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The ability to learn, understand, and make judgments or have opinions that are based on reason is called an
intelligence.

There is difference between having intelligence and knowledge.

Artificial intelligence is the simulation of human intelligence processes by machines, especially computer
systems.

Artificial intelligence, or AI, is technology that enables computers and machines to simulate human
intelligence and problem-solving capabilities..

Artificial Intelligence is a branch of Science which deals with helping machines to find solutions to complex problems
in a more human-like fashion. This generally involves borrowing characteristics from human intelligence, and
applying them as algorithms in a computer friendly way.

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 AI was coined by John McCarthy in 1956 who defines AI as science and engineering of making intelligent machines especially
intelligent computers.

Yet, we don’t have common worldwide acceptable definition for AI, however Scientists have proposed following two major
consensus definitions of intelligence:

1. From Mainstream Science On Intelligence (1994):-

A very general mental capability that, among other things, involves the ability to reason, plan, solve
problems, think abstractly, comprehend complex ideas, learn quickly and learn from experience. It is not merely book learning, a
narrow academic skill, or test-taking smarts. Rather , it reflects a border and deeper capability for comprehending our
surroundings making sense” of things , or “figuring out” What to do.

2. From Intelligence: knowns and unknowns (1995):-

Individuals differ from one another in their ability to understand complex ideas, to adapt effectively to the
environment, to learn from experience, to engage in various forms of reasoning, to overcome obstacles by taking thought.
Although these individual differences can be substantial, they are never entirely consistent: a given person’s intellectual
performance will vary on different occasions, in different domains, as judged by different criteria.
Thus intelligence is:
- The ability to reason
- The ability to understand
- The ability to create
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 - The ability of learn from experience
- The ability ot plan and execute complex tasks

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 we can find Four main views/approaches written by different writers about AI. Or we can say category of ai, as well as
perspective of ai

1. Systems that think like Humanly

2. Systems that act Rationally
3. Systems that act like Humanly
4. System that Act Rationally

A tension exists between approaches centered a round humans and approaches centered around rationality. A human-
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 centered approach must be an empirical science, involving hypothesis and experimental confirmation. A rationalist
approaches involves a combination of mathematics and engineering.

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 These four approaches represent different philosophical and practical ways of thinking about and designing AI systems.

they aren't mutually exclusive and often overlap in various real-world applications and research in AI. For instance, an AI
might need to think rationally to act humanly,

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 Perhaps, in the future, we will reach a point where AI can behave like humans, but what guarantees do we have that this will
continue? Is it possible to make a system that acts like a human to test the certainty of Artificial Intelligence? "
The following approaches constitute the foundation for evaluating an AI entity's human-likeness:

Turing Test ---- Acting humanly

Approach of The Cognitive Modelling ----Thinking humanly
Approach of The Law of Thought------Think rationally
Approach of The Rational Agent -------Acting rationally

True AI is only fictional so far, A true AI looks like a character Ultron from avengers movie.

Acting Humanly : The Turning Test Approach [click here for first
The Turing test, proposed by Alan Turing (1950) was designed to convince the people that whether a
particular machine is intelligent or not. The test involves an interrogator who interacts with one human and one machine . Within
a given time the interrogator has to find out which of the two the human is, and which one the machine.

The computer passes the test if a human interrogator after posing some written questions,
can not tell whether the written response come from human or not.

To pass a Turing test, a computer must have the following capabilities:

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 . Natural Language Processing: Mast be able to communicate successfully in English.
. Knowledge representation: To store what it knows and hears
. Automatic reasoning: Answer the questions based on the stored information.
. Machine Learning : Must be able to adapt in new circumstances.

Turing test avoids the physical interaction with the human interrogator . Physical simulation of human beings is not necessary for
testing the intelligence.

The total turning test includes video signals and manipulation capability so that the interrogator can test the subject’s perceptual
abilities and object manipulation ability. To pass the total Turing test computer must have the following additional capabilities.
. Computer vision: To perceive objects
. Robotics: To manipulate objects and move

ELIZA: A program that simulated a psychotherapist interacting with a patient and successfully passed the Turing Test.
[Click here for Eliza conversation]

Thinking Humanly: Cognitive Science Approach

from this point of view, the Artificial Intelligence model is based on Human Cognition, which is the core of the human
mind. It is all about creating ai system which should think like human. This is done through three approaches, which are as
follows:

• Introspection, which means to look at our own thoughts and use those thoughts to build a model.
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 • Psychological Experiments, which means running tests on people and looking at how they act.
• Brain imaging, which means to use an MRI to study how the brain works in different situations

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 Thinking Rationally:- The laws of thought approach
The Greek philosopher Aristotle was one of the first to attempt to codify “right Thinking) that is, irrefutable
reasoning process. He gave syllogisms(a form of reasoning in which a conclusion is drawn from two given or assumed) that
always yielded correct conclusion when correct premises are given

This approach Relates to use the laws of thought to think logically:

The Laws of Thought are a long list of logical statements that tell our minds
how to work. For ex: Ram is a boy. All boy have short hair, therefor ram has short hair.
Rashmi is human. All humans and animals are mortal, therefore Rashmi is mortal.
If paren(X, Y) and parent(X, Z), then sibling(Y, Z)
Mango is a plant. All plants have roots, therefore Mango has roots. { say :apple is plant, and ask does it have root}

There are to main obstacles exist to implement this approach.

The approach needed 100 % knowledge about all domain.
To many computation is required.

Acting Rationally: The rational Agent Approach

Acting rationally means acting so as to achieve one’s goals, An agent is just something that perceives reason and acts.
The computer agent is expected to have the following attributes: {eg: gas stove }
. Autonomous control
. Perceiving their environment
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 . Adapting to change
. Capable of taking on another’s goal

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 Characteristics of AI Programs

1. Learning ability
2. Automate task
3. Predictive Analysis
4. Natural Language Processing

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 Brief history of AI
What happened after WWII?
– 1943: Warren Mc Culloch and Walter Pitts: a model of artificial Boolean neurons to perform computations.
– First steps toward connectionist computation and learning (Hebbian learning).
– Marvin Minsky and Dann Edmonds (1951) constructed the first neural network computer
– 1950: Alan Turing’s “Computing Machinery and Intelligence”
– First complete vision of AI.

The birth of AI (1956)

- Dartmouth Workshop bringing together top minds on automata theory, neural nets and the study of intelligence.
– Allen Newell and Herbert Simon: The logic theorist (first nonnumeric thinking program used for theorem proving)
– For the next 20 years the field was dominated by these participants.

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 Great expectations (1952-1969)
– Newell and Simon introduced the General Problem Solver.
– Imitation of human problem-solving
– Arthur Samuel (1952-)investigated game playing (checkers ) with great success.
– John McCarthy(1958-) :
– Inventor of Lisp (second-oldest high-level language)
– Logic oriented, Advice Taker (separation between knowledge and reasoning)
– Marvin Minsky (1958 -)
– Introduction of microworlds that appear to require intelligence to solve: e.g. blocks-world.
– Anti-logic orientation, society of the mind.

Collapse in AI research (1966 - 1973)

– Progress was slower than expected.
– Unrealistic predictions.
– Some systems lacked scalability.
– Combinatorial explosion in search.
– Fundamental limitations on techniques and representations.
– Minsky and Papert (1969) Perceptrons.

AI revival through knowledge-based systems (1969-1970)

– General-purpose vs. domain specific
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 - E.g. the DENDRAL project (Buchanan et al. 1969)
First successful knowledge intensive system.
– Expert systems
- MYCIN to diagnose blood infections (Feigenbaum et al.)
- Introduction of uncertainty in reasoning.
– Increase in knowledge representation research.
- Logic, frames, semantic nets, …

AI becomes an industry (1980 - present)

– R1 at DEC (McDermott, 1982)
– Fifth generation project in Japan (1981)
– American response …
Puts an end to the AI winter.
Connectionist revival (1986 - present): (Return of Neural Network)
– Parallel distributed processing (RumelHart and McClelland, 1986); backprop.

AI becomes a science (1987 - present)

– In speech recognition: hidden markov models
– In neural networks
– In uncertain reasoning and expert systems: Bayesian network formalis
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 AI is generally associated with Computer Science, but it has many important links with other fields such as Math, Psychology,
Cognition, Biology and Philosophy, among many others.

Foundation of AI:- It includes 8 different subjects which converge together to make a perfect AI System. The basic building
principle is knows as foundation.

Philosophy:- The study of the fundamental nature of knowledge, reality, and existence, especially when considered as an
academic discipline is called philosophy. The philosophy of artificial intelligence attempts to answer such questions as follows:
- Can a machine act intelligently ?
- Are human intelligence and machine intelligence the same ?
- Can a machine have a mind, mental states, and consciousness ?

Mathematics:- Mathematics is the science that deals with the logic of shape, quantity and arrangement. Math is all around us ,
in everything we do. It is the building block for everything in our daily lives, including mobile devices, architecture, art etc.
- Deals with what are the formal rules to draw the valid conclusions ?
- What can be computed ?
- How do we reason with uncertain information ?

Psychology:- The scientific study of the human mind and its functions, especially the behavior of mind is called psychology. The
psychology in ai attempts to answer such question. As follows:
- how humans and animals think and act ?

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 Economics:-The foundation of ai in economics attempts to answer such question . As follows:
-How should we do this when others may not go along ?
- How should we do this when the payoff may be far in the future ?
-How should we make decisions so as to maximize payoff?

Linguistics:- The scientific study of language and its structure, including the study of Grammer, syntax and phonetics is called
linguistics.
- How does language relate to thought?

Neuroscience:- Neuroscience is the study of the nervous system, particularly the brain. The exact way in which the brain
enables thought is one of the great mysteries of science.
-How do brains process information?
The truly amazing conclusion is that a collection of simple cells can lead to thought, action, and consciousness or, in other
words, that brains cause mind

Control Theory:- Control theory deals with designing devices that act optimally on the basis of feedback from the environment.
- How can artifacts operate under their own control ?

Applications of AI
Game Playing : chess
Speech Recognition:- we can use our computer using speech recognition feature but it is easy to operate with keyboard and
mouse.
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 Understanding Natural Language: should be able to understand the different meaning of sentence
Computer Vision

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 Expert System:-
E-commerce :- automatic chat boat, searching of product as per the description, monitoring the purchase behavior of human,
finding the reason being increase in sale or decrease in sale.

Heuristic Classification:-It is a problem-solving technique used in various domains, including artificial intelligence (AI) and
computer science, that applies heuristic methods to classify or categorize objects, data, or situations into predefined classes
based on specific rules or criteria.
Heuristics are rules or principles that guide decision-making in situations.

Examples of heuristic classification include spam email filtering, where emails are classified as "spam" or "not spam" based on
certain key characteristics (like the presence of specific words or phrases), and medical diagnosis systems, where symptoms and
test results are used to classify diseases based on heuristic rules derived from medical knowledge.

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 Artificial intelligence (AI) is the simulation of human cognitive abilities by computer systems and machines, enabling
themto performtasks that would normally require human intelligence.

Ai ethics and responsible

AI ethics and responsible AI are two sides of the same coin, both focused on ensuring the development and use of artificial
intelligence is done in a good way.

Ethics is a set of moral principles which help us to find out between right and wrong. AI ethics is a
multidisciplinary field that studies how to optimize AI's beneficial impact while reducing risks and adverse
outcomes.

Responsible AI is an approach to developing and deploying artificial intelligence from both an ethical and legal standpoint.
The goal is to employ AI in a safe, trustworthy and ethical way. Using AI responsibly should increase transparency while
helping to reduce issues such as AI bias.

•Fair and unbiased: Avoiding discrimination and ensuring AI benefits everyone equally.
•Respectful of privacy: Protecting user data and using it responsibly.
•Transparent and understandable: Making AI's decision-making process clear and easy to understand.
•Accountable: Having a clear idea of who is responsible for the actions and outcomes of AI systems.
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 •Safe and secure: Preventing harm and ensuring AI is used for good.
AI ethics aims to steer AI development and use towards a positive impact on society.

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 Bias in AI refers to a systematic preference or prejudice within an AI system that favors certain outcomes over others.
This can lead to unfair or discriminatory results. It can enter while

Bias is the underlying problem, and fairness is the desired outcome. By understanding and mitigating bias in AI
systems, we can work towards achieving fairness and ensuring AI benefits everyone equally.

Ai regulations and policies

AI regulation and policies refer to the legal frameworks, guidelines, and rules established by governmental bodies and
international organizations to govern the development, deployment, and use of artificial intelligence (AI)
technologies. The purpose of Regulations or policies are as follows:
- protect individual right
- Ensure seafty and realibility
- promote ethical use of computer

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 European Union's AI Act
Proposed in 2021, the European Union’s AI Act is one of the first comprehensive legal frameworks designed specifically for AI. It
classifies AI systems according to their risk levels:
•Unacceptable risk: Certain uses of AI are banned, such as AI that manipulates human behavior to circumvent users' free will.
•High risk: AI applications in critical areas like employment, essential private and public services, law enforcement, and others
must comply with strict obligations before their deployment.
•Limited risk: AI systems that interact with humans (e.g., chatbots) must ensure transparency.
•Minimal risk: Most AI applications fall into this category, with minimal regulatory constraints to encourage innovation.

2. United States National AI Initiative Act

Enacted in 2020, this act aims to promote and coordinate federal AI research and development. The initiative focuses on
ensuring continued U.S. leadership in AI, supporting the use and development of AI for public benefit, and protecting the
national security and economy. The act also emphasizes the importance of AI education and workforce development.

AI Nepal policy {click here}

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 Difference between AI and Omniscience
AI refers to the development of computer systems that can perform tasks that normally require human
intelligence, while omniscience refers to the state of having complete and unlimited knowledge of all
things. Theologians believes to god as being omniscient.

An omniscient agent takes its decision based on an infinite knowledge base. There is nothing tat and
agent doesn’t know. Thus it ‘knows’ that it is taking the correct decision.

For ex: A rational agent may try to cross a street after perceiving that the road is empty. But while he
is in the middle of the road, a metal box can fall from a plane flying overhead. He won’t have any idea
about this. The omniscient agent would have perceived that too.

Ex ii: Stock market analyze as per available history data, current trending, recent news about stock
and invest in tech company but due to geopolitical reason next day supply of semiconductor was
stopped from the country and we can see fall in stock of tech comp. but omniscient agent would
calculate that too using his unlimited knowing knowledge of present and future too.

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