Geo 201

Principles of Geophysics

Dr. Sattam Abdulkareem Almadani

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 Dr. Sattam Abdulkareem Almadani
Assistant Professor of Geophysics

Ph.D. (2011) Geophysics, Missouri University of Science

& Technology (MST), Rolla, Missouri, USA.

M.S. (2003) Marine Physics, King Abdulaziz University,
Jeddah.

B.S. (1999) Marine Physics, King Abdulaziz University,
Jeddah.

Office: 2B 122 – Building 4

Office Hours: Sun Tue 1:00 pm –2:00 pm
Email: [email protected]
Phone: 467-7055
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Meeting Time:
Sun Tue 2:00 – 2:50 pm
Credits:
3 hours (2+1)
Reference Books:
• An introduction to geophysical exploration (third
edition) - P. Keary, M. Brooks, and I. Hill, Blackwell
Publishing, 2002. ISBN: 0-632-04929-4
• Introduction to applied geophysics: Exploring the
shallow subsurface - H.R. Burger, A.F. Sheehan, and
C.H. Jones, W.W. Norton and Company, 2006. ISBN:
0-393-92637-0

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Course Description:
Physical and mathematical laws and its
relation to the Earth properties, Elasticity
theory and properties of wave propagation in
seismic reflections, refractions, wave equations,
Seismic wave characteristics, Potential field
theories, Principles of different exploration
techniques, Interpretation of earth's structures
from geophysical data.

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Grades:
Based on examinations and class participation
as follows:
 1st Midterm Exam 10%
 2nd Midterm Exam 10%
 Problem Set 15%
 Lab 25%
 Final Exam 40%

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Course Topics:
 Fundamental Considerations
 Seismic Refraction Method
 Seismic Reflection Method
 1st Midterm Exam
 Earthquake Seismology
 Electrical Method
 2nd Midterm Exam
 Gravity Prospecting
 Magnetic Method
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What I need from you:
• Your attendance:
– Never to be late more than 10 minutes before lecture
– Never play with your cell phone while giving lecture.
– Never talk to your friend while giving lecture.
– Never miss more 25% of the total lectures.
• Your participation:
– Involve in all group discussions and activities.
– Write down all important information in your
notebook.
• Homework assignments:
– Answer all your homework assignments on-time.
– Never cheat from others.

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My advice to you:
 Group study
 Ask questions
 Don’t copy
 Arrange your time
 Always prepare a plan to achieve your
targets

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 Any questions?

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 What is Geophysics?

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Geophysics: is the science which deals with
investigating the Earth, using the methods
and techniques of Physics.

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 Geophysics = Geological observations + Physical laws

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Divisions of Geophysics:
 Global Geophysics: study earthquakes,
magnetic field, physical oceanography, and
meteorology.
 Exploration Geophysics: Search for oil, gas,
water, and minerals.

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Geophysical Exploration Methods:
 Passive Methods (Natural Sources):
incorporates of natural occurring fields or
properties of the Earth [i.e. Magnetotelluric,
Telluric, Gravity, Magnetic].
 Active (Induced Sources): a signal injected
into the earth and then measure how the
earth respond to the signal [i.e. Resistivity,
Seismic Refraction, GPR].

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Fundamental Considerations:
- Theory of Elasticity
- Stress-Strain relationship
- Elastic coefficients
- Seismic waves
- Huygen and Fermat principles
- Snell’s law in refraction

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Q. Is the tennis ball
the same in the
two photos? Why?
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Theory of Elasticity:
Stress: is the ratio of applied force F to the area
across which it is acts.
Strain: is the deformation caused in the body, and
is expressed as the ratio of change in length (or
volume) to the original length (or volume).

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 Q. What is going
on Earth?

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 Q. What is pressure?

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Pressure: Forces act equally in all
directions perpendicular to faces of body.

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Types of Strain:
1. Axial Stress: stresses act in one direction only, e.g.
if sides of bar fixed:
– Change in volume of solid occurs.
– Associated with P wave propagation

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Types of Strain:
2. Shear Stress: stresses act parallel to face of solid,
e.g. pushing along a table:
– No change in volume.
– Fluids such as water and air cannot support
shear stresses.
– Associated with S wave propagation.

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Types of Stress:
1. Normal stress (n):
perpendicular to the
surface of the body.
2. Shear stress (t):
acting parallel to
the surface of the
body.

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 Q. What are the differences
between the three?
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 Stress principal axes
Z

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If all 3 principal stresses are equal
(σ1 = σ2= σ3), the body is subjected to a
pressure.

Pressure = sum of principal stresse/3

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• Stresses towards the interior: compression
• Stresses towards the exterior: tension
(extension, dilatation)

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 Hooke’s Law
Hooke’s Law essentially states that stress is
proportional to strain.

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 Q. What are the differences
between the two?
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At high strains: the elastic
limit is exceeded and a
body deforms in a plastic or
ductile manner: it is unable
to return to its original
shape, being permanently
strained, or damaged.

At very high strains: a solid

will fracture, e.g. in
earthquake faulting.

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Review:
- Geophysics and its divisions.
- Methods of geophysical exploration
- Theory of elasticity
- Pressure
- Types of stress and strain
- Elastic, ductile (plastic), and ductile
- Hooke’s Law

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 Elastic Constants
Elastic constants describes the strain of a
material due to applied stress.

Modulus = stress/strain

The higher the value of the modulus, the

stronger the material, the smaller the strain
produced by a given stress.

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 Elastic constants include:
• Young’s modulus E
• Bulk modulus K
• Shear Modulus µ
• Axial Modulus (ψ)
• Poisson’s Ratio σ

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Young’s Modulus (E)

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Bulk Modulus (K)

Measure of the capacity of the material to be

compressed. It can be carried out for solid, liquid,
and gas.
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 Q. What are the differences
between Young’s Modulus and
Bulk Modulus?

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Shear Modulus (µ)

Measure of the effort needed to change the

shape of a material without change of volume.
µ =0 for liquid or gas.
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Axial Modulus (ψ)
Response to longitudinal stress, similar to
Young’s Modulus except that strain is
uniaxial – no transverse strain associated
with the application of the longitudinal
stress.

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Poisson’s Ratio (σ)
When a material is
compressed in one
direction, it usually
tends to expand in the
other two directions
perpendicular to the
direction of
Compression.

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 Q. What are seismic waves?

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 waves of energy that travel through the Earth's
layers, and are a result of an earthquake,
explosion, or a volcano.
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 Q. How many types of seismic
waves there are?

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Body Waves (travel inside the Earth):
1. P-waves (primary, compress ional, push-
pull). Highest speed with change in volume
(i.e sound). Move parallel of wave
propagation.

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Body Waves (travel inside the Earth):
2. S-waves (secondary, shear). No change in
volume. Can’t exist in fluids. Move
perpendicular to wave propagation.

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 Slower velocity than P waves & Slightly
greater amplitude than P waves
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 Q. What are the differences
between the two?
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 Relationship between Vp and Vs

Compressional Waves Shear Waves

• Averaged Vp/Vs = 1.732 for the crust

• For mafic rocks, Vp/Vs = 1.81
• For felsic rocks, Vp/Vs = 1.70
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 Surface Waves (travel on Earth’s surface):

1. Love waves:
are surface seismic
waves that cause
horizontal shifting of
the Earth during an
earthquake.

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Surface Waves (travel on Earth’s surface):

2. Raleigh waves:
Travel near the
surface of solids
particle motion in
circles like water
waves, Velocity
slower than Love
waves.

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 Propagation of seismic waves in the
earth:

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yO
GoKCK17a4

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 Q. Which surface waves is the
most destroy?

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 Answer:

Love wave

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 Body waves Surface waves

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 Q. What are rock properties that
affect seismic velocity?

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Rock properties that affect seismic velocity:
1- Porosity
2- Lithfication
3- Pressure
4- Fluid saturation

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- The porosity of a rock is the fraction of the volume of
space between the solid particles of the rock to the
total rock volume.
- The space includes all pores, cracks, vugs, inter- and
intra-crystalline spaces.

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- Lithification is the
process whereby freshly
deposited loose grains of
sediment are converted
into rock

- Cementation is one of
the main processes
involved, particularly for
sandstones and
conglomerates.
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In general, velocity rises with increasing pressure.

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- Saturation is the measure of
the fluid volume present in the
pore volume of a porous
medium

- By definition, the saturation of

a fluid is the ratio of the fluid
volume to the pore volume or
the
rock

- Wave velocity decrease with

decreasing fluid saturation
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 Q. What is attenuation?

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- Attenuation is the gradual loss in
strength of any kind of change through a
medium.
- For instance, sunlight is attenuated by
dark glasses and light and sound are
attenuated by water.
- Seismic wave decrease in amplitude due
to spherical spreading and due to
mechanical loss in the rock unit.

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- In igneous rocks with minimal
porosity, seismic velocity increases with
increasing mafic mineral content.

- In sedimentary rocks, effects of

porosity and grain cementation are
more important, and seismic velocity
relationships are complex.

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P wave velocity as function of age and depth:

where Z is depth in km and T is geological

age in millions of years (Faust, 1951).

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Time-average equation:

where Ø is porosity, Vf and Vm are P wave

velocities of pore fluid and rock matrix
respectively (Wyllie, 1958).

Usually Vf ≈ 1500 m/s, while Vm depends

on lithology.
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 Q. What is a wave front? And
raypath?

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- The wave front is
the direct boundary
between the seismic
waves in the earth
material, and the
material that the
seismic energy has
not yet reached

- ray is the vector

perpendicular to a
wave front.

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 Q. What is Huygens's Principle?

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- Huygens's Principle is a
method of analysis
applied to problems of
wave propagation.

- He proposed that every

point on a wave-front
may be considered a
source of secondary
spherical wavelets which
spread out in the forward
direction at the speed of
light.
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 Q. What is Snell’s Law?

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Snell's Law: describes how elastic waves are
reflected and refracted across a boundary
separating layers of differing velocity.

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 Q. What is the critical angle?

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When V2 is greater
than V1, the angle of
refraction is greater
than the angle of
V1
incidence, then the
angle of incidence for
V2
which this occur us
called the critical
angle.

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 Q. What is ray parameter?

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 Ray parameter is a function (p) that
is constant along a given seismic ray:

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