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PAPER: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

TOPIC: RESEARCH DESIGNS

Submitted by – AWANTIKA GUPTA (LLM)

Submitted to –
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Meaning of Research Design:

A research design is a controlling plan for a research study in which the methods and
procedures for collecting and analysing the information to be collected is specified. It is a
framework or plan for study that guides the collection and analysis of data. The word ‘design’
means to work out the structure of form’, as by making a sketch or plan. Thus, ‘Research
Design’ is planning a strategy or drawing a blue print of conducting research. It is a guideline
for collecting and utilizing data so that desired information can be obtained with sufficient
precision and hypothesis can be tested properly. A research is designed for the purpose of
producing results that may be applied to real-world situations. It not only enables a
researcher to anticipate potential problems that can occur during the actual operation of the
research, but also to limit the boundaries of research study.

Definitions of Research Design

Some of the popular definitions of research design are:
1. “Research design is the planned sequence of the entire process involved in conducting a
research study.” By Miller.
2. “Research design is a catalogue of the various phases and facts relating to the formulation
of a research effort. It is an arrangement of the essential conditions for collection and analysis
of data in a form that aims to combine relevance to research purpose with economy in the
procedure”. By Selltiz and others.
3. “A research designates the logical manner in which individuals or other units are compared
and analyzed, it is the basis of making interpretations from the data”. By Anonymous.
4. “Also known as a market research briefing, this is a basic plan which guides the data
collection and analysis phased of the research project. It acts a frame work which details the
type of information to be collected, the data sources and the data collection procedure”. By
Market Intelligence Group, India
In short, the research design is a plan of what data to gather, from whom, how and
when to collect the data, and how to analyze the data obtained.

Need for Research Design

Research is a scientific investigation of a problem for which we need a systematic planning of
research. For a successful research we need a research design because it includes (i) the
formulation of a strategy to resolve a particular question (ii) the collection and recording of
information and evidence (iii) the processing and analysis of these data and their
interpretation and (iv) the publication of results. A research design states the structure and
process of conducting a research process. Thus, it shows a path to the researcher without
which he may be lost or confused as to what next step he has to take. More so, it also takes
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care of budget and time frame of the research study. All this planning can only make a
research study a success story.
Features of a Good Research Design It is a challenge to translate general scientific model into
a practical research operation. Therefore, designing a research study is not a simple task.
There is nothing like completely correct design or completely incorrect design. A design may
work very well for one research problem and may not work at all for the other. There are
some features, however, a good research design should possess. They are:
1. Freedom from bias: A good research design should ensure that the method of data
collection and analysis would not cause the data to vary in a systematic way. That is to say
that the data should be free from systematic errors.
2. Freedom from confounding: In a good research design the variables involved in the study
are separated from each other so that they do not influence each other.
3. Control of extraneous variables: In a well-designed research study the variables that are
not under scrutiny do not influence the experimental variables in a systematic way for
example things like temperature, time of day etc.
4. Statistical precision for testing hypothesis: A research design should ensure that the data
are recorded at a level of precision that will yield statistically meaningful results.
5. Within resources: A design should draw limits of a research study so that it could be
completed within available resources like time, money and staff.
6. Optimality: The best research design is one, which yields maximum precision in terms of
bias and variance using minimum resources in terms sample size, time and money.
7. Objectivity: If operated by more than one researcher a good research design obtains same
results. Thus, a good research design should be free from the subjectivity of its performer.
8. Flexibility: It is often observed that one has to deviate from the basic research design
during the operation of the research study due to real world problems. A good research
design is one, which not only has the potential to predict such practical problems, but also is
flexible enough to incorporate changes in it whenever needed.

Different Research Designs After the formulation and definition of the research problem, the
next step is to choose an appropriate research design. Every research study is unique in itself,
but there are certain things common in these studies. On the basis of these commonalities,
one can categorize the research studies by research methods and procedures used to collect
and analyze data.
Accordingly, a research design is chosen. There are three basic types of research designs: 1.
Exploratory 2. Descriptive or diagnostic research design 3. Causal or Hypothesis testing or
Experimental research design
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1. Exploratory research: Exploratory research is defined as collecting information in an

unstructured and informal way. For example, a restaurant owner may regularly visit other
competing restaurants in order to gather information about menu selection, prices and
service quality. In exploratory type of research, the investigation may be conducted because
a problem has not been clearly defined. It helps in determining the best research design, data
collection method and selection of subjects. Usually exploratory research is qualitative in
nature. Sometimes exploratory research may even conclude that a perceived problem does
not actually exist. Generally, an exploratory research design helps in finding out the feasibility
of the research problem, getting familiar with various components of the study, generating
new ideas, and formulating the hypothesis. Exploratory research designs are of different
forms depending on the nature and objectives of the study. The following three forms are
most popular:
(a) Literature Survey: In any research, review of literature is an essential part. The literature
survey is carried out at a preliminary stage of the research. Through the review, one
understands the work that has already been done and what more can be explored in one’s
chosen field. The theories and techniques used in the existing literature can be used in the
present analysis or these can be modified to give better results. The literature are the
documentary sources of information which are contained in the published and unpublished
documents, reports, statistics, manuscripts, letters, diaries, and so on. It is important for
scientific workers to scrutinize these sources very closely. Since not all documents can be
consulted, it is best to start a selective process early. The theory and techniques of the
literature must serve useful purpose in the present study. And, their meaning should not have
altered with changing circumstances with the passage of time.
(b) Expert Survey: Expert Survey or experience survey means consulting the experienced
researchers who are experts in the field of study. One should not be shy in taking advice and
guidance of such people. They should be given sometime with the problem before asking
them questions about the study, so that they can give their opinion after a good thought on
the problem.
(c) Example Survey: In case of a new type of studies sometimes neither much literature nor
expert advice is available. In such situations it is advisable to go through some case studies
performed in the past. This refers to ‘insight stimulating examples’. Single cases or a group of
cases, as may be relevant to the research study are selected and studied in order to collect
data for main study.

2. Descriptive or diagnostic research design Descriptive research refers to a set of

methods and procedures that describe the study variables. Descriptive studies portray these
variables by answering who, what, why and how questions. These types of research studies
may describe such things as consumer’s attitudes, intentions, behaviors or the number of
competitors and their strategies. Descriptive research is also known as statistical research or
diagnostic research. It describes data and characteristics about the population or
phenomenon being studied. The description is used for frequencies, averages and other
statistical calculations. The process of conducting descriptive research can be linked to that
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of passing an idea through an hourglass. The research starts with a consideration of the larger
issues of interest, and these are then narrowed into a specific questions (hypothesis) that can
only be evaluated with some degree of control. The components of the hypothesis are
operationalized into observable units and behaviors to ensure that the independent and
dependent variables can be observed and measured. Research is then conducted to observe
the relationships of interest, in the context of the specified research environment.
Observations are made, and data are collected to reflect behaviors, changes and other
indicators of interest. The data are filtered and analyzed in order to generate conclusions that
may support or refute the hypothesis, and then everything is considered in the context of the
bigger picture, which usually includes reference and association to the board issues that
started the process. Although data description is factual, accurate and systematic, the
research cannot describe what caused a situation. Thus, descriptive research cannot be used
to create causal relationship where one variable affects another.

3. Causal or Hypothesis testing or Experimental research design: Causal research

designs are used in hypothesis testing research or experimental research studies. This type of
research design is conducted by controlling various factors to determine which factors are
causing the problem. It isolates causes and effects. By changing one factor, say price you can
monitor its effects on a key consequence such as sales. Although experimental research can
give a high level of understanding of the variables under study, the designs often require
experiments that are complex and expensive.
Some of the popular experimental designs are: (a) Completely randomized design (b)
Randomized block design (c) Latin square design (d) Factorial design.

IMPORTANT CONCEPTS RELATING TO RESEARCH DESIGN

Before describing the different research designs, it will be appropriate to explain the various
concepts relating to designs so that these may be better and easily understood.

1. Dependent and independent variables: A concept which can take on different

quantitative values is called a variable. As such the concepts like weight, height, income are
all examples of variables. Qualitative phenomena (or the attributes) are also quantified on
the basis of the presence or absence of the concerning attribute(s). Phenomena that can take
on quantitatively different values even in decimal points are called ‘continuous variables’. But
all variables are not continuous. If they can only be expressed in integer values, they are non-
continuous variables or in statistical language ‘discrete variables’. Age is an example of a
continuous variable, but the number of children is an example of non-continuous variable. If
one variable depends upon or is a consequence of the other variable, it is termed as a
dependent variable, and the variable that is antecedent to the dependent variable is termed
as an independent variable. For instance, if we say that height depends upon age, then height
is a dependent variable and age is an independent variable. Further, if in addition to being
dependent upon age, height also depends upon the individual’s sex, then height is a
dependent variable and age and sex are independent variables. Similarly, readymade films
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and lectures are examples of independent variables, whereas behavioural changes, occurring
as a result of the environmental manipulations, are examples of dependent variables.

2. Extraneous variable: Independent variables that are not related to the purpose of the
study, but may affect the dependent variable are termed as extraneous variables. Suppose
the researcher wants to test the hypothesis that there is a relationship between children’s
gains in social studies achievement and their self-concepts. In this case self-concept is an
independent variable and social studies achievement is a dependent variable. Intelligence
may as well affect the social studies achievement, but since it is not related to the purpose of
the study undertaken by the researcher, it will be termed as an extraneous variable. Whatever
effect is noticed on dependent variable as a result of extraneous variable(s) is technically
described as an ‘experimental error’. A study must always be so designed that the effect upon
the dependent variable is attributed entirely to the independent variable(s), and not to some
extraneous variable or variables.

3. Control: One important characteristic of a good research design is to minimise the

influence or effect of extraneous variable(s). The technical term ‘control’ is used when we
design the study minimising the effects of extraneous independent variables. In experimental
researches, the term ‘control’ is used to refer to restrain experimental conditions.

4. Confounded relationship: When the dependent variable is not free from the influence
of extraneous variable(s), the relationship between the dependent and independent variables
is said to be confounded by an extraneous variable(s).

5. Research hypothesis: When a prediction or a hypothesised relationship is to be tested

by scientific methods, it is termed as research hypothesis. The research hypothesis is a
predictive statement that relates an independent variable to a dependent variable. Usually a
research hypothesis must contain, at least, one independent and one dependent variable.
Predictive statements which are not to be objectively verified or the relationships that are
assumed but not to be tested, are not termed research hypotheses.

6. Experimental and non-experimental hypothesis-testing research: When the

purpose of research is to test a research hypothesis, it is termed as hypothesis-testing
research. It can be of the experimental design or of the non-experimental design. Research in
which the independent variable is manipulated is termed ‘experimental hypothesis-testing
research’ and research in which an independent variable is not manipulated is called ‘non-
experimental hypothesis-testing research’.

CONCLUSION
Research design is needed because it facilitates the smooth sailing of the various research
operations, making research as efficient as possible, yielding maximal information, with
minimal expenditure of effort, time, and money. Just as for better, economical, and attractive
construction of a house, we need a blueprint (or, a map of the house) well thought out and
prepared by an expert architect, similarly, we need a research design or a plan in advance of
data collection and analysis for our research project. Research design stands for advance
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planning of the methods to be adopted, for collecting the relevant data and the techniques
to be used in their analysis, keeping in view the objective of the research and the availability
of staff, time, and money. Preparation of the research design should be done with great care
as any error in it may upset the entire project. Research design, in fact, has a great bearing on
the reliability of the results achieved at and as such constitutes the firm foundation of the
entire edifice of the research work.
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