would have passed my exam if I had studied harder.

Use We use the third conditional to talk unreal situations, often

involving regret. The third conditional talks about a situation that
did not happen, but what the result would have been if it had.

Mixed conditionals

Mixed conditional sentences talk about unreal situations, they can talk about the past, present
or future. Study the table below to learn how mixed conditional sentences can be put together.

NB: There are many different forms of mixed conditional.

If I hadn’t broken my leg, I would be skiing right now.

Type 1
Past condition Present result

If John hadn’t forgotten to buy I would be going to the concert

tickets, tomorrow night.
Type 2

Past condition Future result

I would have got that job

If I could use a computer,
yesterday.
Type 3

Present condition Past result

 If you could speak better you would be going on the business
English, trip to London next week.
Type 4

Present condition Future result

Complete the conditional sentences exercises below to test your knowledge of conditionals.

1st conditional example:

If he __________________ (get) the job, he ___________ (be) very happy .

If he gets the job, he will be very happy.

Conditional sentences exercises – zero conditional

Complete the conditional sentences exercises below using the zero conditional form.

1. If you _____________ (heat) water to 100 degrees Celsius, it _____________ (boil).

2. If I _____________ (ask) my dog to sit, he _____________ (obey) me.

3. You _____________ (need) travel insurance if you _____________ (go) on holiday overseas.
4. If people _____________ (not exercise), they _____________ (become) unfit.

5. I _____________ (feel) better if I _____________ (eat) well, .

Conditional sentences exercises – first conditional

Complete the conditional sentences exercises below using the first conditional form.

6. If I _____________ (find) her phone number, I _____________ (send) it to you.

7. He _____________ (feel) ill if he _____________ (eat) all those sweets!

8. If you _____________ (talk) to him, he _____________ (understand) your problem.

9. I _____________ (visit) you if I _____________ (come) to your hometown next year.

10. If she _____________ (finish) work late, she _____________ (meet) us at the restaurant.

Conditional sentences exercises – second conditional

Complete the conditional sentences exercises below using the second conditional form.

11. If I _____________ (know) how to contact him, I _____________ (tell) him the news.
12. If he _____________ (ask) her to marry him, she _____________ (say) ‘yes’.

13. He _____________ (not make) so many mistakes if he _____________ (listen) to

instructions.

14. I _____________ (buy) a boat if I _____________ (have) more money.

15. If he _____________ (try) it, he _____________ (like) it!

Conditional sentences exercises – third conditional

Complete the conditional sentences exercises below using the third conditional form.

16. If I _____________ (see) him last week, I _____________ (invite) him.

17. If I _____________ (know) you were in trouble, I _____________ (help) you.

18. I _____________ (never met) you if _____________ (not go) to that party!

19. If I _____________ (take) my car for a service, it _____________ (not break down) last
night.

20. She _____________ (not gone) there if I _____________ (warn) her.

Answers
 1. If you heat water to 100 degrees Celsius, it boils.
2. If I ask my dog to sit, he obeys me.
3. You need travel insurance if you go on holiday overseas.
4. If people don’t exercise, they become unfit.
5. I feel better if I eat well.
6. If I find her phone number, I will send it to you.
7. He will feel ill if he eats all those sweets!
8. If you talk to him, he will understand your problem.
9. I will visit you if I come to your hometown next year.
10. If she finishes work late, she will meet us at the restaurant.
11. If I knew how to contact him, I would tell him the news.
12. If he asked her to marry him, she would say ‘yes’.
13. He would not make so many mistakes if he listened to instructions.
14. I would buy a boat if I had more money.
15. If he tried it, he would like it!
16. If I had seen him last week, I would have invited him.
17. If I had known you were in trouble, I would have helped you.
18. I would never have met you if I hadn’t gone to that party!
19. If I had taken my car for a service, it would not have broken down last night.
20. She wouldn’t have gone there if I had warned her.

Irregular verbs list

Irregular verbs, as the name suggests, don’t follow a pattern. You simply need to learn them. In
this section you will find an irregular verbs list. We suggest you try to learn a few each each day.

But before we look at an irregular verbs list, we need to think about how to form regular verbs.
English verbs often end in +ed or +d when used in the past tense or participle form.

For example:
work – worked / live – lived

These are regular verbs.

Below you will find an irregular verbs list. Don’t try to learn them all at once! Go through the
irregular verbs list until you get ten that you don’t know, then practice.

Irregular verbs list

Verb Simple Past Past Participle

arise arose arisen

awake awakened / awoke awakened / awoken

be was, were been

bear bore born / borne

beat beat beaten / beat

become became become

begin began begun

bend bent bent

bind bound bound

bite bit bitten

bleed bled bled

blow blew blown

break broke broken

breed bred bred

bring brought brought

build built built

burn burned / burnt burned / burnt

burst burst burst

buy bought bought

C
cast cast cast

catch caught caught

choose chose chosen

cling clung clung

come came come

cost cost cost

creep crept crept

cut cut cut

deal dealt dealt

dig dug dug

dive dove / dived dived

do did done
draw drew drawn

dream dreamed / dreamt dreamed / dreamt

drink drank drunk

drive drove driven

dwell dwelt / dwelled dwelt / dwelled

eat ate eaten

fall fell fallen

feed fed fed

feel felt felt

fight fought fought

find found found

flee fled fled

fling flung flung

fly flew flown

forbid forbade forbidden

forecast forecast forecast

forego forewent foregone

foresee foresaw foreseen

foretell foretold foretold

forget forgot forgotten

forgive forgave forgiven

forsake forsook forsaken

freeze froze frozen

G
get got got / gotten

give gave given

go went gone

grind ground ground

grow grew grown

handwrite handwrote handwritten

hang hung hung

have had had

hear heard heard

hew hewed hewn / hewed

hide hid hidden

hit hit hit

hold held held

hurt hurt hurt

inbreed inbred inbred

inlay inlaid inlaid

input input / inputted input / inputted

interbreed interbred interbred

interweave interwove / interweaved interwoven / interweaved

interwind interwound interwound

keep kept kept

kneel knelt / kneeled knelt / kneeled

knit knitted / knit knitted / knit

know knew known

lay laid laid

lead led led

lean leaned / leant leaned / leant

leap leaped / leapt leaped / leapt

learn learned / learnt learned / learnt

leave left left

lend lent lent

let let let

lie (ie ‘to lie down’) lay lain

lie (ie ‘to tell a lie’) lied lied

light lit / lighted lit / lighted

lose lost lost

make made made

mean meant meant

meet met met

mow mowed mowed / mown

partake partook partaken

pay paid paid

plead pleaded / pled pleaded / pled

proofread proofread proofread

prove proved proven / proved

put put put

quit quit quit

read read (pronounced red) read (pronounced red)

rid rid rid

ride rode ridden

ring rang rung

rise rose risen

run ran run

S
saw sawed sawed / sawn

say said said

see saw seen

seek sought sought

sell sold sold

send sent sent

set set set

sew sewed sewn / sewed

shake shook shaken

shave shaved shaved / shaven

shear sheared sheared / shorn

shed shed shed

shine shined / shone shined / shone

Page 120 of 200

shoot shot shot

show showed shown / showed

shrink shrank / shrunk shrunk

shut shut shut

sight-read sight-read sight-read

sing sang sung

sink sank / sunk sunk

sit sat sat

sleep slept slept

slide slid slid

sling slung slung

slink slinked / slunk slinked / slunk

slit slit slit

Page 121 of 200

smell smelled / smelt smelled / smelt

sneak sneaked / snuck sneaked / snuck

sow sowed sown / sowed

speak spoke spoken

speed sped sped

spell spelled / spelt spelled / spelt

spend spent spent

spill spilled / spilt spilled / spilt

spin spun spun

spit spat spat

split split split

spoil spoiled / spoilt spoiled / spoilt

spread spread spread

spring sprang / sprung sprung

stand stood stood

steal stole stolen

stick stuck stuck

sting stung stung

stink stunk / stank stunk

strew strewed strewn

stride strode stridden

strike struck struck / stricken

strive strove / strived striven / strived

sunburn sunburned / sunburnt sunburned / sunburnt

swear swore sworn

sweat sweat / sweated sweat / sweated

sweep swept swept

swell swelled swollen / swelled

swim swam swum

swing swung swung

take took taken

teach taught taught

tear tore torn

tell told told

think thought thought

throw threw thrown

thrust thrust thrust

tread trod trodden / trod

U

understand understood understood

upset upset upset

wake woke / waked woken / waked

waylay waylaid waylaid

wear wore worn

weave wove woven

wed wed wed

weep wept wept

wet wet wet

win won won

 wind wound wound

withdraw withdrew withdrawn

withhold withheld withheld

withstand withstood withstood

wring wrung wrung

write wrote written

Make uncountable nouns countable

Nouns can be split into two different groups – countable and uncountable. Countable nouns, as
the name suggests, can be counted. For example, you can have 1 pen or 2 pens, a car or some
or a lot of cars.

However, uncountable nouns cannot be counted. For example, you cannot have 2 advices or
some ora lot of advices.
However, there are two ways to make an uncountable noun countable.

How to make an uncountable noun countable method 1

Add a countable ‘container’ for the uncountable noun.

For example, milk is uncountable but bottles of milk can be counted. You can say a bottle of
milk, 2 bottles of milk etc.

How to make an uncountable noun countable method 2

Use a countable form of the word.

For example, work is uncountable, but job is countable.

The table below shows more examples of how to make uncountable nouns countable.

Uncountable Countable

Advice A piece of advice – pieces of advice

Luggage A suitcase, a bag or a piece of luggage – suitcases, bags or pieces of luggage

money a note, a coin – notes, coins

cake a slice of cake, a piece of cake – slices or pieces of cake

furniture a table, a chair, a piece of furniture – tables, chairs, pieces of furniture

bread a slice of bread, a loaf of bread, a piece of bread – slices, loaves, pieces of bread

knowledge a fact – facts

travel a journey, a trip – journeys, trips

 toothpaste a tube of toothpaste – tubes of toothpaste

wine a bottle of wine, a glass of wine – bottles of or glasses of wine

butter a pat of butter – pats of butter

a slice of cheese, a chunk of cheese, a piece of cheese – slices, chunks or pieces

cheese
of cheese

a sugarcube, a spoonful of sugar, a bowl of sugar – sugarcubes, spoonfuls of

sugar
sugar, bowls of sugar

Petrol (gas) a litre of petrol – litres of petrol.

Salt a pinch of salt – pinches of salt

soap a bar of soap – bars of soap

hair a strand of hair – strands of hair

glass a sheet of glass, a pane of glass – sheets or panes of glass

Modal verbs (modal auxiliary verbs)

Modal verbs (also called modal auxiliary verbs, or modals) are used with the infinitive form of
the main verb (minus -to) to add additional layers of meaning to a sentence.

Modal verbs are also called modal auxiliary verbs, or modals.

Here are some examples:

• I can play the piano.

 • She may know his name.
• I must try harder.

Examples of modal verbs

The following are all modal verbs:

• can • might • will

• could • must • would
• may • shall • would rather
• should • ought to

Modal verbs can refer to:

• ability – I can drive a car.

• probability – I might go to the party later.
• deduction – That must be the man she was talking about, he fits the description she

gave me.
• obligation – I have to go to the meeting or my boss will be annoyed.
• necessity – I must leave early today.
• prohibition – You cannot smoke in here.
• permission – May I leave early?
• instructions and requests – Could you help me?
• suggestions – We could go to the cinema to see that new movie this evening.
• advice – You ought to notify them straight away and sort out the problem.
• recommendation – You should watch the film – it’s fantastic!
• preference – I would rather finish this before we go.
• promise – I will definitely call you first thing in the morning. (see future simple lesson)
• prediction – You will love it there! (see future simple lesson)

Modal verbs – ability

can (positive), can’t (negative), could (past positive) couldn’t (past negative)

Example sentences using modal verbs for ability

• I can sing, but I can’t dance.

• I could swim when I was six, but I couldn’t ride a horse.

Modal verbs – probability (deduction)

You can use different modal verbs to talk about probability (deduction). The difference in
meaning is how certain you are about what you are talking about.

• will (very certain)

• must (expressing opinion you are quite sure about)
• should (expressing opinion you are quite sure about)
• might (possible)
• could (possible)
• may (possible)
• can’t (expressing opinion you are quite sure about)
• won’t (very certain)

Example sentences using modal verbs for probability (deduction)

A. She will be at work now, she never finishes before 6pm.

B. He must be stuck in traffic, the road we so busy when I was coming home.
C. I should finish this soon, I don’t have too much left to do.
D.He might call later if he remembers your birthday.
E. He could be out with his friends, I’m not sure where he is.
F. She may come later, I’m not sure what her plans are.
G. It can’t be John over there. It looks like him, but I’m sure John is overseas at the
moment.
 H. I won’t finish the report today, there have been too many interruptions and I
have to leave soon.

Modal verbs – obligation (necessity)

You can use the modal verbs ‘have to‘, ‘must‘ ‘ought to‘, ‘should‘ to talk about obligation.

Modal verbs ‘have to‘ and ‘must‘ talk about necessity / strong obligation.

Modal verbs ‘ought to‘ and ‘should‘ talk about lower level of obligation.

You use ‘have to‘ when the obligation comes from someone else – e.g. it’s a law or a rule.

• In most countries you have to wear a seatbelt when travelling in a car.

COMPARE:

• Drivers ought to / should drive slower in wet weather.

Obligation is not as strong as the legal requirements is to drive to the speed limit but driving
carefully is still a moral obligation for motorists on the road.

‘Must‘ is used when the obligation comes from the person speaking.

• I must stop smoking.

You can use ‘don’t have to‘ when there is no obligation.

• College students don’t have to wear a uniform. (there is no rule for them to wear a
uniform).

BE CAREFUL – you cannot use must not to show no obligation. This has a different meaning. It
means ‘cannot, not allowed to, no permission to’.

For example:
‘You mustn’t interrupt when someone is talking dear.’ the mother told her son. (the child is not
allowed to interrupt other people).

To talk about obligation in the past, use ‘had to‘.

• My grandfather had to walk four miles to school everyday when he was a child.

Modal verbs – prohibition

Modal verbs ‘must not‘ (mustn’t) and ‘cannot‘ (can’t) are used to talk about prohibition.
Prohibition means something cannot happen, it is not allowed, there is no permission.

‘Must not‘ – see example in the previous section. Mustn’t is more commonly used when the
prohibition comes from the speaker.

Another example is:

• “You mustn’t sit on the desks in my classroom.” said the teacher.

‘Cannot‘ – more commonly used when the prohibition comes from someone else, e.g. a rule or
a law.

Example:

• Employees cannot use Facebook during office hours.

To talk about prohibition in the past, use ‘could not‘.

• Women could not vote in the USA until 1920.

Modal verbs – permission

Modal verbs ‘can‘, ‘may‘ and ‘could‘ are used to ask someone for, or to give permission (you
want to be allowed to do something, or you are allowing someone to do something).

• Can I go home now?

 • You can borrow my jacket if you’re cold.
• Could I ask you a question?

Note: ‘could‘ can be used to ask for permission. It is more formal / more polite than ‘can‘.

• May I use your telephone?

• You may now kiss the bride.

Note: ‘may‘ can be used to ask for and to give permission. It is more formal / more polite than
‘can‘.

Modal verbs – instructions and requests

Modal verbs ‘can‘, ‘will‘, ‘could‘ and ‘would‘ are used to ask someone, or tell someone to do
something.

1. Can you make me a coffee, please?

2. Will you call me a taxi, please?
3. Could you take this luggage to my room, please?
4. Would you ask him a question for me?

Note: ‘would‘ and ‘could‘ are more polite than ‘can‘ or ‘will‘. When asking or instructing
someone to do something, you should also say ‘please’.

Modal verbs – suggestion, advice, recommendation

Modal verbs ‘should‘ and ‘ought to‘ are used to give suggestions, advice and
recommendations.

1. We should go out for dinner next week. (suggestion)

2. We ought to go out for dinner next week. (suggestion)
 • You should inform the boss straight away. (advice)
• You ought to inform the boss straight away. (advice)

• You should stay at the Apollo Hotel, it’s amazing! (recommendation)

• You ought to stay at the Apollo Hotel, it’s amazing! (recommendation)

‘Could‘ is also used to make suggestions.

• We could meet up at 8pm, does that suit you? (suggestion)

We also use modal verbs ‘will‘ and ‘would‘ in conditional sentences to give advice.

A commonly used second conditional phrase is: “If I were you, I would……”

• If I were you, I would tell the boss straight away. (advice)

OR

• The boss will help you, if you tell him. (first conditional)
• The boss would help you, if you told him. (second conditional)

You can also use ‘must‘ to give advice. ‘Must‘ is stronger than ‘should‘ or ‘ought to‘.

A speaker who uses ‘must‘ thinks what they are suggesting, advising or recommending is so
important (it is like an obligation) for the person to do that.

For example:

• You must get those tyres on your car changed. They are so dangerous!

Modal verbs – preference

‘Would rather‘ is used to talk about preference.

 • I would rather work late tonight. I can have tomorrow morning off then.

If you are comparing options, you use ‘would rather…….. than….’

• I would rather work late tonight, than have to work tomorrow morning.

Use would rather not (negative form) to talk about something you don’t want to do.

• I would rather not work tomorrow morning.

Passive voice

The passive voice is a grammar form that can be used instead of writing active sentences.

Before we look at the passive voice, think about how you form an active sentence.

The easiest rule to help you build a simple active sentence is to use the Subject-Verb-Object
formula. For example:

John makes boots.

In this sentence, there are 3 parts – the subject (John), the verb (makes), and the object (boots).

In a basic sentence*:

• the subject is the person who does the action

• the verb is the action
• the object is the receiver of the action

* This is a simple explanation, but like most languages, there are exceptions and other rules you
need to consider.

In the passive voice, the order of the sentence changes. For example:
 Sentence Structure Type

John has finished the painting. S-V-O This is an active sentence

The painting has been finished. O-V This is a passive sentence

There are two important points to note:

1. In a passive voice sentence, the form of the grammar changes and must always include a
form of the auxiliary verb be. In the example above, see how ‘has finished’ changes to ‘has been
finished’

2. The subject of an active sentence can be completely left out of a passive voice sentence (or
can added at the end of the sentence with ‘by’ – The painting has been finished by John). In a
passive sentence, the traditional ‘subject’ is often referred to as the ‘agent’. For example:

John has finished the painting => John is the subject in an active sentence

The painting has been finished by John => John is the agent in a passive sentence.

When / why do we use the passive voice?

There are four common reasons for using a passive voice sentence rather than an active
sentence.

Use Example Explanation

My car has been

1. When we don’t know the subject We don’t know the thief
stolen

2. When the subject is obvious Taxes will be raised It must be the government
 3. We want to avoid stating the The window was I don’t want to say who broke
agent broken it

4. When we want to bring the The criminal was We are most interested in the
important information to the front seen by the security criminal – not the security
of the sentence guard. guard

All passive voice structures use a form of the verb ‘to be’. See the table below for more detail:

Form Active Passive

Present simple They make toys in that factory. Toys are made in that factory.

Present
He is repairing the computer. The computer is being repaired.
continuous

The students were bored by the

Past simple The lesson bored the students.
lesson.

Past continuous He was driving the car very badly. The car was being driven very badly.

Present perfect Someone has stolen my car! My car has been stolen!

Future simple I will finish the project next The project will be finished next
(will) month. month..

Future with They are going to sell the old

The old factory is going to be sold.
‘going to’ factory.

They will have eaten all the food All of the food will have been eaten
Future perfect
before we get there! before we get there!
 They had already eaten most of Most of the food had already been
Past perfect
the food when we got there. eaten when we got there.

Note that intransitive verbs are not generally used in the passive voice.

Complete the passive voice exercises below to test your knowledge.

Passive voice exercises practice

Complete the passive voice exercises by changing the active sentences to the passive voice
form.

• They sell magazines in the mall.

• The chef bakes all bread on the premises.

• The garage is fixing my car at the moment.

• Someone has handed in my lost wallet.

• The teacher has graded all of our assignments.

• The local newspaper reported the story

• The truck damaged my car in the accident.

• His auntie was looking after him while his
parents were away.
9. They had already sold all the tickets when I tried
to buy some.

10. They will make a decision tomorrow. 11. They

are going to make four people redundant.

12. They will have finished all the work by the time

we get there.
Answers

1. Magazines are sold in the mall. Note: ‘by them’ is not necessary – the key point is
where the magazines are sold (in the mall).
2. All bread is baked on the premises. Note: ‘by the chef’ is not necessary (it is obvious) –
the key point is that bread is made on the premises.
3. My car is being fixed by the garage at the moment. Note: ‘by the garage’ could be left

out – the key point is probably that the car is not available at the moment.
4. My lost wallet has been handed in. Note: ‘by someone’ is not necessary – the key point

is that the wallet has been handed in.

5. All of our assignments have been graded by the teacher. Note: ‘by the teacher’ could

be left out – it is obvious and the key point is that the assignments have been graded.
6. The story was reported by the local newspaper. Note: ‘by the local newspaper’ adds

specific information about which newspaper reported the story.

7. My car was damaged by the truck in the accident. Note: ‘by the truck’ adds specific

information about which vehicle damaged the car – it could be left out if the speaker is
mainly concerned about the damaged car and not what caused the damage.
8. He was being looked after by his auntie while his parents were away. Note: ‘by his
auntie’ adds specific information about who looked after him.
9. All the tickets had already been sold when I tried to buy some. Note: ‘by them’ is not
necessary – the key point is the fact that there were no tickets left.
10. A decision will be made tomorrow. Note: ‘by them’ is not necessary – the key point is
the fact that a decision will be made.
11. Four people are going to be made redundant. Note: ‘by them’ is not necessary – the
key point is the fact that four people are going to lose their jobs.
12. All the work will have been finished by the time we get there. Note: ‘by them’ is not
necessary – the key point is the fact that all the work will have been finished.
Prepositions of place (1)

Prepositions of place (like all prepositions) can be one of the hardest parts of English to use
correctly because the rules are often quite difficult and there are lots of exceptions.

In this lesson, we are looking at the following prepositions of place:

• at
• in
• on

Here are some example sentences using prepositions of place:

• There is a fly on the table!

• She lives in France.
• John is at school right now.

Here are a few rules that will help you use prepositions of place correctly:

Prepositions of place rule #1:

We generally use at to talk about a point or position.

For example:

at the window – She sat at the window, waiting for him to arrive.

at the door – There is someone at the door.

at the end – There is a shop at the end of the street.

at the beginning – We met him at the beginning of the night.

Prepositions of place rule #2:

We generally use in to talk about when something that has three sides or is enclosed.

For example:

in a box – There are some pens in that box over there.

in the house – She is in the house, go in!

in New Zealand – I live in New Zealand.

in a tent – We will be sleeping in a tent all weekend.

Prepositions of place rule #3:

We generally use on to talk about a surface or position on a line.

For example:

on the floor – The dog was asleep on the floor.

on the ceiling – There is a beautiful mural on the ceiling.

on the screen – He couldn’t see clearly because there was dust on his computer screen.

on the page – All the information you need is on page 42.

Example exceptions to prepositions of place rules

Here are some common phrases in English that use prepositions of place but that don’t really fit
any rule:

We say on a bus but in a taxi

We say in the armchair but on the settee (sofa)

We say on the left but in the middle

Prepositions of place (and all prepositions) can be one of the hardest parts of English to use
correctly because the rules are often quite difficult, and like most rules for a language, there are
lots of exceptions.

Prepositions of place examples of use

AGAINST: having contact with something, touching.

• ‘He put the bike against the wall.’

• ‘The dog leaned against its owner.’

ALONGSIDE: in parallel, like train tracks

• ‘The horses worked alongside each other to pull the cart.’

• ‘It is a beautiful drive as the road runs alongside the coast.‘

BESIDE: at the side of, not necessarily touching.

• ‘He put the book beside his bed.’

• ‘She sat beside an elderly man on the train.’

BY: in the area of

• ‘I live by some shops and a library.’

• ‘If you go that way, you will drive by a park.’

TOWARDS: getting closer, aiming at each other

• ‘The cars drove towards each other and only turned away at the last minute.’
• ‘He waved as he walked towards me.’
Complete the prepositions of place exercises below to test your knowledge.

Prepositions of place exercises practice

Complete the prepositions of place exercises by choosing the correct option (a), (b) or (c) to
complete each of the sentences with ‘at‘, ‘on‘, ‘in‘, ‘alongside‘, ‘against‘, ‘by‘, ‘beside‘ or
‘towards‘.

1. My dog always waits __________ the door for me to come home.

(a) towards (b) at (c) on

2. I am from London but I live ___________ Manchester.

(a) at (b) on (c) in

3. There is an interesting article _________ page 3 of this newspaper.

(a) in (b) on (c) by

4. Please pick up all those clothes you have left _________ the floor.

(a) on (b) at (c) against

5. I chatted to the passenger next to me __________ the train.

(a) in (b) on (c) towards

6. We were ___________ the middle of a conversation when she arrived.

(a) beside (b) by (c) in

7. I have worked __________ John for 10 years.

(a) alongside (b) towards (c) at

8. There was a surprising twist to the story __________ the end of the book.

(a) at (b) in (c) against

9. A river runs __________ our garden – it’s beautiful!

(a) against (b) alongside (c) at

10. We sat down ________ the armchairs in the hotel reception.

(a) in (b) on (c) at

11. I left the brush __________ the garage door.

(a) in (b) towards (c) against

12. You can sit __________ me there is plenty of room.

(a) beside (b) against (c) towards

13. Look _________ the cupboard there should be plenty of glasses there.

(a) at (b) on (c) in

14. I live __________ a gym so I go most evenings after work.

(a) on (b) by (c) towards

15. I can see him; he’s driving __________ us now.

(a) at (b) against (c) towards

Answers

1. Correct answer is B. 9. Correct answer is B.

2. Correct answer is C. 10. Correct answer is A.
3. Correct answer is B. 11. Correct answer is C.
4. Correct answer is A. 12. Correct answer is A.
5. Correct answer is B. 13. Correct answer is C.
6. Correct answer is C. 14. Correct answer is B.
7. Correct answer is A. 15. Correct answer is C.
8. Correct answer is A.
Prepositions of time (1)

Prepositions of time (like all prepositions) can be one of the hardest parts of English to use
correctly.

This is because the rules are often quite difficult and there are lots of exceptions!

In this lesson, we are looking at the following prepositions of time:

• at
• in
• on

Here are some example sentences using prepositions of time:

• I’m going camping at the weekend.

• They will be here in 5 minutes
• School starts on the Monday.

Prepositions of time – ‘at‘

Here are the rules for using the preposition ‘at‘.

Rule #1:

For a clock time (at 5 p.m., at quarter to 12)

Example: I finish work at 5.30 p.m.

Rule #2:
For a particular time (at lunch time, at sunset)

We will be having dinner on the deck at sunset. How romantic!

Rule #3:

For a collection of days (at the weekend [the weekend includes Saturday and Sunday], at
Christmas [Christmas period includes Christmas day, Christmas Eve etc])

Most games are held at the weekend.

Prepositions of time – ‘in’

Here are the rules for using the preposition ‘in‘.

Rule #1:

For months of the year (in February, in April)

They are getting married in March.

Rule #2:

For years (in 1990, in 2015)

I started working at the school in 2010.

Rule #3:

For part of a day (in the morning, in the afternoon, in the evening) EXCEPTION: at night

I can concentrate better in the morning.

I love listening to the owls at night.

Rule #4:
For longer lengths of time: (in the summer, in the Middle Ages)

He always goes skiing in the winter.

Prepositions of time – ‘on’

Here are the rules for using the preposition ‘on‘.

Rule #1:

For days of the week (on Monday, on Tuesday etc)

I am seeing him on Wednesday.

Rule #2:

For dates (on the 4th of May, on the 26th February)

They got married on the 12th June.

Rule #3:

For specific single days (on my birthday, on New Years Eve, on Labour Day)

I am going to a party on New Years Eve.

More advanced prepositions of time

Prepositions of time – within

WITHIN: We try to answer all emails within 24 hours.

‘Within’ is commonly used to express that something will be done inside or not later than the
period of time stated.
Note: time given must be an amount of time, NOT a specific time in the future.

For example:

We try to answer all emails within 24 hours.

We try to answer all emails within the following day.

Other uses could be: within the next few minutes, within the next week, within the next six
months, within this financial year etc.

Prepositions of time – before

BEFORE: The repairs will be completed before Friday.

Before is also used to express that something will be done inside or not later than the time
stated.

Note: the time given must be a specific future time. For example:

The repairs will be completed before Friday.

We try to answer all emails before 24 hours.

Other uses could be: before 1pm, before next week, before July, before the start of the next
financial year etc.

Prepositions of time exercises practice

Complete the prepositions of time exercises by choosing the correct option (a), (b) or (c) to
complete each of the sentences with ‘at‘, ‘on‘, ‘in‘, ‘within‘ or ‘before‘.
1. I start work ___________ 9am.

(a) within (b) on (c) at

2. I’ll give you a call __________ lunchtime.

(a) in (b) at (c) within

3. I start my new job __________ Monday.

(a) on (b) at (c) in

4. I will finish the report __________ the end of the week.

(a) within (b) before (c) on

5. We always have a family gathering ___________ Christmas.

(a) at (b) within (c) on

6. The weather is warm in New Zealand ___________ February.

(a) at (b) within (c) in

7. He never goes out ___________ night.

(a) on (b) in (c) at

8. I always exercise _________ the morning.

(a) on (b) in (c) at

9. I need to make a decision ___________ the next 24 hours.

(a) before (b) within (c) on

10. They celebrate their wedding anniversary _________ July 22nd.

(a) on (b) within (c) at

11. I was born _________ 1990.

(a) at (b) within (c) in

12. We are going out to dinner __________ my birthday.

(a) on (b) at (c) in

13. They said they would let me know __________ the next week.

(a) before (b) within (c) on

14. I told her to see me ___________ lunchtime.

(a) before (b) within (c) on

15. I need to finish my studies ___________ the next twelve months.

(a) before (b) at (c) within

Answers

1. Correct answer is C. 9. Correct answer is B.

2. Correct answer is B. 10. Correct answer is A.
3. Correct answer is A. 11. Correct answer is C.
4. Correct answer is B. 12. Correct answer is A.
5. Correct answer is A. 13. Correct answer is B.
6. Correct answer is C. 14. Correct answer is A.
7. Correct answer is C. 15. Correct answer is C.
8. Correct answer is B.
Dependent prepositions with verbs, adjectives and nouns

Dependent prepositions (with verbs, adjectives and nouns)

Certain verbs, adjectives and nouns naturally take certain prepositions when placed in a
sentence – these are called dependent prepositions.

For example, you can object to (something), participate in (something), complain about
(something).

Unfortunately there are no fixed rules that can help you decide which dependent prepositions
should be placed with which words, you really just need to learn them.

Remember that sometimes usage of different dependent prepositions change the meaning.

Dependent prepositions example 1:

He is angry with us. (angry with ‘someone’)

He is angry about the problem. (angry about ‘a situation’)

Dependent prepositions example 2:

He is good at football (meaning he has skill / ability in something – he is good at (playing)

football).

She is good with children (meaning she has a positive relationship with / has an affinity with…).

A teacher for example, might be good at teaching English and may be good with their students.

The best way to learn more about dependent prepostions is to make a list of your own, and
then find sentences that use the structure. Google can be very useful for that. For example, if
you were trying to remember that complain is generally followed by about, simply type in
“complain about” in Google and see the results.

NOTE: It is important to use the speech marks (” “) around the phrase you are searching for so
that only results with that phrase will come up.

Verbs and dependent Adjectives and dependent Nouns and dependent

prepositions prepositions prepositions

abide by according to in agreement

abstain from accustomed to attack on

accuse (somebody) of afraid of attitude towards

add to annoyed with/about/at on behalf of

adhere to anxious about comparison between

agree with ashamed of on condition (that)

aim at/for astonished at connection between

allow for attached to cruelty towards

apologise to someone for

aware of decrease in
something

apply for delighted at/about delay in

approve of different from difference between/of

argue with/about dissatisfied with difficulty in/with

arrest (somebody) for doubtful about disadvantage of

 ask for enthusiastic about in doubt

attend to envious of under guarantee

believe in excited about increase in

belong to famous for information about

blame (somebody) for fed up with intention of

boast about fond of knowledge of

borrow (something) from

frightened of need for
(somebody)

call for friendly with notice of

care for good at in order

choose between guilty of pleasure in

comment on incapable of in power

compare with interested in in practice

complain about jealous of preference for

concentrate on keen on protection from

conform to kind to reaction to

congratulate on mad at/about reason for

consent to opposed to reduction in

consist of pleased with report on

deal with popular with result of

 decide on proud of rise in

excel at/in puzzled by/about at risk

excuse (somebody) for safe from room for

face up to satisfied with solution to

forgive (somebody) for sensitive to(wards) on strike

hear of/about serious about on suspicion of

hope for sick of under suspicion

insist on similar to in theory

interfere with/in sorry for/about in trouble

joke about suspicious of trouble with

laugh at sympathetic to(wards)

lend (something) to
tired of
(somebody)

listen to typical of

long for unaware of

mistake (somebody) for used to

object to

pay for

praise (somebody) for

prepare for
present (somebody) with

prevent (somebody) from

protest about

provide (somebody) with

punish (somebody) for

refer to

rely on

run for

save (somebody) from

sentence (somebody) to

smile at

succeed in

suffer from

stand for

talk to (somebody) about

(something)

thank (somebody) for

think of/about

volunteer to

wait for
 warn (somebody) about

worry about

Dependent prepositions exercises

Complete the dependent prepositions exercises below to test your knowledge.

Dependent prepositions exercises practice – verbs

Complete the dependent prepositions exercises by choosing the correct option (a) or (b) to
complete each of the sentences.

1. Visitors are asked to abstain ___________ smoking on the premises.

(a) from (b) on

click here to see the answer

Correct answer is A.

2. She is unavailable at the moment as she is attending _________ an urgent issue.

(a) on (b) to

click here to see the answer

Correct answer is B.

3. I believe _________ him – he is such a talented and hard-working artist.

(a) with (b) in

click here to see the answer

Correct answer is B.

4. She took some time off work to care ________ her sick son.

(a) for (b) of

click here to see the answer

Correct answer is A.

5. I totally agree _______ your opinion – everything you say about this is true!

(a) with (b) for

click here to see the answer

Correct answer is A.

6. The schoolboy was blamed _______ the broken window.

(a) about (b) for

click here to see the answer

Correct answer is B.

7. He annoys me because he is always boasting __________ his achievements!

(a) about (b) with

click here to see the answer

Correct answer is A.

8. I had to choose ____________ going to the cinema or out to dinner as I couldn’t afford to do
both.

(a) between (b) for

click here to see the answer

Correct answer is A.

9. The management team is meeting this afternoon to decide ___________ the best solution.

(a) on (b) for

click here to see the answer

Correct answer is A.

10. He forgave me __________ my mistake.

(a) about (b) for

click here to see the answer

Correct answer is B.

Dependent prepositions exercises practice – adjectives

Complete the dependent prepositions exercises by choosing the correct option (a) or (b) to
complete each of the sentences.

11. I am so excited ____________ the upcoming concert!

(a) about (b) with

click here to see the answer

Correct answer is A.

12. Take no notice of what she says she is just envious ___________ you!

(a) with (b) of

click here to see the answer

Correct answer is B.

13. I am doubtful ___________ the likely success of this project.

(a) with (b) about

click here to see the answer

Correct answer is B.

14. He is so ashamed __________ what he did and sends his apologies!

(a) of (b) in

click here to see the answer

Correct answer is A.

15. The company is aware _________ the problem and is working hard to fix it soon.

(a) of (b) in

click here to see the answer

Correct answer is A.

16. We were so dissatisfied ___________ the service, we won’t eat at that restaurant again.

(a) with (b) at

click here to see the answer

Correct answer is A.

17. It is good that the whole team is so enthusiastic __________ the changes.

(a) to (b) about

click here to see the answer

Correct answer is B.

18. He is so good ___________ public speaking.

(a) at (b) of
click here to see the answer

Correct answer is A.

19. She was so kind __________ me when I was having problems.

(a) to (b) with

click here to see the answer

Correct answer is A.

20. I am so tired __________ my job, I need a change I think.

(a) of (b) about

click here to see the answer

Correct answer is A.

Dependent prepositions exercises practice – nouns

Complete the dependent prepositions exercises by choosing the correct option (a) or (b) to
complete each of the sentences.

21. It was an unjustified attack ________ an innocent party.

(a) of (b) on

click here to see the answer

Correct answer is B.
22. His attitude ____________ the subject is very narrow-minded.

(a) in (b) towards

click here to see the answer

Correct answer is B.

23. The manager thanked the staff on behalf _________ the directors.

(a) of (b) on

click here to see the answer

Correct answer is A.

24. There is no need ___________ violence in any circumstances.

(a) of (b) for

click here to see the answer

Correct answer is B.

25. The reason __________ the accident is still to be established.

(a) of (b) for

click here to see the answer

Correct answer is B.
26. Conditions are much better but there is still room __________ further improvement.

(a) for (b) in

click here to see the answer

Correct answer is A.

27. The rise ____________ crime levels has been attributed to lower employment
opportunities.

(a) in (b) of

click here to see the answer

Correct answer is A.

28. There was a public outcry in reaction ___________ the government’s proposals.

(a) with (b) to

click here to see the answer

Correct answer is B.

29. He has extensive knowledge ___________ the subject.

(a) of (b) with

click here to see the answer

Correct answer is A.

30. The teacher let them finish class early __________ condition that they arrived early the next
day.

(a) in (b) on

click here to see the answer

Correct answer is B.

Transitive and intransitive verbs

Transitive and intransitive verbs have different rules

when you use them to make sentences. Read the two
sentences that follow. They contain examples of
transitive and intransitive verbs.

Do you know which sentence contains a transitive verb

and which one contains an intransitive verb?

Examples of transitive and intransitive verbs in

sentences.

1. The boss surprised his workteam.

2. The boss smiled.

Answers to the examples of transitive and intransitive verbs in sentences.

1. is a transitive verb. 2. is an intransitive verb.

Can you see the important difference in sentence structure when using transitive and
intransitive verbs? Think about the sentence structure NOT the meaning……

Read the rest of this post to learn about the differences.

Transitive verbs

A transitive verb needs a direct object to make a complete sentence.

Nouns or pronouns can act as direct objects.

For example:

She likes.

She likes ice cream.

I have invited.

I have invited him.

The verb ‘like‘ needs a direct object – in these examples ‘ice cream‘ (noun) and ‘him‘ (pronoun)
to make sense and to form a complete sentence.

The direct object of an transitive verb is something that ‘receives the action’ of that verb.

Intransitive verbs

An intransitive verb does not take a direct object. For example:

He arrived.

You can add more information to the sentence above.

For example: ‘He arrived half an hour late‘.

‘half an hour late‘ is NOT the direct object of ‘arrived‘ though. It is a noun phrase that acts as an
adverb. It doesn’t ‘receive the action’, it adds extra information by describing when the man
arrived.

More information about transitive and intransitive verbs

Some verbs can act as both transitive and intransitive verbs.

For example:

The All Blacks won. (this sentence is grammatically complete)

The All Blacks won the Rugby World Cup. (the Rugby World Cup is the object of the verb
‘won’)

Some transitive verbs can be followed by two objects (one direct and one indirect object).

For example:

Sam bought Jane some chocolates.

Send me the report when you’ve finished it.

So and such (for emphasis)

‘So’ and ‘such’ are often used incorrectly in English.

Both so and such are used to ‘give emphasis’ – this means to show that something is ‘extreme’
or ‘more than’. For example –
The concert was so good! It was such a good concert!

In both cases, it wasn’t simply a ‘good’ concert, it was more than that.

So and such rule #1:

The main difference between so and such is that you do

not use a noun after ‘so’.

• The concert was so good! This is correct

It was so a good concert You cannot say this

So and such rule #2:

After such, you need a noun.

• It was such a good concert This is correct

It was such good You cannot say this

So and such rule # 3:

The two rules for so and such above can be combined with ‘that’ to talk about the results of
something.

FACT = The concert was so loud. RESULT = our ears hurt.

• The concert was so loud that our ears hurt. This is correct

The concert was such loud that our ears hurt. You cannot say this

• It was such a loud concert that our ears hurt. This is correct
It was so a loud concert that our ears hurt. You cannot say this

So and such rule #4:

So can also be followed by an adverb. NOTE: This is used to make a short comment or
exclamation about something.

• He eats so quickly! This is correct

He eats such quickly! You cannot say this

• She sings so beautifully! This is correct

She sings such beautifully! You cannot say this

• He speaks so eloquently. This is correct

He speaks such eloquently. You cannot say this

Question tags (tag questions)

Question tags (also called tag questions) are common structures used
in spoken English.

An example of a question tag is: ‘You like studying English, don’t you?’

The first part of a question tag sentence is the statement (‘You like
studying English’) followed by the question form (‘don’t you?’)

It is important to note that question tags are generally not questions at all – they are used for
the following purposes:
1. To confirm information you are think you know (e.g. ‘Your birthday is in May, isn’t it?’ = I
think your birthday is in May, but can you confirm that)

2. To act as a conversation starter (e.g. ‘You bought their new album, didn’t you? What did you
think of it?’)

3. To ask for agreement with something (e.g. ‘You believe me, don’t you?’)

When question tags are used as real questions, we often begin with the negative. Compare:

Not a real question A real question

It’s a lovely day, isn’t it?You’ve been ‘You haven’t seen my keys, have you?”You don’t
here before, haven’t you? know where the bank is, do you?’

Another important difference between question tags used as real questions versus question
tags that are not real questions is the sound of your voice.

For example:

REAL QUESTION: You haven’t seen my keys, have you? (the tag has a rising intonation – the
sound of your voice goes up)

NOT A REAL QUESTION: It was an exciting game, wasn’t it? (the tag has a falling intonation – the
sound of your voice goes down)

Forming question tags

The ‘tag’ part of the structure comes from copying the auxiliary verb in the main statement. For
example: You haven’t seen my keys, have you? You are from New Zealand, aren’t you?
If there is no auxiliary verb, then the verb ‘do’ is used: You like ice cream, don’t you? The table
below shows the formation of most question tags.

Auxiliary Main (Additional info) + Match Question

Subject Auxiliary
verb verb comma subject mark

He is studying hard, isn’t he ?

They have missed the bus, haven’t they ?

They – have a car, don’t they ?

She will come to the party, won’t she ?

John could meet us, couldn’t he ?

The
should be able to help, shouldn’t she ?
doctor

You can speak French, can’t you ?

Question tags – Exceptions Some question tags are unique in that they don’t fit into the table
above. Here are some of the more unusual tags that are exceptions to the rules:

• Let’s go, shall we?

• I am late, aren’t I?
• Nobody telephoned you this morning, did they? (tag is positive when statement has
‘nobody’, ‘nothing’)

Be careful when answering a tag question! Consider the following:

A: London isn’t in Spain, is it? B: Yes (meaning ‘I agree with what you said’)
You cannot say this

A: London isn’t in Spain, is it. B: No (Meaning ‘London is not in Spain’)

This is correct

Relative clauses – defining and non defining

Parts of a sentence that identify people, things or add some additional information are called
relative clauses.

Compare the sentences below. Which one is better?

a The International English Language Testing System is a globally recognised exam. It was first
developed in the early 1960s.
b The International English Language Testing System, which was first developed in the early
1960s, is a globally recognised exam.

Hopefully you choose sentence B, which combines two sentences in a more formal, academic
manner using relative clauses.

They often begin with either a question word (who, what, where, which etc) or ‘that’. They can
also start with pronouns; e.g. whose).

Examples of relative clauses:

• He is the man who lives next door to me.

• The journalist, whose work involves a huge

amount of international travel, is currently in

South America.
• My house, which is in the country, is not very big.
• Here’s the book that you wanted me to get.
Notice how the clause immediately follows the noun it relates to.

The game that they are playing originated from Southern Europe.
NOT: The game originated from Southern Europe that they are playing.

There are two common types of relative clause:

1. Defining relative clauses (also called ‘restricting relative clauses’ or ‘identifying relative
clauses’)

2. Non-defining relative clauses (also called ‘non-restricting relative clauses’ or ‘non-identifying

relative clauses’)

1. Defining relative clauses

A defining relative clause is one in which the clause is required for the understanding /
grammar of the sentence.

Example:

She is the teacher who helped me with my homework.

If we remove the relative clause ‘who helped me with my homework‘, we are left with ‘She is
the teacher’ which is not a complete sentence.

With defining relative clauses, we can change the question word for ‘that’:

She is the teacher that helped me with my homework.

2. Non-defining relative clauses

A non-defining relative clause is one in which the clause is NOT required for the understanding /
grammar of the sentence. A non-defining relative clause adds extra information, but we can
remove it and the sentence will still make sense.

Example:

My friend, who comes from Australia, loves surfing.

If we remove the relative clause, we are left with ‘My friend loves surfing.’, This a grammatically
complete sentence.

NOTE: In non-defining relative clauses, we CANNOT change the question word for ‘that’.

Example:

My friend, that comes from Australia, loves surfing. We MUST use ‘who’.

In addition to not using ‘that’, non-defining relative clauses differ from defining relative clauses
in that they use commas to show that the clause is not essential to the grammar of the
sentence. Defining relative clauses do not use commas.

Compare:

She is the teacher that helped me with my homework.

She is the teacher, that helped me with my homework.

My friend, who comes from Australia, loves surfing.

My friend who comes from Australia loves surfing.

TEST YOURSELF: Are the following sentences defining or non-defining?

1. The IELTS interviewer that I had for my speaking test was very friendly.

2. The Academic IELTS test, which is used for university entrance, is more difficult than the
General Training modules.

3. The teaching methods that some schools favour require students to learn new
vocabulary every week.

4. Any listening test which has four sections is bound to be difficult.

5. My friend, who is Scottish, is an IELTS examiner.

Answers:

1. This is a defining relative clause

2. This is a non-defining relative clause
3. This is a defining relative clause
4. This is a defining relative clause
5. This is a non-defining relative clause

TEST YOURSELF #2: All of the following sentences are incorrect. Can you identify the error?

a. America which is one of the world’s most developed countries gives millions of dollars in aid
to developing nations every year.

Show answer This sentence needs to have commas – America, which is one of the world’s
most developed countries, gives millions of dollars in aid to developing nations every year.
b. Students communicate with their classmates in English often become considerably more
fluent and confident.
Show answer This needs ‘who’ adding to the sentence – ‘Students who communicate with
their classmates in English often become considerably more fluent and confident.’
c. We should, of course, punish those which break the law.

Show answer ‘who’ should be used instead of which – ‘We should, of course, punish those
which break the law.’
d. The population is increasing, that is putting strain on both the environment and our supply
of natural resources.

Show answer Because this is a non-defining relative clause, ‘that’ should be changed to
‘which’ – ‘The population is increasing, that is putting strain on both the environment and our
supply of natural resources.’

Inversion

To emphasise a particular part of a sentence, or to make your writing more literary (such as in a
poem or novel), you can invert the traditional order of a sentence. For example:

Standard order – He didn’t realise he had been tricked until the following day.
Inverted order – Not until the following day did he realise he had been tricked.

It is common to invert sentence using negative, ‘restrictive’ words such as those in the list
below:

hardly ever Hardly ever had there been such a shortage of water.

never Never had the President had to make such a difficult decision.

little Little did she know time was running out.

 scarcely ever Scarcely ever have they had to wait for anything.

only by Only by learning to type will he improve in his job.

under no Under no circumstances is the prisoner to have visitors.

circumstances

only in this way Only in this way can we be sure to avoid repeating the problem in the
future.

on no account On no account is John to be given any money.

scarcely Scarcely has they left the building when the bomb went off.

not only Not only had he broken the law but he was also unrepentant.

seldom Seldom have I seen such wealth.

nowhere Nowhere else is there such an abundance of natural resources.

not until Not until the following day did he realise he had been tricked.

Causative verbs

Causative verbs, as the name suggests, are used when we want to talk about somebody causing
something to take place but not actually performing the action.

In sentences including causative verbs, the subject does not perform the action.

Compare the causative to active and passive sentences:

 Example Meaning Type of sentence

I had my car
I asked a mechanic to do the repairs Causative
repaired

I repaired my
I did the repairs. Active
car.

Someone did the repairs (we don’t know who and

My car was
the speaker is not saying that they requested the Passive
repaired.
repairs).

There are four causative verbs that are commonly used in English sentences.

Causative verbs 1/4 – have

Using the causative verb ‘have’ means that the subject of the sentence gives someone the
responsibility to do something. There are two possible structures for the causative verb ‘have’.

Structure 1: Subject + form of have + person + base I will have my secretary send you the
verb details.

Structure 2: Subject + form of have + object + past

I had my car repaired
participle verb

NOTE: sometimes using the causative verb ‘have’ can mean that something is done to the
subject. For example:

John had his car stolen.

In this example, John didn’t give someone the responsibility for stealing the car.
Causative verbs 2/4 – make

Using the causative verb ‘make’ means that the subject of the sentence forces someone to do
something.

Structure: Subject + make + person + base verb The teacher made us do our homework.

Causative verbs 3/4 – let

Using the causative verb ‘let’ means that the subject of the sentence allows someone to do
something.

Structure: Subject + let + person + base verb The boss let us go home early

Causative verbs 4/4 – get

Using the causative verb ‘get’ means that the subject of the sentence persuades or manipulates
someone into doing something. NOTE: the structure of this sentence is different in that it
requires the word ‘to’

Structure: Subject + get + person + to + He got me to agree with him even though I think
base verb he’s wrong!

Causative verbs exercises

Complete the causative verbs exercises below to test your knowledge.

Complete the causative verbs exercises by choosing the correct option (a), (b), (c) or (d) to
complete each of the sentences.

1. My parents always make me _______________________ my homework before I can watch

any television.

(a) to finish (b) finishing (c) finish (d) finished

2. My Mum lets me ________________ later at the weekend.

(a) stay up (b) stayed up (c) staying up (d) to stay up

3. I had the computer technician at work ___________________ my lap top. It works well now.

(a) fixed (b) to fix (c) fixing (d) fix

4. I ________________ my hair cut at that new hairdressing salon the other day, they’re really
good!

(a) have (b) made (c) had (d) let

5. My flatmate got me ___________________ dinner for him last night as he said he was too
tired.

(a) to cook (b) cook (c) cooked (d) make

6. Why don’t you let me __________________ that for you. I’m happy to help!

(a) do (b) to do (c) did (d) done

7. I _______________________ my house broken into last night. I’m so upset!

(a) let (b) made (c) had (d) make

8. I always have my car _________________ at that garage. They provide a really good service.

(a) repair (b) was repaired (c) repaired (d) to repair

9. Did his boss make him ________________ late again last night?

(a) work (b) to work (c) worked (d) works

10. Did her teacher get her ________________ the visitors to the school?

(a) welcome (b) to welcome (c) welcomes (d) welcomed

11. He got me ___________________ that parcel for him as I was going to the post office
anyway.

(a) posted (b) post (c) posts (d) to post

12. My parents didn’t make me ___________________ with housework when I was very young,
but they do now.

(a) to help (b) help (c) helped (d) was help

Answers

1. Correct answer is A. 7. Correct answer is C.

2. Correct answer is D. 8. Correct answer is A.
3. Correct answer is C. 9. Correct answer is A.
4. Correct answer is A. 10. Correct answer is B.
5. Correct answer is A. 11. Correct answer is D.
6. Correct answer is C. 12. Correct answer is B.

Reported speech

Reported speech, also called indirect speech, is what happens

when we are telling someone about what another person
said.

Here is an example of direct and reported speech:

Direct speech: I don’t like this party.

Reported or indirect speech: He said (that) he didn’t like the
party.
When changing direct speech into reported speech, there are four points to consider:

Reported speech point #1: changing pronouns

If the speaker uses a pronoun that does not work if reported by you, it needs to be changed.
For example:

Direct speech

“I don’t like homework,” he said.

“My mum told me to study,” she said.

Reported or indirect speech

He said (that) he didn’t like homework.

She said (that) her mum told her to study.

Reported speech point #2: changing locations

A change of place between when the conversation was held and when it was reported may
mean that the ‘place’ words need changing.

Direct speech > Reported or indirect speech

For example:

“I don’t like it here,“ he said. – reported from somewhere else – He said (that) he didn’t like it
there.

“This party is boring,” he said. – reported from somewhere else – He said (that) the party was
boring.

“My mum told me to come home,” she said. > She said (that) her mum told her to go home.
“You should spend the weekend here,” he said. > He said (that) I should spend the weekend
there.

Reported speech point #3: changing timing

NOTE: imagine that the speech below is being reported one month later than the direct speech.

Direct speech >> Reported or indirect speech

“I met her this morning,” she said. >> She said (that) she met her that morning.

“I can see you now,” the teacher said. >> The teacher said (that) he could see me then.

“I changed jobs a month ago,” John said. >> John said (that) he had changed jobs the month
before.

“I’ll see you next week,” the doctor said. >> The doctor said (that) she would see me the
following week.

“We’ll tell you tomorrow,” they said. >> They said (that) they would tell me the following / the
next day.

Reported speech point #4: changing the tense

Often you will need to change the tense from the direct speech. The table below shows the
common changes between tenses.

For more information on the tenses, see the main grammar menu.

Direct speech – Reported speech

Present simple changes to past simple: “It is lovely!” she said. – She said (that) it was lovely.

Present continuous changes to past continuous: “I am studying,” she said. – She said (that) she
was studying.
Present perfect changes to past perfect: “I have finished,” she said. – She said (that) she had
finished.

Present perfect continuous changes to past perfect continuous: “I’ve been cooking,” she said.
– She said (that) she had been cooking.

Past simple changes to the past perfect: “I saw Jim at work,” she said. – She said (that) she had
seen Jim at work.

Past perfect doesn’t change: “I had already missed the bus,” she said. – She said (that) she had
already missed the bus.

Past perfect continuous doesn’t change: “I had been waiting for 10 minutes,” she said. – She
said (that) she had been waiting for 10 minutes.

Will changes to would: “I will see you later,” she said. – She said (that) she would see me later.

Can changes to could: “I can help,” she said. – She said (that) she could play help.

Must changes to had to: “I must go,” she said. – She said (that) she had to go.

Shall changes to should: “What shall we do today?” she said. – She asked what we should do
that day.

May changes to might: “I may have a day off today,” she said. – She said (that) she might have
a day off that day.

Additional notes about reported speech

1. Using ‘that’ in reported speech

When reporting speech, you can add ‘that’ so the sentence. However, if you use common
reporting verbs like ‘say’ or ‘think’ it is not essential. For example:

Direct speech: “I will see you later,” she said.

Reported speech: She said she would see me later OR She said that she would see me later.

Note: with some verbs like ‘ reply’ or ‘shout’ you can’t drop the ‘that’.

e.g. She shouted that she would be there in a minute. NOT She shouted she would be there in a
minute.

e.g. He replied that he was tired. NOT He replied he was tired.

2. Reporting questions in reported speech

When reporting a yes / no question (where the answer can be yes or no), the reported speech
changes to use the word ‘if’ or ‘whether’. For example:

Direct speech: “Do you like coffee?” she said.

Reported speech: She asked me if I liked coffee. OR She asked me whether I liked coffee.

3. Different reporting verbs used in reported speech

‘Said’ is only one of the many reporting verbs.

To expand your vocabulary and make what you are saying more interesting, it is important to
learn more reporting verbs. Here are some of the most common reporting verbs:

• said • advised • offered

• told • explained • ordered
• asked • thought • promised
• accused • implied • replied
• admitted • invited • suggested
• denied
• alleged
• agreed
• apologised
• begged
• boasted
• complained
Complete the reported speech exercises below to test your knowledge.

Practice: reported speech exercises

Do the sentences below show correct use of reported speech? If not, what corrections need
to be made?

1. “I go swimming every day,” he said.

Is this reported speech correct? He said that he went swimming every day.

2. “My daughter is starting university soon,” she said.

Is this reported speech correct? She said my daughter was starting university soon.

3. “Will you have time to meet me for coffee?” he asked.

Is this reported speech correct? He asked me would I have time to meet him for coffee?

4. “Have you locked the door?” he asked.

Is this reported speech correct? He asked me if I have locked the door.

5. ‘There are two important issues here: time and money,’ the boss advised.

Is this reported speech correct? The boss advised that there were two main issues there:
time and money.
6. “I can help you if I finish my own work in time,” Sara promised.

Is this reported speech correct? Sara suggested that she can help me if she finished her
own work in time.

7. “I was driving home when I saw the crash,” Jason explained.

Is this reported speech correct? Jason explained that he had been driving home when he
had seen the crash.

8. “I’m sorry, I must go now as I am running late!” Geoff said.

Is this reported speech correct? Geoff said that he must go then as he was running late.

9. “I’ll give you all the information you need tomorrow,” the teacher told the students.

Is this reported speech correct (reported three days later)? The teacher told the students
she would give them all the information they needed tomorrow.

10. “What have you been doing this afternoon?” Tom asked Jenna. “I’ve been studying,” she
said.

Is this reported speech correct (reported three days later). Tom asked Jenna what she had
been doing that afternoon; she said she had been studying.

Answers:

1. This is correct.
2. This is incorrect – the pronoun needs to change – it should be as follows: She said
her daughter was starting university soon.
 3. This is incorrect – there are two errors. This is reporting a yes / no question so we
need to use ‘if’. We do not need the (?) in a reported question. It should be as
follows: He asked me if I would have time to meet him for coffee.
4. This is incorrect – the tense needs to change from present perfect to past perfect –
it should be as follows: He asked me if I had locked the door.
5. This sentence is correct.
6. This is incorrect – the tense has changed from present simple to past simple but

‘can’ also needs to change to ‘could’ – it should be as follows: Sarah suggested that
she could help me if she finished her own work in time.
7. This sentence is correct.
8. This is incorrect – the tense has changed from present continuous to past

continuous but ‘must’ also needs to change to ‘had to’ – it should be as follows:
Geoff said that he had to go then as he was running late.
9. This is incorrect – ‘will’ has been changed to ‘would’, tense and and pronoun
changes are also correct but the time also needs to change- it should be as follows:
The teacher told the students she would give them all the information they needed
the next day (or the following day).
10. This sentence is correct.

Stative and dynamic verbs

Verbs can be divided into two types: stative and dynamic
verbs.

Stative verbs are also known as state verbs and dynamic

verbs are also know as action verbs.

Do you know the difference between stative and dynamic

verbs?

Do you know about an important grammar rule that applies to stative and dynamic verbs?

Read the information below and see if your ideas are correct!

Differences between stative and dynamic verbs

• Dynamic verbs describe actions.

For example: to run, to work, to sleep, to eat etc.

• Stative verbs describe things that are not actions.

For example: stative verbs describe feelings, emotions, senses, thoughts, opinions etc. They
often refer to things you cannot actually see people doing.

Examples of stative verbs

Thoughts and opinions:

to agree; to know; to realise; to suppose; to understand; to believe; to remember; to think

Feelings and emotions:

to like; to love; to hate; to dislike; to envy; to mind; to want; to need; to desire;

Senses:

to taste; to smell; to hear; to see

States:

to seem; to belong; to own

Grammar difference between stative and dynamic verbs

Dynamic verbs can be used in continuous tenses.

Stative (or ‘state’) verbs are generally not used in continuous tenses.

For example:

I am knowing John.

I know John.

I am understanding what the teacher is saying.

I understand what the teacher is saying.

Even when we are talking about temporary situations happening now, we generally do not
use stative verbs in the continuous form.

For example:

This meat tastes delicious!

NOT

This meat is tasting delicious!

Verbs that can be used as stative and dynamic verbs

It is important to note that some verbs can act as both stative and dynamic verbs,
depending on their use.
Remember that if you use a stative verb in continuous form, the meaning of what you say
will be different!

Here are some examples:

• This bread tastes good

In this sentence, ‘taste’ is used as a stative verb (opinion of the food / the sense of taste).

• The chef is tasting the dinner

In this sentence, ‘taste’ is used as a dynamic verb; it is describing the action of the chef
checking the quality of the food.

• I see John! Look there he is!

In this sentence, ‘see’ is used as a stative verb (the sense of sight).

• I am seeing Sue tomorrow.

In this sentence, ‘see’ is used as an active verb (speaker is using present continuous for a
future plan).

Superlative adjectives

We use superlative adjectives when we are

comparing one adjective against more than
one other adjective. Examples of superlative
adjectives:

• Of all animals, the cheetah is the

fastest.
• Some people think that English is the
most difficult language in the world.
• In my house, I have to get up the earliest because my job starts at 5 a.m.
Syllables and superlative adjectives

To understand the rules for using superlative adjectives, you will need to know the meaning
of a syllable.

A syllable is a single sound. For example, ‘goodbye’ has two syllables – ‘good’ and ‘bye’.

Here are some more examples:

1 syllable words: hot, cold, dry

2 syllable words: happy, tired

3 syllable words: excited, exhausted

When making superlative adjectives, there are 6 rules you need to remember:

Superlative adjectives rule 1 of 6:

With adjectives with one syllable, simply add the …..+est

For example:

tall > the tallest

fast > the fastest

high > the highest

Superlative adjectives rule 2 of 6:

BUT if the adjective ends in +y, remove the +y and add the …+iest

For example:
happy > the happiest

angry > the angriest

busy > the busiest

Superlative adjectives rule 3 of 6:

NOTE: Adjectives that already end in +e only have the …+st added.

For example:

nice > the nicest

safe > the safest

late > the latest

Superlative adjectives rule 4 of 6:

We add the most… to words with 3 syllables or more.

For example:

intelligent > the most intelligent

beautiful > the most beautiful

interesting > the most interesting

Superlative adjectives rule 5 of 6:

Some 2 syllable adjectives have the +est than and some have the most….

Some 2 syllable adjectives can also be used both ways.

NOTE: 2 syllable adjectives that end in -y, -le, and -er often form the superlative by adding
+est.

For example:

honest > the most honest

clever > the most clever OR the cleverest

modern > the most modern

Superlative adjectives rule 6 of 6:

Adjectives that end with a consonant, then a vowel, then a consonant need the consonant
doubled.

For example:

big > the biggest (not the bigest)

hot > the hottest (not the hotest)

fat > the fattest (not the fatest)

The subjunctive

The subjunctive is a grammar form that has no plural form or

past form. It is generally used when something is considered important or desirable. It is
part of a highly formal style of English often referred to as ‘The Queen’s English’.

For example:

• It is essential that every child have educational opportunities.

• It has been suggested that the company invest in new machinery.
• The judge recommended that the prisoner stay in prison for at least 10 years.

Note that ‘do’ is not used in the negative form:

• It is essential that every child not have to pay for educational opportunities.
• It has been suggested that the company not invest in new machinery until next year.
• The judge recommended that the prisoner not stay in prison any longer

The verb be is slightly different to other verbs in the subjunctive, because there is a different
past tense form.

• It is important that both parties be available to sign the documents

• I wish it were the weekend!

There are also some fixed phrases that use the subjunctive form:

• God save the the Queen (not saves)

Long live the King! (not lives)
God bless us all (not blesses)