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BASIC ARCHITECTURE OF A COMPUTER

COMPUTER
A computer can be defined as an electronic device that accepts data at its input processes it by
doing some kind of manipulations with very high speed and accuracy and produces at the output the desired
results.
A computer system consists of two components, hardware and software. For the working of a
computer system, both the hardware and the software are essential.

PARTS OF A COMPUTER
1.Input unit
The input unit brings information from outside into the computer system. The information can be
either instructions or data. These informations are brought into the memory unit. Keyboard, floppy disc
drive, hard disc drive, magnetic tape drive are commonly used in input unit.
2.Central Processing Unit
The CPU consists of Arithmetic and Logic Unit, Control Unit and Memory Unit
Arithmetic and Logic Unit
This part performs the actual arithmetic calculations and logical operations. The arithmetic logic
unit uses the binary system.
Control unit
It is the most important part of a computer. It systematically exercises control over the functioning
of the different part of the system. It also determines the sequence of the instruction carried out.
Memory
It is that part where the computer collects data for processing. There are two types of memory,
primary and secondary. Primary memory is the semiconductor memory which can not be used to store data
and programmes permanently. It is cleared when the process is switched off. Primary memory is a random
access memory (RAM). Secondary memory is used to store data and programmes permanently. This type of
memory is also known as external memory or non-volatile. Floppy disc, hard disc etc are used commonly as
storage device.
3.Output unit
It is the device to which the computer transfers the processed data. Visual display unit, printer ,
floppy disc etc are the commonly used output unit.
HARDWARE
The electronic and mechanical components of a computer constitute its physical structure and are called
the hardware. Hardware components include the processor, main memory unit consisting of Random
Access Memory (RAM) and Read Only Memory (ROM) and secondary memory devices such as hard disc,
floppy disc, CD, DVD etc., mother board and its circuitry, Input/Output (I/O) devices like key board, monitor,
mouse etc

INPUT DEVICES
Input devices are used for inputting data and program to the computer. While considering the
processor, memory devices can be considered as Input - Output (I/O) devices since the processor can read
and write from and to the memory. However in general while referring to I/O devices, only the external
(peripheral devices) devices are considered.
1) KEYBOARD
This is the common input device for all type of computers. This is used to input alphanumeric
characters. Keys can be broadly grouped into the following types:
1. Alpha numeric keys: Alphabets A-Z, Tab, Caps Lock, Backspace and Enter keys.
2. Modifying keys: This includes keys such as Shift, Ctrl and Alt.
3. Numeric keys: Keys for numerals 0-9 fall under this class.
4. Functional keys : The functional keys F1,F2 etc. are programmable keys for specific uses.
5. Curser movement keys: These keys are used for moving curser on different directions on the
monitor screen. They are arrow keys, Home, End, PgUp and PgDn
6. Special purpose keys: The keys coming under this group are Insert, Delete, Esc, Pause, Print screen,
Scroll Lock etc.
The new generation keyboard has special keys for multimedia and Internet applications.
2) POINTING DEVICE
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Data input also involves entering commands and selecting options. The light pen, the mouse, the
touch screen, joy stick and the digitizer tablet were all developed to make this easy.
Mouse
The mouse is a hand-held device connected to the computer by a small cable. Modern mouse has
got two click buttons and a middle scroll button. Clicking, double clicking and dragging has special functions.
As the mouse is roll around on a flat surface, pointer moves on the screen. When the cursor reaches the
desired location, the user usually pushes a button on the mouse once or twice to signal a menu selection or
a command to the computer.
However, many a time the malfunctioning of the mouse occurs due to the dust on the mouse pad
which prevents the free movement of the roller ball. In order to overcome this drawback, a new variant
called optical mouse is now used. It is basically has an optical device fitted inside the mouse which detects
the mouse movement.
Advantages

 Easy to use
 Not very expensive
 Moves the cursor faster than the arrow keys of the keyboard.

Touch Screen
Limited amounts of data can be entered via a terminal or a microcomputer that has a touch screen
.The user simply touches the screen at the desired locations, marked by labeled boxes, to “point cut” choice
to the computer .
Light pen
This is a pen like device used for drawing directly on the screen. The tip of the pen is sensitive to the
light emitted from the phosphor dots of CRT monitor and hence the computer can locate the position of the
pen on its screen.

Track Ball
Track ball is an input device that is mostly used in notebook or laptop computer, instead of a mouse. This is
a ball which is half inserted and by moving fingers on the ball, the pointer can be moved.
Since the whole device is not moved, a track ball requires less space than a mouse. A track ball comes in
various shapes like a ball, a button, or a square.
Joystick
Joystick is also a pointing device, which is used to move the cursor position on a monitor screen. It is a stick
having a spherical ball at its both lower and upper ends. The lower spherical ball moves in a socket. The
joystick can be moved in all four directions.
The function of the joystick is similar to that of a mouse. It is mainly used in Computer Aided Designing
(CAD) and playing computer games.

3) GRAPHIC OR IMAGE INPUT DEVICES

The commonly used graphic or image input devices are: 1. Scanner, 2. Digitizer, 3. Web camera
1. Scanner: Scanner is an input device, which works more like a photocopy machine. It is used when
some information is available on paper and it is to be transferred to the hard disk of the computer
for further manipulation. The resolution of the image scanned depends on the pixel intensity, which
is generally represented in dots per square inch (dpi).
2. Digitizer: This is used for converting pictures and graphs into digital form. Unlike scanners the input
is directly taken in the digital form. For the documentation of old maps and drawings in digital form,
this is extensively used.
Digitizer is also known as Tablet or Graphics Tablet as it converts graphics and pictorial data into
binary inputs. A graphic tablet as digitizer is used for fine works of drawing and image manipulation
applications.
3. Web camera: Web cameras are useful for taking and transmitting digital photographs through
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Internet.
4) PATTERN RECOGNIZING DEVICES
Pattern recognizing devices are used for recognizing special type symbols or characters written on paper.
The most important ones are:
1. Barcode reader: Bar Code Reader is a device used for reading bar coded data (data in the form of
light and dark lines).
Bar Code Reader scans a bar code image, converts it into an alphanumeric value, which is then fed
to the computer that the bar code reader is connected to.
Very commonly used in super markets, stores and shops for reading the information written on
packets using a combination of bars of different thickness and gap.
2. Magnetic Ink Character Reader (MICR):
MICR input device is generally used in banks as there are large number of cheques to be processed
every day. The bank's code number and cheque number are printed on the cheques with a special
type of ink that contains particles of magnetic material that are machine readable.This reading
process is called Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR). The main advantages of MICR is that
it is fast and less error prone.
3. Optical Mark Reader (OMR) / Optical Character Reader (OCR): OCR is an input device used to read a
printed text. OCR scans the text optically, character by character, converts them into a machine
readable code, and stores the text on the system memory.
OMR is a special type of optical scanner used to recognize the type of mark made by pen or pencil.
It is used where one out of a few alternatives is to be selected and marked.It is specially used for
checking the answer sheets of examinations having multiple choice questions
4. Electronic pen : A digital pen is an input device which captures the handwriting or brush strokes of a
user and converts handwritten analog information created using "pen and paper" into digital data.
This type of pen is usually used in conjunction with a digital notebook

5) VOICE INPUT DEVICES

Voice input devices are used for inputting data in the form of voice. Some softwares are also available
for recognizing the human voice. The following devices are the commonly used voice input devices:
1. Microphone : Microphone is an input device to input sound that is then stored in a digital form.
Used for voice input in voice mailing and internet telephony.
2. Voice Recognizer : Voice recognition is the ability of a machine or program to receive and interpret
dictation or to understand and carry out spoken commands. Used for giving oral commands
to computer.

OUTPUT DEVICES
1) MONITORS
The MONITOR is a device to interact with the computer . it gives the visual display. The messages
from the computer are displayed on the screen of the MONITOR. Similarly, what we a type on the keyboard
is displayed on the screen. This helps us to check what we have typed. This is called key echo.
The monitors have the following varities.
 Cathode Ray Tube monitors (CRT monitors)
 Liquid Cristal Display Unit (LCD display unit)
 Electron Luminescent Display (ELD)
2) PRINTERS
Printer is an output device used to make hard copies on paper. Printers can be broadly classified as:
1. Impact printers and 2. Non-impact printers.
1. Impact printers:
Impact printers do the printing by the impact of the head of the printer. Due to this mode of printing,
multiple carbon interleaved copies can be made. It is generally fast, but the letter quality is poor. Example
for impact type printers are Line printer, Dot matrix printer, Daisy wheel printer etc.
2. Non-impact printers:
Non-impact printers do the printing by coating an ink or toner (carbon powder) on paper. Since they
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do not make any impact on the paper, multiple carbon copies cannot be taken. This type of printers
produces better quality prints. Examples for non-impact type printers are Ink jet printer, laser printer etc.
Characteristics of Impact Printers are the following −
 Very low consumable costs
 Very noisy
 Useful for bulk printing due to low cost
 There is physical contact with the paper to produce an image
These printers are of two types −
 Character printers
 Line printers
Character Printers
Character printers are the printers which print one character at a time.
These are further divided into two types:
 Dot Matrix Printer(DMP)
 Daisy Wheel
DOT MATRIX PRINTER
This is a type of impact printer. Printing is done by the printer head which have pins in it. These pins
when activated by a solenoid ejects out and strikes on the carbon in front of it. This causes an impression of
a set of dots on the paper. A combination of dots in the matrix form is used to print characters and
pictures. Hence it is called dot matrix printer.
Advantages
1. It is cheaper,
2. Ribbons can be frequently changed when printing clarity fades,
3. Both alphanumeric characters and pictures can be printed,
4. Multiple carbon copies can be made in one stretch,
5. Possible to print different fonts,
6. Suitable for continuous printing jobs
7. Bi-directional printing is possible.
Disadvantages
1. Poor letter quality,
2. Noisy,
3. Slower speed
4. Very poor quality while printing graphs and pictures.

Advantages
 More reliable than DMP
 Better quality
 Fonts of character can be easily changed
Disadvantages
 Slower than DMP
 Noisy
 More expensive than DMP
Line Printers
Line printers are the printers which print one line at a time.

These are of two types −

 Drum Printer
 Chain Printer
Drum Printer
This printer is like a drum in shape hence it is called drum printer. The surface of the drum is divided into a
number of tracks. Total tracks are equal to the size of the paper. A character set is embossed on the track.
One rotation of drum prints one line. Drum printers are fast in speed and can print 300 to 2000 lines per
minute.
Advantages
 Very high speed
Disadvantages
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 Very expensive
 Characters fonts cannot be changed
Chain Printer
In this printer, a chain of character sets is used, hence it is called Chain Printer. A standard character set
may have 48, 64, or 96 characters.
Advantages
 Character fonts can easily be changed.
 Different languages can be used with the same printer.
Disadvantages
 Noisy
Types of Non-impact Printers
 Laser Printers
 Inkjet Printers
Characteristics of Non-impact Printers
 Faster than impact printers
 They are not noisy
 High quality
 Supports many fonts and different character size

INK JET PRINTER

This is a type of non-impact printer. The printing is done by spraying ink on the paper from a nozzle. The
ink spray from the nozzle is guided by the magnetized plates in the desired shape causing printing on the
paper.
Advantages
1. Multi-color printing is possible,
2. Higher resolution for letters and pictures,
3. Lower price for printer,
4. Prints line by line,
5. Silent in operation and
6. Printing on transparencies are possible.
Disadvantages
1. Frequent replacement of catridges required,
2. Cost of printing is higher,
3. Lesser quality than laser printer,
4. Comparatively slower speed
5. Clogging of the ink in the nozzle takes place when not in regular use.
LASER PRINTER
This is a non-impact type printer with very high print quality. The technology of printing is very similar to
that of a photostat machine. Hence it is sometimes called xerographic printer. They use laser lights to
produce the dots needed to form the characters to be printed on a page. The desired output image is
written to a selenium drum with the help of a laser beam controlled by the computer. This causes certain
photo sensitive reactions on the dram surfaces. Then finely divided carbon powder called toner is sprayed
on the dram which sticks only on the areas to be printed. When a paper rolls over this drum, the image of
the matter to be printed gets imposed on it. This carbon powder coating on the paper is permanently fixed
by a heating process.
Advantages
1. Multicolor printing is possible,
2. Higher resolution for letters and pictures,
3. Prints line by line,
4. Silent in operation,
5. Printing on transparencies is possible,
6. Since the printing is done by the laser beam, the quality is very high and
7. Printouts last for longer periods.
Disadvantages
1. Initial cost is high,
2. Frequent replacement of toner required and
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3. Cost of printing is higher.

3) PLOTTERS
This is an output device used for printing pictures and graphs. Like the head of a dot matrix printer, the
plotter has a plotting pen/pens in the place of printing head. The pen can move in x and y directions. This
is facilitated by a stepper motor. The different types are Drum type, flat bed type and inkjet type plotters.
Advantages
1. Most suitable for engineering drawings,
2. Suitable for preparing 1C layouts,
3. Suitable for drawing graphs, maps etc.,
4. Multicolor printing is possible and
5. Silent in operation.
Disadvantages
1. Initial cost is very high,
2. Recurring cost is also high and
3. Not very much suitable for printing pure text matter.

4) PROJECTORS
Projectors are used for displaying on large screens. These devices can be directly connected to computer
ports using signal cord. The projector serves the purpose of a monitor. A very popular type of projector is
LCD projector.
Advantages
1) Big screen projection is possible,
2) Suitable for displaying where there is a large gathering,
3) Unlike OHPs transparencies need not be made,
4) Ideal for training and demonstration and
5) More portable than CRT monitor.
Disadvantages
1) Clarity depends on the luminescence of the equipment,
2) Highly costlier,
3) A screen preferably white is required,
4) Focusing of the equipment is required,
5) The heat generated is very high and the bulb has shorter life and
6) Higher time is required for switching on and switching off.

INPUT/OUTPUT (I/O) DEVICES

Certain devices are used for both input and output operations. They are called I/O devices. Some of
them are listed below:
1) Disk drives : These are used for writing to and reading from floppy disks, CDs and DVDs.
2) Modem : The analog to digital conversion and vice versa also known as modulation and
demodulation is done using a modem. Popularly used for connecting digital computers to ordinary
telephone lines for Internet connectivity.
COMPUTER MEMORY
A memory is used to store data and instructions. Computer memory is the storage space in the computer,
where data is to be processed and instructions required for processing are stored. The memory is divided
into large number of small parts called cells. Each location or cell has a unique address. The address of
these locations varies from 0 to 65535.
Memory is primarily of three types −
 Cache Memory
 Primary Memory/Main Memory
 Secondary Memory
Cache Memory
Cache memory is a very high speed semiconductor memory which can speed up the CPU. It acts as a buffer
between the CPU and the main memory. It is used to hold those parts of data and program which are most
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frequently used by the CPU. The parts of data and programs are transferred from the disk to cache memory
by the operating system, from where the CPU can access them.
Advantages
 Cache memory is faster than main (primary) memory.
 It consumes less access time as compared to main memory.
 It stores the program that can be executed within a short period of time.
 It stores data for temporary use.
Disadvantages
 Cache memory has limited capacity.
 It is very expensive.

COMPARISON BETWEEN PRIMARY AND SECONDARY MEMORIES

PRIMARY MEMORY SECONDARY MEMORY

1) Made up of semi conductor devices 1) Made of magnetic materials or optical
electronic circuits and flip-flops. materials coated on plates or tapes.
2) They are volatile in nature and will be lost 2) Recorded permanently and can be re-
when power supply fails. written.
3) Faster than secondary memory
4) Costlier than secondary memory 3) Slower than secondary memory
5) Directly accessible to the processor 4) Cheaper than primary memory.
5) Contents has to be brought to primary
6) Used for storing data and information memory before it is read by the processor.
required for processing and immediately 6) Used for storing data and information
processed. permanently and for porting from one
machine to another. '
7) Storage capacity is low in the order MB 7) Very high storage capacity in the order of GB
in the case of hard disk.

PRIMARY MEMORY COMPONENTS

RAM (Random Access Memory)
This memory can be accessed for data at any time randomly. We can edit, erase or enter into the
contents of this type of memory. This memory gets blanked when the computer is switched off.
This type of memory where the computer keeps the programs is of currently using. It is also the
place where any information required for or produced by the program is stored until the computer either
needs it or is instructed to move it elsewhere. Larger programs and more data can be kept here. These are
more quickly accessible than it would be kept on a disk. Contents of RAM are lost when the power fails or
when the computer is switched off. Hence discs and tapes are necessary for storage of data.
RAM is of two types −

 Static RAM (SRAM)

 Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

Static RAM (SRAM)

This memory retains its contents as long as power is being supplied. The data is lost when the power gets
down. SRAM chips use a matrix of 6-transistors and no capacitors. SRAM is used as cache memory and has
very fast access.
Characteristic of Static RAM
 Long life
 No need to refresh
 Faster
 Used as cache memory
 Large size
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 Expensive
 High power consumption
Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
Dynamic RAM (DRAM) is a type of semiconductor memory that uses capacitors to store the bits. The
charging and discharging of the capacitor represents 0 and 1 i.e. the two possible values that can be stored
in a bit.
The DRAM is a volatile memory i.e. the data in memory is lost when power is switched off. DRAM
must be continually refreshed in order to maintain the data. This is done by placing the memory on a
refresh circuit that rewrites the data several hundred times per second. DRAM is used for most system
memory as it is cheap and small.
Characteristics of Dynamic RAM
 Short data lifetime
 Needs to be refreshed continuously
 Slower as compared to SRAM
 Used as RAM
 Smaller in size
 Less expensive
 Less power consumption
Versions of DRAM
Asynchronous DRAM
This was the first type of DRAM in use but was gradually replaced by synchronous DRAM. This was
called asynchronous because the memory access was not synchronized with the system clock.
Synchronous DRAM
This DRAM replaced the asynchronous RAM and is used in most computer systems today. In
synchronous DRAM, the clock is synchronised with the memory interface. All the signals are processed on
the rising edge of the clock.
Graphics DRAM
There are many graphics related tasks that can be accomplished with both synchronous and
asynchronous DRAM. Some of the DRAM used for these tasks are Video DRAM, Window DRAM, Multibank
DRAM etc.
Difference between DRAM and SRAM
 SRAM is formed using flip flops and DRAM using capacitors.
 The data in DRAM is refreshed periodically to store it correctly. This is not necessary for SRAM.
 SRAM is normally only used in Cache memory while DRAM is used in main memory.
 Static RAM is much more faster and expensive as compared to Dynamic RAM.
 Since SRAM is used as Cache memory, its size is 1MB to 16MB. On the other hand, dynamic memory
is larger as it is used as main memory.
 SRAM is usually present on processors or between processors and main memory. DRAM is present
on the motherboard.
ROM (Read Only Memory)
ROM is read only memory. The computer can only read the data and information stored in it. We
cannot edit or rewrite or erase the contents of this type of memory. The content in a ROM chip is
permanent or hard cored. These contents are retained even after the computer is switched off.
The instructions to the machine for its basic operation during switching ON is coded in this memory.
ROM is used when dedicated tasks have to be performed separately.
PROM and EPROM are the different types of ROM.
PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory)
PROM is read-only memory that can be modified only once by a user. The user buys a blank PROM
and enters the desired contents using a PROM program. Inside the PROM chip, there are small fuses which
are burnt open during programming. It can be programmed only once and is not erasable. Contents of
PROM remains unaltered even though the power supply is switched off. PROM is used in testing
equipments, games, hardware, electronic toys, watches etc.

EPROM (Erasable Programmables Read Only Memory)

EPROM can be erased by exposing it to ultra-violet light for a duration of up to 40 minutes. Usually,
an EPROM eraser achieves this function. During programming, an electrical charge is trapped in an insulated
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gate region. The charge is retained for more than 10 years because the charge has no leakage path. For
erasing this charge, ultra-violet light is passed through a quartz crystal window (lid). This exposure to ultra-
violet light dissipates the charge. During normal use, the quartz lid is sealed with a sticker Such memory is
used in special purpose computers.

EEPROM (Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)

EEPROM is programmed and erased electrically. It can be erased and reprogrammed about ten
thousand times. Both erasing and programming take about 4 to 10 ms (millisecond). In EEPROM, any
location can be selectively erased and programmed. EEPROMs can be erased one byte at a time, rather
than erasing the entire chip. Hence, the process of reprogramming is flexible but slow.
COMPARISON BETWEEN RAM AND ROM

RAM ROM
1. Reading and writing are possible 1. Read only memory
2. Volatile in nature. 2. Non volatile
3. Data transfer takes place to and from the RAM. 3. Data on the ROM can only be read
4. Stores operating system, application programs, 4. Stores BIOS for POST and booting
input data, output data etc. operations.
5. Capacity of the RAM affects system
performance. 5. Memory of ROM is not related to system
6. Extendable and upgradeable by adding chips for performance.
enhancing Memory 6. Up gradation is not generally required.
7. DRAM and SRAM are the common types
7. The different types of ROM aft PROM,
EPROM, EEPROM etc.

SECONDARY MEMORY DEVICES

The secondary devices memory are also called storage devices. They are non-volatile in nature and can
be used for the permanent storage of data and program. They are broadly classified into two as magnetic
devices and optical devices
1) MAGNETIC DEVICES
The storage surfaces of magnetic devices are coated with a magnetic material like iron oxide which
can be magnetized. The binary digits 0 and 1 are stored in these medium by two different magnetic
orientation. Since we can alter the pattern of the magnetic orientation the magnetic memory is a read/
write memory. The reading and writing on the magnetic medium is done using a device called read/write
head. eg_- Floppy disc and Hard disc
Floppy disk
It is made by coating magnetic material on a thin plastic sheet kept in square envelope for
protection. The disk was inserted in the computer’s floppy disk drive, an assembly of magnetic heads and a
mechanical device for rotating the disk for reading or writing purposes. A small electromagnet, called a
magnetic head, wrote a binary digit (1 or 0) onto the disk by magnetizing a tiny spot on the disk in different
directions and read digits by detecting the magnetization direction of the spots.
Advantages
1) Convenient in size
2) Easy offline porting of data,
3) Re-write facility
Disadvantages
Since the outer cover is not weatherproof, there is possibility for damage and data loss in bad
weather.
Magnetic tapes
Magnetic tape is a serial access secondary memory device. It is made with plastic tape coated with
magnetic material. The tape is wound over a disk and can be wound or unwound over another disk similar to
the audiocassette. The technology used is similar to that of floppy disc.
Hard Disc
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It is the common secondary memory device fixed inside the computer and connected to the mother
board. All data and information required for future use, are stored in the hard disk.
Hard disk is made up of a set of thin and hard aluminium platters, placed close to one another on a
spindle. The head reads platters by moving in an arc. The whole arrangement is consealed in a dust and
vermin proof metal casing. Data is stored by magnetizing or demagnetizing the magnetic coating. A
magnetic reader arm is used to read data from and write data to the disks.
2) OPTICAL DEVICES
The commonly used optical devices are Compact Disc (CD) and Digital Versatile Disc (DVD).
These devices make use of laser technology for reading and writing on an optical medium coated on a
plastic disc.
COMPACT DISCS (CD)
CDs have a continuous spiral track. For reading a laser beam has to move from outer track to inner
track or vice versa. But data fetching is to be done at uniform rate. For this, the CD has to rotate at different
speed as the track length increases with increase in radius. While writing, lands and pits (crusts and troughs)
are made on the surface of the optical medium using a laser beam. The land (flat area) represents "1" and
the pit indicates "0". The reflectance from the land is much more than the pit. This difference in the
reflectance is sensed by the photo diode and corresponding signals are send to the computer.
Advantages of compact disc
1. Lower cost,
2. Higher memory capacity than floppy disc,
3. Resistance to atmospheric agencies like heat, water, dust etc.,
4. Easiness in porting,
5. Bulk data transfer capability
6. Light in weight
Disadvantages
1. Chances for breaking when roughly handled,
2. Costly special devices are required for reading and writing and
3. They cannot be used for writing as frequently as floppy disks.
There are three types of CDs −
 CD-ROM (Compact Disk – Read Only Memory) − The data on these CDs are recorded by the
manufacturer. Proprietary Software, audio or video are released on CD-ROMs.
 CD-R (Compact Disk – Recordable) − Data can be wri en by the user once on the CD-R. It cannot be
deleted or modified later.
 CD-RW (Compact Disk – Rewritable) − Data can be wri en and deleted on these op cal disks again
and again.
DIGITAL VERSATILE DISC (DVD)
DVD also has spiral tracks like that of CD but at a closer interval and have more pits per track. This
necessitates a narrow laser beam for reading and writing. Hence their data storage density is very high. Due
to their large memory capacity they are used for multimedia applications.
DVD are optical devices that can store 15 times the data held by CDs. They are usually used to store
rich multimedia files that need high storage capacity. DVDs also come in three varieties – read only,
recordable and rewritable

Blu Ray Disk

Blu Ray Disk (BD) is an optical storage media used to store high definition (HD) video and other
multimedia filed. BD uses shorter wavelength laser as compared to CD/DVD. This enables writing arm to
focus more tightly on the disk and hence pack in more data. BDs can store up to 128 GB data.
Flash memory
Flash memory is a non-volatile memory chip used for storage and transfering data between a
personal computer (PC) and digital devices. It is an electronically erasable programmable read-only memory
(EEPROM). It does not require a power source to retain the data. Flash memory incorporates the use of
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floating-gate transistors to store data. Floating-gate transistor is a transistor used for amplifying or switching
electronic signals.

Portable devices such as digital cameras, smartphones, and MP3 players normally use flash
memory.

Examples of Flash Memory

USB Flash Drive – USB flash drive is also known as USB thumb drive, USB stick or Pen drive. It is a light
weight portable storage device, that uses solid state memory rather than magnetic fields or lasers to record
data. It uses a technology similar to RAM, except that it is nonvolatile.
CF (Compact Flash) –this memory is mostly preferred in the digital cameras for holding images. Compact
Flash card has two variants like as “Type I” and “Type II”. Type I card is 3.3 mm thick, but other is 5 mm thick.
M.2 SSD – M.2 SSD stands for “M.2 Solid-State Drive”, and it is used in internally mounted storage expansion
cards as per the computer industry specification.
Memory Card – Memory card is also known as “Flash Memory Card”, and it is storage medium of different
types of data such as images, video or text.
MMC – MMC stands for “Multi Media Card”, and it is small type of memory card that is used as flash
memory into several portable devices
NVMe – NVMe stands for “Non-Volatile Memory Express”, and it is used as host controller interface and
storage protocol for flash and next generation SSDs which provides the higher throughput and fastest
response times for different types of enterprise workloads.
SDHC Card – SDHC stands for “Secure Digital High Capacity card”, and it is advance version of the SD card
with storage capacity up to 32 GB.
SmartMedia Card – It is a data storage medium device, and it contains the flash memory that helps to hold
data..
Sony Memory Stick – Sony Memory Stick is also flash memory card. for digital storage in some portable
devices such as digital cameras, video camcorder, and other devices.
SD Card – SD card is also known as “Secure Digital Memory Card”. It is used for data storage in the cameras
and phones.
SSD – SSD stands for “Solid-State Drive”, and it is data storage medium. SSD is a non-volatile memory to
store and access any types of data. It does not contain any moving parts, so it delivers the faster access time,
noiseless operation, higher reliability, and lower power consumption.
xD Picture Card – Its full form is “EXtreme Digital Picture Card”. It is used for using in the digital cameras.

Advantages of Flash Memory

1. It saves all data when power is getting turn off.
2. Higher speed of read and writ
3. Smaller size
4. Portability
5. Consume less power
6. Low chances to damage
7. Lesser price to traditional drives
8. It does not contain any moveable parts.
9. Work more quietly compare to physical hard drive

Disadvantages of Flash Memory

1. Flash memory contains a limited number of write and erases cycles before failing.
2. Flash memory does not contain any write-protection mechanism.
3. It is more costly than hard disk
4. Easy to lose due to its smaller size
5. Writing is costly.
6. Erasing is more costly.
7. It needs advance version of program to run on a flash based drive to secure from prematurely wearing
out the drive.
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Virtual Memory
Virtual Memory is a technique to increase the main memory capacity. It uses data swap technology and hard
disk area is used as virtual memory.
Difference between Cache Memory and Virtual Memory.
Cache Memory Virtual Memory

Cache memory increase CPU access speed. Virtual memory increase main memory capacity.

Cache memory is a memory unit and is very fast to Virtual memory is a technique and involes hard
access. disk and is slower to access.

CPU and related hardwares manages cache Operating System manages virtual memory.
memory.

Cache memory is small in size. Size is much larger than cache memory.

Cache memory keeps recently used data. Virtual memory keeps the programs which are not
getting accomodated in main memory.

Differences between Volatile and Non-Volatile Memory.

Volatile Memory Non-Volatile Memory

Data is present till power supply is present. Data remains even after power supply is not present.

Volatile memory data is not permanent. Non-volatile memory data is permanent.

Volatile memory is faster than non-volatile Non-volatile memory access is slower.

memory.

RAM is an example of Volatile Memory. ROM is an example of Non-Volatile Memory.

Data Transfer is easy in Volatile Memory. Data Transfer is difficult in Non-Volatile Memory.

CPU can access data stored on Volatile memory. Data to be copied from Non-Volatile memory to
Volatile memory so that CPU can access its data.

Volatile memory less storage capacity. Non-Volatile memory like HDD has very high storage
capacity.

Volatile memory such as RAM is high impact on Non-volatile memory has no impact on system's
system's performance. performance.

Volatile memory is costly per unit size. Non-volatile memory is cheap per unit size.

Program
Instructions are required for working of the computer. An executable statement is called an instruction. For
doing a task a set of instructions will be required. A set of all such instructions required for doing a complete
job or task is called a program.

SOFTWARE
A program is a sequence of instructions written to solve a particular problem. Software is a set of
programs, which is designed to perform a well-defined function
Softwares can be broadly classified into two:
i. System software and ii. Application software.
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System software
The system software is a collection of programs designed to operate, control, and extend the processing
capabilities of the computer. System software is generally prepared by the computer manufacturers.
These are written in low-level languages. System software serves as the interface between the hardware
and the end users.
Some examples of system software are Operating System, Compilers, Interpreter, Assemblers, etc.

Features of a system software −

 Close to the system
 Fast in speed
 Difficult to design
 Difficult to understand
 Less interactive
 Smaller in size
 Difficult to manipulate
 Generally written in low-level language

Application Software
Application software are developed by the programmers based on customer's needs and demands.
They are connected to the hardware of the computer through system software. Generally application
programs are less complex than system software.
Application software may consist of a single program or a collection of programs, often called a
software package, which work together to accomplish a task.

Examples of Application software

 Payroll Software
 Student Record Software
 Inventory Management Software
 Income Tax Software
 Railways Reservation Software
 Microsoft Office Suite Software
 Microsoft Word
 Microsoft Excel
 Microsoft PowerPoint
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COMPUTER LANGUAGES
Instructions are required for working of the computer. Computers can receive instructions only in
the form of certain special languages. These are called computer languages. All computer programs are
written in computer languages.
In the hierarchy computer languages are classified as follows:
1. Machine language,
2. Assembly language and
3. High level language.

Low-Level Languages
Low-level computer languages are either machine codes or are very close them. A computer cannot
understand instructions given to it in high-level languages or in English. It can only understand and execute
instructions given in the form of machine language i.e. binary. There are two types of low-level languages:
1. Machine Language
2. Assembly Language
Machine language
This is a basic language which any computer can understand. Machine language is coded using the
binary digits 0 and 1. Instructions of various meanings are coded using different combinations of 0 and 1.
Computer directly understands a program written in the machine language. So machine language program
does not require any translator to convert from one form to another
The machine language code varies from machine to machine depending upon its hardware
architecture.

Advantages of machine language

1. Machine languages are written in direct machine readable form and hence needs no translation
2. Since no translation is required it is the fastest in execution.
Disadvantages
1. All operation codes have to be remembered
2. All memory addresses have to be remembered
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3. It is highly machine dependent and has least portability,

4. It is very much cumbersome and difficult text learn, write and remember
5. Debugging (error detection and correction) is difficult.

Assembly language
In order to reduce the complexity of machine language certain mnemonics or symbolic codes are
used in assembly language to give single instructions such as HOLD, STORE, MOVE etc. This is another low-
level in which operation codes and operands are given in the form of alphanumeric symbols instead of 0’s
and l’s.
Assembly languages are nowadays used for processor programming only. The assembly languages
need to be translated into the machine language before execution. For this a translating program called
assembler, is used.

Advantages
1. Assembly language is easier to understand and use as compared to machine language
2. It is easy to locate and correct errors
3. It is less cumbersome to learn and write
4. It requires lesser memory space

Disadvantages
1. Since assembly language needs a translation into machine language it is slower than machine
language,
2. It is machine dependent and
3. Not suitable for writing general application programs.

High Level Languages (HLL)

The major defect of machine language and assembly language is its poor portability due to machine
dependence. In order to overcome this defect, computer languages very much similar to English language in
syntax (grammar), were evolved. These languages are user friendly and machine independent. Since they
are similar to English language in their structure and syntax they are easy to learn, write and debug. But
these programs need to be translated into machine language before they are executed, since computers
know only the machine language. Translating programmes called compilers and interpreters are used for
translating a high level language into machine language.
Examples of high level languages are C, C++, BASIC, PASCAL, FORTRAN, COBOL etc

Advantages
1. High-level languages are user-friendly
2. They are similar to English and use English vocabulary and well-known symbols
3. They are very easy to learn, write and debug
4. Due to their machine independence, they can be easily ported from one machine to the other.

Disadvantages
1. They need a translation before execution,
2. They are slower than machine language during execution
3. They need more memory.
COMPARISON OF MACHINE LANGUAGE, ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE AND HIGH LEVEL LANGUAGE

MACHINE LANGUAGE ASSEMBLY LANGAUGE HIGH LEVEL LANGUAGE

1. Represented by binary code 0 Represented by mnemonic Written using English like word.
and 1 codes
2. Machine dependent, low Machine dependent, low Machine independent, highly
portability portability portable
3. Low level language Low level language High level language
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4. Sparingly used Restrictive use in system Widely used in application

programming Programming
5. No translation required sinee Translating program called Translating programs called
computer can directly read assembler translates into compiler into machine language.
machine language
6. Difficult to learn, write and Better than machine language Very much user friendly and easy
debug but not user friendly to learn, write and debug due to
similarity with English language

7. Separate code for each type of Separate code for each type of Universal code irrespective of
hardware hardware hardware and operating system
8. Unique in nature of the code Unique in nature of the code Different high level languages are
available with varying suitability.

9. Poor documentation Better documentation Best documentation.

10. faster in execution Slower than machine language Slower than machine language
and assembly language

Assembler
This is used for translating assembly language programs into machine language. The assembly
language to machine language translation is one-to-one. That is, for each mnemonic there is a
corresponding machine code.
Compiler and Interpreter
Compilers and interpreters are used for translating a high level language into machine language. But
their difference is in the mode of translation. Compilers translate the entire program to be executed into
machine language before running the program. During the process of compilation the syntax errors will be
detected and listed after compilation. These errors need to be corrected. Only after successful compilation
the program could be run.
The interpreter will translate the program written in a high level language to machine language line
by line. If any syntax error is detected the translation of the program will stop and could be further compiled
only after the correction. After reading a line which is free from syntax error, it is immediately translated
into machine language and gets executed.

Operating System
The Operating System is a program with the following features −
 It is a program that acts as an interface between the software and the computer hardware.
 It is an integrated set of specialised programs used to manage overall resources and operations of
the computer.
 It is a specialized software that controls and monitors the execution of all other programs that
reside in the computer, including application programs and other system software.

Objectives of Operating System

The objectives of the operating system are −
 To make the computer system convenient to use in an efficient manner.
 To hide the details of the hardware resources from the users.
 To provide users a convenient interface to use the computer system.
 To act as an intermediary between the hardware and its users, making it easier for the users to
access and use other resources.
 To manage the resources of a computer system.
 To keep track of who is using which resource, granting resource requests, and mediating conflicting
requests from different programs and users.
 To provide efficient and fair sharing of resources among users and programs.
17

Characteristics of Operating System

 Memory Management − Keeps track of the primary memory, i.e. what part of it is in use by whom,
what part is not in use, etc. and allocates the memory when a process or program requests it.
 Processor Management − Allocates the processor (CPU) to a process and deallocates the processor
when it is no longer required.
 Device Management − Keeps track of all the devices. This is also called I/O controller that decides
which process gets the device, when, and for how much time.
 File Management − Allocates and de-allocates the resources and decides who gets the resources.
 Security − Prevents unauthorized access to programs and data by means of passwords and other
similar techniques.
 Job Accounting − Keeps track of me and resources used by various jobs and/or users.
 Control Over System Performance − Records delays between the request for a service and from the
system.
 Interaction with the Operators − Interac on may take place via the console of the computer in the
form of instructions. The Operating System acknowledges the same, does the corresponding
action, and informs the operation by a display screen.
 Error-detecting Aids − Produc on of dumps, traces, error messages, and other debugging and
error-detecting methods.
 Coordination Between Other Software and Users − Coordina on and assignment of compilers,
interpreters, assemblers, and other software to the various users of the computer systems.