GIS

Geographic Information Systems (GIS) are powerful tools for capturing, storing, analyzing, and
visualizing spatial data. The fundamentals of GIS include several key concepts and components:

1. Introduction to GIS

GIS is a system that integrates hardware, software, and data to manage spatial information. It
allows users to analyze geographic patterns, relationships, and trends.

2. Key Components of GIS

 Hardware: Computers, GPS devices, and servers used for processing spatial data.
 Software: GIS applications such as ArcGIS, QGIS, and Google Earth.
 Data: Spatial and non-spatial data used for mapping and analysis.
 People: GIS professionals who collect, analyze, and interpret spatial data.
 Methods: Procedures and algorithms used for GIS analysis.

3. Types of GIS Data

 Spatial Data (Georeferenced Data)

o Vector Data: Represented by points, lines, and polygons (e.g., roads, rivers, land
parcels).
o Raster Data: Grid-based data like satellite images, elevation models, or climate
data.
 Attribute Data: Descriptive information associated with spatial features (e.g., population
of a city, land use type).

4. Coordinate Systems and Projections

GIS data is represented using coordinate systems that define locations on Earth. Common
coordinate systems include:

 Geographic Coordinate System (GCS): Uses latitude and longitude (e.g., WGS84).
 Projected Coordinate System (PCS): Converts 3D Earth onto a 2D map (e.g., UTM,
Mercator projection).

5. GIS Functions and Analysis

 Data Input: Importing spatial data from various sources (GPS, remote sensing, and
surveys).
 Data Management: Storing and organizing data in databases (e.g., shape files,
geodatabases).
 Spatial Analysis:
o Buffering (creating zones around features)
 oOverlay analysis (combining multiple layers)
oSpatial querying (finding locations based on attributes)
oNetwork analysis (optimizing routes)
 Map Making (Cartography): Designing and visualizing data using maps.

6. Remote Sensing and GIS

Remote sensing involves capturing images of Earth's surface using satellites or drones. This data
is often used in GIS for environmental monitoring, land cover mapping, and disaster management.

7. Applications of GIS

 Urban Planning: Managing infrastructure, zoning, and land use.

 Environmental Management: Monitoring deforestation, climate change, and pollution.
 Transportation: Optimizing routes, traffic analysis.
 Disaster Management: Predicting and responding to natural disasters.
 Agriculture: Precision farming, soil analysis.

8. GIS Software and Tools

 Commercial GIS: ArcGIS (Esri), MapInfo.

 Open Source GIS: QGIS, GRASS GIS, Post GIS.
 Web-based GIS: Google Maps, Open Street Map, Map box.

Spatial Data and Its Types

Spatial data, also known as geospatial data, refers to information that describes objects, events, or
phenomena with a location on the Earth's surface. This data is critical in Geographic Information
Systems (GIS) for mapping and spatial analysis.

Types of Spatial Data

Spatial data is primarily classified into two categories:

1. Vector Data
o Represents geographic features using geometrical shapes.
o Common formats: Shape files (.shp), GeoJSON, KML, GDB (Geodatabase)
o Subtypes of Vector Data:
 Point Data: Represents discrete locations (e.g., cities, GPS coordinates).
 Line Data: Represents linear features (e.g., roads, rivers, pipelines).
 Polygon Data: Represents area-based features (e.g., land parcels, lakes, and
administrative boundaries).
2. Raster Data
o Represents the Earth's surface as a grid of pixels (cells).
o Each pixel has a value representing an attribute such as elevation, temperature, or
land cover.
 o Common formats: TIFF (.tif), JPEG (.jpg), PNG (.png), GRID
o Subtypes of Raster Data:
 Satellite Images: Captured by remote sensing (e.g., Landsat, Sentinel).
 Aerial Photography: High-resolution images taken from drones or aircraft.
 Digital Elevation Models (DEM): Represent terrain elevation.
3. Attribute Data
o Non-spatial information linked to spatial data.
o Example: A city (point feature) may have attributes such as population, name, and
area.
4. Topological Data
o Describes spatial relationships between features (e.g., adjacency, connectivity).
o Useful for network analysis (e.g., transportation, hydrology).

Spatial Data Acquisition Considerations

When acquiring spatial data, various factors must be considered to ensure accuracy, relevance, and
usability.

1. Data Sources
o Primary Data: Collected firsthand using surveys, GPS, remote sensing.
o Secondary Data: Obtained from existing sources such as government agencies,
satellite imagery, and online GIS repositories.
2. Accuracy and Precision
o Positional Accuracy: How close a location is to its true position?
o Attribute Accuracy: Correctness of descriptive data.
o Temporal Accuracy: Up-to-date data to reflect current conditions.
3. Coordinate System and Projection
o Ensuring data is in the correct coordinate system (e.g., WGS 84, UTM).
o Avoiding distortions in map projections.
4. Scale and Resolution
o Spatial Resolution: The level of detail (e.g., 30m resolution vs. 1m resolution).
o Temporal Resolution: Frequency of data updates (e.g., daily, monthly).
o Thematic Resolution: Level of detail in attribute data.
5. Data Quality and Consistency
o Checking for missing values, inconsistencies, and data redundancy.
6. Data Format and Compatibility
o Choosing formats compatible with GIS software (e.g., Shapefile for ArcGIS,
GeoJSON for web GIS).
7. Legal and Ethical Considerations
o Data licensing and usage rights.
o Privacy concerns, especially with personal geospatial data.

Data Models and Structures in GIS

A data model in GIS defines how spatial data is structured, stored, and represented. It determines
how geographic features are organized and processed within a GIS system.
1. GIS Data Models
GIS data is primarily structured into two main data models:

A. Vector Data Model

 Represents geographic features using points, lines, and polygons.

 Stores coordinate-based geometry along with attribute data.
 Common file formats: Shapefile (.shp), GeoJSON, KML, GDB (Geodatabase).
 Types of Vector Data:
o Point: Represents a single location (e.g., city locations, trees, GPS coordinates).
o Line (Polyline): Represents linear features (e.g., roads, rivers, pipelines).
o Polygon: Represents area-based features (e.g., land parcels, lakes, building
footprints).
 Advantages:
o High spatial accuracy.
o Efficient for discrete features.
o Supports topology (spatial relationships).
 Disadvantages:
o Complex data structure.
o Not suitable for continuous data (e.g., temperature, elevation).

B. Raster Data Model

 Represents geographic features as a grid of cells (pixels).

 Each cell contains a value representing an attribute (e.g., elevation, land cover).
 Common file formats: TIFF (.tif), GRID, JPEG (.jpg), PNG (.png).
 Types of Raster Data:
o Satellite Images: Captured from remote sensing (e.g., Landsat, Sentinel).
o Aerial Photos: High-resolution images from drones or aircraft.
o Digital Elevation Models (DEM): Represent terrain elevation.
o Thematic Raster Data: Land use classification, temperature maps, etc.
 Advantages:
o Best for continuous data (e.g., elevation, temperature).
o Simple structure for spatial analysis.
o Efficient for image processing and remote sensing.
 Disadvantages:
o Large file sizes (higher storage requirements).
o Lower spatial accuracy compared to vector models.
o Requires resampling for different resolutions.

2. GIS Data Structures

Data structures define how spatial data is stored, indexed, and retrieved in a GIS system.
A. Vector Data Structures

1. Spaghetti Model
o Simple structure with no topology.
o Each feature is stored independently.
o Example: A road represented as separate, unconnected line segments.
o Pros: Simple and efficient for small datasets.
o Cons: Redundant data, inefficient spatial analysis.
2. Topological Model
o Defines spatial relationships (adjacency, connectivity, containment).
o Uses nodes, edges, and polygons with shared boundaries.
o Example: Road networks where intersections are nodes and roads are edges.
o Pros: Efficient for spatial queries (e.g., shortest path, network analysis).
o Cons: More complex storage and processing.

B. Raster Data Structures

1. Cell-Based Storage
o Stores each cell’s value in a matrix/grid format.
o Can be uncompressed (raw data) or compressed (lossless/lossy).
2. Run-Length Encoding (RLE)
o Stores sequences of identical cell values as a single value and count.
o Pros: Reduces file size for large areas of uniform data.
o Cons: Less efficient for highly variable data.
3. Quadtrees
o Hierarchical structure that recursively divides raster into quadrants.
o Pros: Efficient for sparse or large datasets.
o Cons: Complex indexing and processing.

3. Object-Based and Field-Based Models

 Object-Based Model: Treats spatial features as objects with attributes (used in vector
GIS).
 Field-Based Model: Represents continuous data fields (used in raster GIS).
Choosing the Right Data Model

Factor Vector Model Raster Model

Best for Discrete objects (roads, buildings) Continuous data (elevation,
temperature)
Data accuracy High Lower (depends on resolution)
Storage size Smaller Larger
Processing Slower for large datasets Faster for overlays and analysis
speed
Common uses Urban planning, transportation Remote sensing, environmental
networks modeling

Coordinate Systems in GIS

A coordinate system in GIS is a framework used to define locations on the Earth's surface. It
provides a reference framework for spatial data, ensuring accurate positioning and measurement.

1. Types of Coordinate Systems

A. Geographic Coordinate System (GCS)

 Uses a spherical or ellipsoidal model of the Earth.

 Locations are defined using latitude (φ) and longitude (λ) in degrees.
 Example: WGS84 (World Geodetic System 1984).
 Components:
o Latitude (φ): Measures north-south position (0° at the Equator, ±90° at the poles).
o Longitude (λ): Measures east-west position (0° at the Prime Meridian, ±180°).
o Datum: A reference model for the Earth's shape (e.g., WGS84, NAD83, GRS80).
 Pros:
o Globally used.
o Works well for large-scale mapping.
 Cons:
o Not ideal for distance/area measurements due to distortions.

B. Projected Coordinate System (PCS)

 A 2D flat-plane representation of the Earth (converted from a 3D sphere).

 Uses Cartesian coordinates (X, Y) for precise distance, area, and direction calculations.
 Key Components:
o Projection Method: Defines how the Earth's surface is flattened.
o Units: Uses meters or feet instead of degrees.
o False Origin: Adjusts coordinates to prevent negative values.
 Pros:
o Accurate for local/regional maps.
o Allows direct distance and area calculations.
  Cons:
o Distorts shape, area, or scale depending on the projection type.

2. Common Coordinate Systems and Projections

A. Geographic Coordinate Systems (GCS)

GCS Description
WGS84 (World Geodetic System 1984) Global standard for GPS and mapping.
NAD83 (North American Datum 1983) Used in North America.
NAD27 (North American Datum 1927) Older North American system.

B. Projected Coordinate Systems (PCS)

PCS Description
Universal Transverse Mercator Divides the world into 60 zones (6° wide each), using a
(UTM) transverse Mercator projection.
State Plane Coordinate System Used in the U.S. for high-accuracy state mapping.
(SPCS)
Web Mercator (Pseudo- Used for online maps (Google Maps, OpenStreetMap).
Mercator, EPSG:3857)

3. Types of Map Projections

Different projection methods convert the curved Earth into a flat map, each with trade-offs.

Projection Type Description Best Use Case

Cylindrical (e.g., Mercator) Preserves shape, distorts area Navigation, web maps
near poles
Conic (e.g., Lambert Preserves area and shape in mid- Regional maps (USA,
Conformal Conic) latitudes Europe)
Azimuthal (e.g., Polar Maintains true direction from a Polar regions, airline
Stereographic) central point routes

4. Choosing the Right Coordinate System

 For Global Mapping: Use WGS84 (default for GPS and web mapping).
 For Local/Regional Accuracy: Use UTM or State Plane.
 For Navigation: Use Mercator Projection.
 For Area-Preserving Maps: Use Equal-Area projections (e.g., Albers Equal-Area).
Summary

Type Example Best For

Geographic (GCS) WGS84 Global mapping, GPS
Projected (PCS) UTM, State Plane Local/regional precision
Projection Methods Mercator, Lambert, Albers Specific applications