Geo-Informatics

Introduction to Geo-Informatics Resources of Information

Geo-informatics is an interdisciplinary field that combines geography, information technology,

and data analysis to address spatial and geographic challenges. It focuses on collecting,
processing, and analyzing geospatial data using tools like Geographic Information Systems (GIS),
remote sensing, photogrammetry, and satellite navigation systems. Below, we elaborate on various
sources of geospatial information:

Photogrammetric Surveying

Photogrammetric surveying is a technique used to measure and map the physical features of an
area by analyzing photographs, typically aerial or satellite images. It involves capturing multiple
overlapping images of the same location from different angles to create detailed, accurate 3D
models or maps. This process is based on the principle of triangulation, where geometric
relationships between different viewpoints are used to determine the exact positions of objects
within the images.

There are two primary types of photogrammetry:

 Terrestrial photogrammetry, where images are captured from ground level.

  Aerial photogrammetry, where photographs are taken from aircraft or drones.

Aerial photogrammetry is more commonly used in mapping and surveying because it covers larger
areas and offers a bird’s-eye view of the terrain.

The data derived from photogrammetric surveying is used in a variety of applications, including
topographic mapping, urban planning, construction, land use management, and environmental
monitoring. Advanced photogrammetric techniques allow for the generation of Digital Elevation
Models (DEMs), 3D reconstructions of structures, and even texture mapping, which is useful in
rendering realistic visualizations. By combining precise geometric calculations with modern
software, photogrammetry enables geospatial professionals to create highly detailed maps and
models for both small and large-scale projects.

The method offers high precision, efficiency, and cost-effectiveness, especially when compared to
traditional ground-based surveying methods. Additionally, technological advancements in
cameras, sensors, and drones have made photogrammetric surveying even more accessible and
reliable for a wide range of industries, from agriculture to urban development.
Satellite System

A satellite system refers to a network of artificial satellites that orbit the Earth to perform various
functions, such as communication, navigation, weather monitoring, Earth observation, and
scientific research. These systems play a crucial role in geo-informatics by providing continuous,
global coverage for data collection and transmission. Satellites are equipped with specialized
sensors and instruments to capture data about the Earth's surface, atmosphere, and surrounding
space.
Types of Satellite Systems

 Communication Satellites: These satellites facilitate the transmission of voice, video, and
data signals across long distances. They enable global telecommunications, broadcasting,
and internet services. Geostationary satellites, which orbit the Earth at the same rate as the
planet’s rotation, are widely used for communication purposes.
 Navigation Satellites: Navigation satellites form the backbone of Global Navigation
Satellite Systems (GNSS) like GPS (Global Positioning System), GLONASS, Galileo, and
BeiDou. They provide accurate positioning, navigation, and timing (PNT) information,
which is essential for applications such as transportation, military operations, and disaster
management.
 Earth Observation Satellites: These satellites capture detailed imagery and data about the
Earth’s surface, oceans, and atmosphere. They are used for monitoring environmental
changes, resource management, agriculture, urban planning, and disaster response.
Examples include the Landsat series, Sentinel satellites, and NOAA satellites.
 Weather Satellites: Weather satellites monitor atmospheric conditions and provide data
for weather forecasting, climate studies, and disaster prediction. These satellites can detect
storms, track hurricanes, and analyze temperature and humidity levels. Examples include
the GOES (Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellites) series and the
METEOSAT satellites.
 Scientific and Research Satellites: These satellites are designed to conduct experiments
and gather data for scientific research. For instance, they study the Earth's magnetic field,
 monitor cosmic radiation, or observe celestial bodies. Satellites like the Hubble Space
Telescope and the James Webb Space Telescope contribute significantly to space
exploration.

Orbits of Satellite Systems

Satellites are placed in specific orbits based on their intended function:

 Geostationary Orbit (GEO): Satellites appear stationary relative to the Earth and are used
for communication and weather monitoring.
 Low Earth Orbit (LEO): Positioned close to the Earth, these satellites are ideal for high-
resolution Earth observation and remote sensing.
 Medium Earth Orbit (MEO): Often used by navigation satellites like GPS, MEO
provides a balance between coverage and signal strength.
 Polar and Sun-Synchronous Orbits: These orbits allow satellites to cover the entire
Earth, making them suitable for global mapping and environmental monitoring.

Applications of Satellite Systems

Satellite systems have revolutionized geo-informatics by providing a constant and comprehensive

source of data. Key applications include:

 Remote Sensing: Collecting imagery for mapping, environmental studies, and urban
planning.
 Disaster Management: Monitoring natural disasters like floods, earthquakes, and
wildfires to support early warning systems and relief efforts.
 Resource Management: Tracking natural resources, such as forests, water bodies, and
minerals.
 Global Communication: Enabling uninterrupted connectivity across the globe.
 Navigation and Transportation: Supporting autonomous vehicles, aviation, and maritime
operations through precise location services.
Satellite systems are integral to modern geo-informatics, offering unparalleled capabilities for
understanding and managing our planet. As technology advances, satellites are becoming more
efficient, miniaturized, and cost-effective, expanding their potential applications further.

Aerial and Satellite Photogrammetry

Aerial and satellite photogrammetry are specialized techniques used to collect and analyze spatial
data from images captured by airborne or satellite platforms. Both methods enable the creation of
accurate maps, 3D models, and terrain visualizations, making them essential tools in geo-
informatics.

Aerial Photogrammetry

Aerial photogrammetry involves capturing images of the Earth's surface using cameras mounted
on aircraft, drones, or helicopters. These images are taken from a relatively low altitude, ensuring
high-resolution data suitable for detailed mapping and modeling.

Key Features:

 High Resolution: Aerial images provide fine details, making them ideal for urban
planning, construction, and cadastral mapping.
 Overlapping Images: The overlapping of images, typically 60% to 80%, allows for the
creation of stereoscopic views and 3D models.
 Flexibility: Drones and other aerial platforms offer the ability to capture data in hard-to-
reach or dangerous areas, such as disaster zones or rugged terrains.

Applications:

 Topographic mapping and contour generation.

 Monitoring construction progress or infrastructure development.
 Agricultural land analysis, such as crop health monitoring.
 Environmental studies and forest management.
Satellite Photogrammetry

Satellite photogrammetry uses images captured by Earth observation satellites to analyze larger
areas from greater altitudes. Satellites orbit the Earth at varying altitudes (e.g., low Earth orbit,
medium Earth orbit, or geostationary orbit), capturing high-quality, georeferenced images with
sophisticated sensors.

Key Features:

 Global Coverage: Satellites can capture data for virtually any location on Earth, including
remote and inaccessible regions.
 Multi-Spectral Imaging: Satellite sensors capture data in multiple spectral bands (visible,
infrared, thermal), enabling advanced analyses like vegetation health, soil moisture, or land
cover classification.
 Scalability: Satellite photogrammetry is ideal for regional or global studies, such as climate
monitoring or large-scale land use planning.

Applications:

 Generating Digital Elevation Models (DEMs) for large areas.

 Monitoring natural disasters, such as earthquakes, floods, or wildfires.
 Urban and regional planning, particularly for larger metropolitan or rural areas.
 Tracking environmental changes, such as deforestation or glacier retreat.

Comparison of Aerial and Satellite Photogrammetry

Feature Aerial Photogrammetry Satellite Photogrammetry
Moderate to low, depending on
Resolution High (fine details)
sensors
Coverage
Local to regional Regional to global
Area
Cost Higher for small areas Cost-effective for large-scale studies
 Limited to the flight plan of the
Accessibility Accessible globally
aircraft
Time Quick deployment possible (e.g., Dependent on satellite orbital
Sensitivity drones) schedules

Integration in Geo-Informatics

Aerial and satellite photogrammetry complement each other in geo-informatics. While aerial
photogrammetry excels in high-detail, localized studies, satellite photogrammetry offers
scalability and broader coverage. By combining data from both methods, professionals can achieve
a comprehensive understanding of spatial phenomena, enabling accurate decision-making for
applications like urban planning, disaster management, and environmental conservation.