ABSTRACT

A flame photometer is an important analytical instrument commonly used in clinical

laboratories to measure the concentration of certain metal ions, such as sodium,
potassium, lithium, and calcium, in body fluids like blood and urine. These elements
play crucial roles in maintaining various physiological functions, and their accurate
measurement is essential for diagnosing and monitoring many medical conditions. The
flame photometer operates on a simple yet effective principle: when a sample containing
these elements is introduced into a flame, the heat causes the compounds to break apart
into free atoms. Some of these atoms become excited due to the thermal energy and emit
light as they return to their normal energy state. The intensity of this light is directly
related to the concentration of the element in the sample.

The instrument mainly consists of three essential components: the emission system,
which detects the light emitted; the fuel gases and their regulation system, which
maintains a stable flame; and the atomizer , which introduces the sample into the flame
in the form of a fine mist. One of the key advantages of flame photometry is its
relatively low cost compared to other advanced methods like atomic absorption or
atomic emission spectrophotometry. Additionally, it is less prone to spectral and
ionization interferences, especially because ionization problems typically arise only at
very high temperatures, which are not reached in this method.

1
 INTRODUCTION
During 1980s Bowling Barnes, David Richardson, John Berry and Robert Hood
developed an instrument to measure the low concentrations of sodium and potassium
in a solution. They named this instrument as Flame photometer . The principle of
flame photometer is based on the measurement of the emitted light intensity when a
metal is introduced into the flame. The wavelength of the colour gives information
about the element and the colour of the flame gives information about the amount of
the element present in the sample. Flame photometry is one of the branches of atomic
absorption spectroscopy. It is also known as flame emission spectroscopy. Currently,
it has become necessary tool in the field of analytical chemistry. Flame photometer
can be used to determine the concentration of certain metal ions like sodium,
potassium, lithium, calcium and magnesium etc. In flame photometer spectra the
metal ions are used in the form of atoms. The International Union of Pure and Applied
Chemistry (IUP AC) Committee on Spectroscopic Nomenclature has named this
technique as flame atomic emission spectrometry.

FLAME PHOTOMETER
2
 Figure no.2.

ADVANTAGE AND DISADVANTAGE OF FLAME PHOTOMETER

The flame photometer is and instrument used to detect sodium, calcium, potassium,
and Lithium ions; it depends on the intensity of emitted light. The advantage of
flame photometer:

 This rapid, suitable, selective and responsive analysis.

 It’s a simple and economical method of analysis.
 Used in the qualitative and quantitative analysis of metal ions.
 The element that are rarely analyzed in this method can be determined.
 Very low concentration of metal ion can also be determined from the
sample.

3
The disadvantage of flame photometer:
Despite the several advantages, there are some disadvantages of this analysis
technique, lets check it.
 The only liquid sample can be analyzed through this technique.
 In some cases, sample preparation is longer.
 This method does not give information regarding the molecular
structure of metal ion, which is present in the sample.
 Each and every metal atom cannot be determined by flame photometer
 The concentration of the metal ion cannot be accurately measured by
this technique.

4
 Principle of Flame Photometer
When compounds of alkali and alkaline earth metals (Group II elements) are
introduced into a flame, they dissociate into free atoms. Some of these atoms
absorb energy from the flame and become excited to higher energy levels.
However, these excited atoms are unstable and quickly return to their ground
state, releasing energy in the form of light. This emitted radiation typically falls
within the visible region of the electromagnetic spectrum. Each element emits
light at a characteristic wavelength, allowing for its identification and
quantification.

The intensity of the emission os directly proportional to the number of atoms

returning to the ground state. And the light emitted is in turn to the concentration of
the sample.
5
 LITERATURE REVIEW

HISTORY

In 1873, scientists Champion, Pellet, and Grenier built one of the earliest instruments
to measure sodium using a flame. This idea was first suggested by Janssen in 1870.
They used a spectroscope and compared the light from two flames—one with an
unknown sample and one with known standards. By observing both at the same time,
they were able to measure how much sodium was present in plant ash samples with an
accuracy of about 2–5%. This was the first time an instrument was specially made to
get exact measurements using a flame, marking the beginning of flame photometry.

However, early methods didn’t focus much on how samples were added to the flame.
In 1877, a scientist named L.G. Gouy showed that the intensity of light from the flame
depended on how big the flame was and how much sample was added. To fix this, he
created a pneumatic atomizer, which could control the amount of sample going into
the flame. This made the results much more accurate and consistent.

These early discoveries laid the foundation for modern flame photometers. Today,
companies like BWB Technologies continue to improve this technology. They focus
on making instruments that are more advanced, easier to use, and more efficient,
helping scientists around the world analyzep elements like sodium, potassium, and
calcium quickly and accurately.

6
 Basic principle of Flame Photometer

A Flame Photometer is a device used in inorganic chemical analysis to determine the

concentration of certain metals such as potassium, sodium, calcium, and lithium.
Photoelectric flame photometry works by measuring the intensity of light emitted
when a metal is introduced into a flame. Each metal gives off light at a specific
wavelength, and the brightness of this light is directly related to the amount of that
metal in the sample.

Working principle of Flame Photometer:

The working principle of a flame photometer is straightforward. A liquid sample is
sprayed into a non-luminous flame as a fine mist. This mist produces a colored flame
depending on the specific element present—such as sodium (Na), potassium (K),
calcium (Ca), or lithium (Li). Each of these elements emits light at a unique
wavelength when heated in the flame.
A photodetector observes this flame through a narrow-band optical filter that only
allows light of the specific wavelength corresponding to the element being measured.
The intensity of this light is detected and converted into an electrical signal, which is
processed by electronic modules to display a digital reading of the element’s
concentration.
Before measuring unknown samples, the device must be calibrated using standard
solutions of known concentrations.
In operation, compressed air from a compressor is directed into an atomizer. This
airflow draws the sample into a mixing chamber. At the same time, liquid petroleum
gas (LPG) is introduced at controlled pressure. The atomized sample and gas are then
mixed and sent to the burner, where they are ignited, producing the flame used for
analysis.

7
Procedure of Flame Photometer
Before beginning the working procedure of flame photometry, it is important to
understand the key components involved in the process. A flame photometer consists
of four main parts: the flame source, the nebulizer and mixing chamber, the optical
filter system, and the photodetector.
1. Source of flame: The burner produces a stable flame with a constant temperature,
which is essential for accurate analysis.
2. Nebulizer and mixing chamber: This part draws the sample solution and
converts it into a fine mist, mixing it with fuel and air before introducing it into
the flame at a constant rate.
3. Optical filter system: The optical system includes a lens, a filter, and a convex
mirror. It isolates the specific wavelength of the element being measured by
blocking out unwanted light from other sources or elements.
4. Photodetector: This component detects the intensity of light emitted by the
flame. It converts the light into an electrical signal, which is then used to
determine the concentration of the element in the sample.

Working procedure of Flame Photometer

 Prepare standard and sample solutions as required.
 Ensure the proper connection of air, gas and drain tube.
 Power of flame photometer and compressor according to the instruction manual
adjust the output pressure and drown capillary tube into distilled water.
 Turn on the gas supply and immediately ignite the flame.
 Set the blank and the diluent used for standard and sample preparation.
 Aspirate the standard samples sequentially.
 Aspirate the sample solution and record the readings.
 Do the device shutdown process.

8
 APPLICATION OF FLAME PHOTOMETER

1. Element detection and measurement: Flame photometry can be used for both
qualitative and quantitative analysis. The radiation emitted by each element is
unique, allowing for the identification and measurement of specific metals in a
given sample.
2. Soil health analysis: The presence of Group II elements (alkaline earth metals) is
essential for maintaining soil fertility. Flame photometry can detect these metals
in soil samples, helping to identify deficiencies so that appropriate fertilizers can
be applied.
3. Clinical analysis: Sodium (Na⁺ ) and potassium (K⁺ ) ions are crucial for
various metabolic and physiological functions in the human body. Flame
photometry is used in clinical laboratories to accurately measure their
concentrations by diluting and aspirating blood serum samples into the flame.
4. Food and Beverage Testing: Flame photometry is used to analyze soft drinks,
fruit juices, and alcoholic beverages to determine the concentration of various
metals and elements, ensuring product quality and safety.

9
 PARTS OF FLAME PHOTOMETER

A simple flame photometer consist of the following basic components:

 Source of flame: A burner in the flame photometer is the source of flame. It
cam be maintained in at a constant temperature. The temperature of the flame
is one of the critical factors in flame photometry.

 Nebuliser: The nebuliser is used to introduce a homogeneous solution into

the flame at a consistent and balanced rate.
 Optical System: The optical system consists of a convex mirror and a
convex lens. The convex mirror collects and transmits the light emitted by
the atoms in the flame, directing it toward the lens. It also helps focus the
emitted radiation onto a specific point.
 Simple Colour Filters: The focused light from the mirror passes through a
slit and then through colour filters, which help isolate specific wavelengths of
interest.
 Photo-detector: The intensity of radiation emitted by the flame is measured
by a photo-detector. This device converts the incoming light into electrical
signals. The strength of these signals is directly proportional to the intensity
of the detected radiation.

10
 Advantage of flame photometer

1. The method of analysis is very simple and economical.

2. It is quick, convenient, selective and sensitive analysis.
3. It is both qualitative and quantitative in nature.
4. Even very low concentration ( parts per million/ppm to parts per billion/ppb
range) of metal in the sample can be determined.
5. This method compensates for any unexpected interfering material present in the
sample solution.
6. This method can be used to estimate elements which are rarely analyzed.

Disadvantage of flame photometer

1. In spite of many advantages, this analysis technique has quite a few
disadvantages.
2. The accurate concentration of the metal ion in the solution cannot be measured.
3. It cannot directly detect and determine the presence of inert gas.
4. Through this technique measure the total metal content present in the sample, it
does not provide the information about the molecular structure of the metal
present in the sample.
5. Only liquid samples may be used. Also sample preparation becomes lengthy in
some cases 6. Flame photometry cannot be used for the direct determination of
each and every metal atom. A number of metal atoms cannot be analysed by this
method. The elements such as carbon, hydrogen and halides cannot be detected
due to their non-radiating nature.

11
Precaution: Whenever standard addition method is to the employed a correction
should be made for background emission from the flame. This can be done by
injecting the solvent into the flame and then it signals intensity, called background
emission, is measured. When calculations are to be made, the intensity of t
background emission must be subtracted from the emission due to sample.

(b) Internal standard method: when this method is applied to a simple flame

photometer, following steps are involved:

1. Prepared standard sample solutions containing known amounts of internal
standard element (usually lithium). Then aspirate these standard samples into the
flame and record the signal intensity for each of these samples.
2. Now aspirate the sample having unknown concentrations into the flame and
record the signal intensity.
3. The ratio of the two intensities is calculated and is then plotted versus the
concentration of the element to be determined. (The concentration of the internal
standard element is kept constant). A calibration curve is obtained. From this, one
can calculate concentration of the element present in the sample. II it is SB
intensity is known by aspirating it into the flame.
When this method is used with a simple flame photometer. The effects of
momentary fluctuations in flame characteristics will not be eliminated. However.
these fluctuations can be overcome by using a direct-reading instrument (Fig.2) which
gives a direct and simultaneous reading of the ratio of two intensity.
Every element cannot be chosen as the internal standard method. However, it should
fulfill the following characteristics:
a. It’s amount should be very small in the original sample
b. Its should give an emission line which reacts to interference as the line of the
element ( to be determined) does. One or both of these requirement are often
violated, sometimes with disastrous results.

12
 Procedure:
The procedure for practical put as per SOP ( standard operating procedure ) provided
in manual of Equiptronics . The SOP was as follow:
1. Ensure that the compressor unit LPG pipe are properly connected and secured.
2. Switch ON the main unit and compressor unit.
3. Adjust the air regulator valve from LPG cylinder.
4. Open the regulator valve from LPG cylinder.
5. Open the fuel control valve from main unit.
6. Insert the igniter on the burner and ignite the flame. If the flame is not ignited
within few attempt increase the fuel flow gradually once the flame is ignited it
will be yellow nonoxidizing flame. Slowly reduce the flame so as to get a blue
oxidizing flame. Allow the flame to stabilize for 5 min.
7. Take a distilled water in the beaker and insert the capillary aspirator insert
required filter.
8. Adjust the zero control to '00' on display. Remove the distilled water and place the
beaker containing the repaired sample of known concentration and select
appropriate filter.
9. Allow the flame to stabilize for 1-2 min.
10. Adjust the calibration knob to adjust the value of the standard on display.
11. Repeat the operation as given in 8 and 10 above.
12. On pressing freeze switch the reading will be averaged and stored.
13. Remember to aspirate with distilled water between two readings to flush put
earlier content.
14. At the end of the experiment shut OFF the fuel valve when the flame is
extinguished close the air valve and shut down the main compressor unit.

13
 WORKING PROCEDURE OF FLAME PHOTOMETER

1. Both the standard stock solution and sample solution are prepared in fresh
distilled water
2. The flame of the photometer is calibrated by adjusting the air and gas. Then flame
is allowed to stabilize for about 5 min.
3. Now the instrument is switched on and the lids of the filter chamber are opened
to insert appropriate color filters.
4. The readings of galvanometer are adjusted to zero by spraying distilled water into
the flame.
5. The sensitivity is adjusted by spraying the most concentrated standard working
solution into the flame. Now the full scale deflection of the galvanometer is
readjusted.
6. Again distilled water is sprayed into the flame to attain constant reading of
galvanometer. Then the galvanometer are recorded to zero.
7. Now each of the standard working solutions is sprayed into the flame of three
times and the readings of galvanometer are recorded. After each spray, the
apparatus must be throughly washed.
8. Finally the sample solution is sprayed into the flame for three times and the
reading of galvanometer are recorded. After each spray, the apparatus must eb
throughly washed,
9. Calculate the mean of the galvanometer readings.
Plot the graph of concentration against the galvanometer readings to find out the co
concentration of the element in the sample.

14
 The solvent is first aspirated to obtain fine solid particle.
 These molecule in the solid particle are move toward the flame to produce
gaseous atoms and ions.
 These ions absorb the energy from the flame get excited to high energy levels
from the ground state.
 But as these ions are unstable, they return back to ground state. While returning
they emit characteristic radiation.
 The intensity of emitted light is proportional to the concentration of the element.

15
The oxidants flame photometer are mainly air, oxvgen or nitrous oxide. The
temperature of the flame depends on the ratio of fuel and oxidant. The processes
occurring during flame photometer analysis are summarized below:
Desolvation: Desolvation involves drying a sample in a solution. The metal particles
in the solven al dehydrated by the flame and thus solvent is evaporated.
Vaporization: The metal particles in the sample are also dehydrated. This also led to
the evaporation of the solvent.
Atomization: Atomization is the separation of all atoms in a chemical substance. The
metal ions in the sample are reduced to metal atoms by the flame.
Excitation: The electrostatic force of attraction between the electrons and nucleus of
the atom helps them to absorb a particular amount of energy. The atoms then jump to
the higher energy state when excited.
Omission: Since the higher energy state is unstable the atoms jump back to the
ground state or low energy state to gain stability. This jumping atoms emits radiation
with characteristic wavelength. The radiation is measured by the photo detector.

16
Schiebe-Lomakin equation.
The Scheibe-Lomakin equation describes intensity of light emitted with the help of
following formula: 1=kx cn Where:
Intensity of emitted light c =
Concentration of the element k
=Proportionality constant
At the linear part of the calibration curve n~l, then I = k x c. In other words, the
intensity of emitted light is directly related to the concentration of the sample.

17
 Details of Instruments
Theory:
Photoelectric flame photometry, a branch of atomic spectroscopy is used for inorganic
chemical analysis ior determining the concentration of certain metal ions such as
sodium, potassium, lithium, calcium, Cesium, etc. In flame photometry the species
(metal ions) used in the spectrum are in the form of atoms. The International Union of
Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) Committee on Spectroscopic Nomenclature has
recommended it as flame atomic emission spectrometry (FAES). The basis of flame
photometric working is that, the species of alkali metals (Group 1) and alkaline earth
metals (Group II) metals are dissociated due the thermal energy provided by the flame
source. Due to this thermal excitation, some of the atoms are excited to a higher
energy level where they are not stable. The absorbance of light due to the electrons
excitation can be measured by using the direct absorption techniques. The subsequent
loss of energy will result in the movement of excited atoms to the low energy ground
state with emission of some radiations, which can be visualized in the visible region
of the spectrum. The absorbance of light due to the electrons excitation can be
measured by using the direct absorption techniques while the emitting radiation
intensity is measured using the emission techniques. The wavelength of emitted light
is specific for specific elements.

18
Parts of a flame photometer:
1. Source of flame:
A burner that provides flame and can be maintained in a constant form and at a
constant temperature.
2. Nebulisers and mixing chamber:
Helps to transport the homogeneous solution of the substance into the flame at
steady rate.
3. Optical system( optical filter )
The optical system comprises three parts: convex mirror, lens and filter. The
convex mirror helps to transmit light emitted from the atoms and focus the
emission of the lens. The convex lens helps to focus the light on a point
called slit. The reflections from the mirror pass through the slit and reach the
filters. This will isolate the wavelength to be measured from that of any other
extraneous emissions. Hence it acts as interference type color filters.
4. Photo detector:
Detect the emitted light and measure the intensity of radiation emitted by the
flame. That is, the emitted radiation is covered to an electrical signal with the
help of photo detector. The produced electrical signals are directly
proportional the intensity of light.
A schematic representation of flame photometer is shown in fig.

19
 CONCLUSION
Flame photometer is an instrument of analytical chemistry that measures the
concentration of alkali metals a solution. However this method cannot be reliable
process to measure the concentrations of the solutions. Other methods of analytical
chemistry are much more reliable compared to the flame photometry. Flame
photometry is a cheap method to determine the concentration. There are some reasons
why it is unreliable.
Firstly, flame photometer cannot be used to measure the high ion concentrations.
It is because of the that is used. The flame is not hot enough to provide enough energy
to excite high amounts of atoms so mission is reduced down. In the study,
concentrations like 20 ppm were very high and broke the linearity the emission. These
values show that flame photometer cannot be a precise instrument if high
concentration are used.
Secondly, a calibration curve should be drawn to measure the concentration of
metal ions, so standard solutions must be made to draw the calibration curve.
Although this process spends time it is better and faster than other chemical analysis.
Thirdly, the flame photometry is not a precise method to measure the
concentration. Some of the results that are found are very close to the exact value like
Erikli water with 2.8% percentage error. There is some of the water samples, flame
photometer didn't give an always a little inaccuracy. Nevertheless, emission even
close to the actual values. Koru water is a strong evidence for this fact with
percentage error of 71%.
In addition to these facts, flame photometer couldn't be able to detect ion
concentration for a specific atom if there are other ions present in the medium. Other
ions would also take up the energy of the flame there would be less energy for that
specific ion to excite. Without excitation there would be lesser concentration reading
in flame photometer. For this study, the aim was to measure sodium ion concentration
in water. However, there were other ions like Mg, Fe, Ca etc. present in the water.
These ions would also get the energy of the flame, leaving sodium with less energy.

20
 Apart from the bad sides, it is a fundamental instrument in analytical chemistry.
It can measure very small concentrations of ions sometimes not precisely.
Development of other analytic chemistry instruments. started with the development of
flame photometry. Atomic absorption spectroscopy is one of the examples flame.
Plasma gives which use a different technique than flame photometer. It gives of 20
light to metal atoms. Then it measures how much of the light is absorbed by the metal
and determines the concentration of that metal. Inductively coupled plasma uses the
technique of flame photometry, but it uses plasma instead better energy to the atoms,
thus making it more efficient than the flame photometer.
One of the limitations is the concentration limit. Neither too low, nor too high
concentrations ions can be measured wit the instrument. In this study, concentrations
between 2 ppm to 10 ppm gave favourable results. Although this limit could broaden a
bit, it is still a limiting factor to measure too low concentrations as well as too high
concentrations of metal ions.
Moreover, the Flame photometer can only measure the concentration of ions
which has 1+ oxidation state. This limits the investigation for the alkali metals like K,
Na and Li. Measurement of concentration of ions which has 2+ or more oxidation
state cannot be measured by this method.
Another study can be carried out using atomic absorption spectrometry or
inductively coupled plasma ensure whether these techniques are better than flame
photometer. These may be better than flame photometry and may give better results.
These machine are highly sensible and can provide more energy for the atoms. The
ion can be formed easily, thus having a more efficient measurement.
Further investigations can be handled out with making the instrument to reach
equilibrium where concentration of metal ions can be measured effectively. In order to
do this, blanks snd controls should be properly studied to make flame photometer an
effective machine.

21
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