Addis Ababa University, School of Commerce | Updated: Feb, 2025 1

Chapter - 1
Revision of Fundamental
Database Concepts
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Learning Objectives
• By the end of this chapter, students will:
• Understand and explain the fundamental concepts of databases and database
management systems (DBMS).
• Construct basic ER and EER diagrams to model real-world database scenarios.
• Apply normalization techniques to organize data and eliminate redundancy.
• Demonstrate the ability to analyze and design a simple database system through a
case study.
• Recognize the significance of normalization in maintaining data integrity and
consistency.
• Develop a solid foundation for advanced database topics and practical applications.
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Fundamental Concepts of Database Systems

• What is a Database?
• A database is an organized collection of data that is stored and accessed
electronically. Databases are designed to manage large volumes of data efficiently,
allowing users to create, update, retrieve, and delete data as needed.
• Example:
• Imagine a university managing student records, course enrollments, and grades.
Instead of using separate files for each department, a database system integrates
all this information, making it easy to retrieve and update data.
• Why Use a Database?
• Efficient data management and retrieval.
• Reduced data redundancy and inconsistency.
• Enhanced data security and access control.
• Support for multi-user environments and concurrency.
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Fundamental Concepts of Database Systems

• Database Management System (DBMS)
• A DBMS is software that facilitates the creation, maintenance, and manipulation of
databases. It acts as an intermediary between the database and users or applications.
• Advantages of DBMS:
• Data Redundancy Control: Minimizes data duplication.
• Data Consistency: Maintains data accuracy and uniformity.
• Data Integrity: Ensures correctness and validity of data.
• Data Security: Controls access and protects data from unauthorized users.
• Concurrent Access: Allows multiple users to work simultaneously without conflicts.
• Common DBMS Software:
• MySQL: Open-source relational DBMS.
• PostgreSQL: Advanced open-source relational DBMS with complex features.
• Oracle: Commercial RDBMS known for scalability.
• SQL Server: Microsoft’s relational DBMS for enterprise environments.
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Fundamental Concepts of Database Systems

• Database Models
• Database models define the structure and organization of data within a database system.
They determine how data is stored, retrieved, and manipulated. Choosing the right model is
crucial for efficient data management and system performance.
• The most common database models are:
• Hierarchical Model
• Network Model
• Relational Model
• Object-Oriented Model
• Document Model (NoSQL)
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Fundamental Concepts of Database Systems

• Hierarchical Model:
• Organizes data in a tree-like structure where each record has a single parent and possibly many
children.
• Represents parent-child relationships using a hierarchy.
• Efficient for applications requiring fast data retrieval.
• Often used in legacy systems like IBM’s Information Management System (IMS).
• Example:
• Consider an organizational chart where the CEO is at the top, followed by Department Heads
as children, and Employees as the next level.
• Advantages:
• Efficient for hierarchical data.
• Simple to understand and navigate.
• Disadvantages:
• Lack of flexibility; changing the hierarchy requires restructuring.
• Difficulty in handling complex relationships.
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Fundamental Concepts of Database Systems

• Network Model:
• An extension of the hierarchical model that supports many-to-many relationships.
• Uses a graph structure where entities are nodes, and relationships are edges.
• Suitable for applications like telecommunications and transportation networks.
• Example:
• A Flight Reservation System where an airport can be connected to multiple other airports
through flights.
• | Airport A ─── Flight ─── Airport B | | Airport A ─── Flight ─── Airport C |
• Advantages:
• Supports complex relationships between entities.
• Efficient data access through navigational techniques.
• Disadvantages:
• Complex structure makes it hard to design and maintain.
• Requires sophisticated DBMS support.
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Fundamental Concepts of Database Systems

• Relational Model:
• Stores data in tables (relations) composed of rows and columns.
• Uses Structured Query Language (SQL) to manipulate and query data.
• Tables are related through primary and foreign keys.
• Example:
• A Student table and Course table connected through a Enrollment table.
• Advantages:
• Simple and intuitive structure.
• Flexibility and support for complex queries.
• Data integrity through constraints.
• Disadvantages:
• Performance can degrade with a large number of joins.
• Requires careful normalization to avoid redundancy.
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Fundamental Concepts of Database Systems

• Object-Oriented Model:
• Represents data as objects, similar to object-oriented programming concepts.
• Supports inheritance, encapsulation, and polymorphism.
• Suitable for applications requiring complex data representations, such as CAD and
multimedia.
• Example:
• An Employee object that inherits attributes from a Person object.
• Advantages:
• Natural mapping between application objects and database objects.
• Supports complex data types.
• Disadvantages:
• Complexity in designing and maintaining.
• Limited support in traditional DBMS.
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Fundamental Concepts of Database Systems

• Document Model (NoSQL):
• Stores semi-structured data as documents, often in JSON or BSON format.
• Suitable for handling large volumes of unstructured or semi-structured data.
• Popular in modern applications like content management systems and big data processing.
• Example:
• A MongoDB document representing a product:
• Advantages:
{
• Flexible schema allows dynamic changes.
"productID": "P001",
• High scalability and performance. "name": "Smartphone",
• Disadvantages: "brand": "TechCo",
"price": 499.99,
• Lack of standardization. "features": ["5G", "128GB Storage", "AMOLED Display"]
• Complex queries compared to SQL. }
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Fundamental Concepts of Database Systems

• Why the Relational Model is Popular
• Simplicity: Uses tables that are easy to understand and manage.
• Querying Power: SQL provides flexible and powerful data retrieval.
• Data Integrity: Enforces consistency through keys and constraints.
• Normalization: Reduces redundancy and enhances data integrity.

While relational databases remain widely used, NoSQL models are gaining popularity due to
their flexibility and performance for specific use cases
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ER and EER Modeling

• A well-designed database forms the backbone of any successful software
application, ensuring efficient storage, retrieval, and manipulation of data.

• Entity-Relationship (ER) and Enhanced Entity-Relationship (EER) modeling are

fundamental techniques used to design and represent the structure of a
database system.

• These models provide a visual representation of the data and their

relationships, making it easier to conceptualize and design databases.
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ER and EER Modeling

• Entity-Relationship (ER) Modeling
• Entity-Relationship (ER) Modeling is a widely used technique in database design to visually
represent the data and the relationships between different data entities. It serves as a
blueprint for creating a well-structured database that accurately models real-world
situations.
• Benefits of ER Modeling
1.Clear Visualization: Simplifies complex data structures into understandable diagrams.
2.Efficient Design: Helps to spot potential issues before implementation.
3.Database Integrity: Ensures consistency through clear relationships.
4.Documentation: Acts as a blueprint for database creation.
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ER and EER Modeling

• What is an ER Diagram?
• An ER diagram, also known as an Entity-Relationship diagram, is a graphical representation
that visually depicts the entities, attributes, and relationships within a database system.
• It serves as a blueprint for designing and understanding the structure of a database,
allowing stakeholders to visualize the connections between different components.
• The ER diagram captures the conceptual view of a database, focusing on the entities
(objects or concepts of interest) and their relationships.
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ER and EER Modeling

• Components of an ER Model
• Entity: A real-world object or concept that has a distinct existence.
Example: A Student, Employee, or Product.
• Attribute: A property or characteristic of an entity.
Example: A Student entity may have attributes like StudentID, Name, Age, and Major.
• Relationship: An association between two or more entities.
Example: A Student enrolls in a Course.
• Primary Key: A unique identifier for each instance of an entity.
Example: StudentID as the primary key for the Student entity.
• Foreign Key: An attribute in one table that links to the primary key of another table.
Example: CourseID in the Enrollment table, referencing Course.
• Cardinality: Defines the numerical relationship between two entities.
• One-to-One (1:1): Each entity in one set is related to at most one entity in another set.
• One-to-Many (1:M): One entity in a set can be related to multiple entities in another set.
• Many-to-Many (M:N): Multiple entities in one set can relate to multiple entities in another set.
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ER and EER Modeling

• Steps to Create an ER Diagram
• Identify Entities: Determine the objects or concepts to be represented.
• Example: Student, Course, Instructor.
• Identify Relationships: Determine how these entities interact or relate.
• Example: A Student enrolls in a Course.
• Identify Attributes: List the characteristics or properties of each entity.
• Example: StudentID, Name, DateOfBirth for Student.
• Define Primary and Foreign Keys: Identify unique identifiers and establish connections
between entities.
• Example: StudentID as Primary Key, CourseID as Foreign Key.
• Determine Cardinality: Define the nature of the relationships (1:1, 1:M, M:N).
• Draw the Diagram: Use rectangles for entities, ovals for attributes, diamonds for
relationships, and lines to connect them.
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ER and EER Modeling

• Symbols Used in ER Diagrams: Below are the symbols that are used in ER Diagrams:
• Rectangles: This entity-type symbol is used in entity relationship diagrams.
• Ellipses: This symbol represents attributes.
• Diamonds: This symbol represents relationship types.
• Lines: It connects entities with other relationship types and with attributes.
• Primary key: Here, it underlines the attributes
• Double Ellipses: It represents multi-valued attributes
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ER and EER Modeling

• Components of ER Diagram
• Entities
• An entity can be a living being or a non-living thing.
• In an ER diagram, it displays an entity as a rectangle.
• For instance, the student and the course are both entities in a student study course.
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ER and EER Modeling

• Components of ER Diagram
• Weak Entity
• A weak entity is one that relies on another entity for its existence.
• In the ER Diagram, you display the weak entity as a double rectangle.
• The fact that the school in the example below has the main key property "school number"
makes it a strong entity. The classroom, unlike the school, is a weak entity as it lacks a
primary key and the room number here merely serves as a discriminator.
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ER and EER Modeling

• Components of ER Diagram
• Attribute
• An attribute displays an entity’s characteristics. In an ER diagram, an oval shape can be
used to represent an attribute.
• Types of Attributes: There are four types of attributes:
• Key Attribute
• Composite Attribute
• Multivalued Attribute
• Derived Attribute
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ER and EER Modeling

• Types of Attributes: Key Attribute
• An entity from a group of entities is uniquely identified by its key characteristic.
• It underlines a crucial attribute’s text in the text.
• The roll number, for instance, can be used to distinguish one student from another in a
group of students.
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ER and EER Modeling

• Types of Attributes: Composite Attribute
• A composite characteristic is one that is made up of many other attributes.
• The composite attribute is represented by an oval, which is further related to additional
ovals.
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ER and EER Modeling

• Types of Attributes: Multivalued Attribute
• Multivalued attributes are those where an attribute can have many values.
• A multivalued attribute is represented by a double oval shape
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ER and EER Modeling

• Types of Attributes: Derived Attribute
• A derived attribute is one that may be derived from the entity’s other
characteristics.
• The derived attribute is represented by the dashed oval in the ER diagram.
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ER and EER Modeling

• Relationship
• In the ER diagram, a relationship can be seen in the diamond shape.
• It demonstrates the connections between the two items.
• In the scenario below, the student and the course are viewed as different entities, and
study is the interaction between them.
• Types of Relationships: Mainly we have four types of relationship in ER model:
• One-to-One Relationship
• One-to-Many Relationship
• Many-to-One Relationship
• Many-to-Many Relationship
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ER and EER Modeling

• Types of Relationships: One-to-One Relationship
• A one-to-one connection exists when a single element of one entity is connected to a single
element of another entity.
• For instance, a student only has one ID, and only one individual is allowed to have an ID.

• Types of Relationships: One-to-Many Relationship

• A one-to-many connection exists when a single element of one entity is connected to
several elements of another entity.
• For instance, a consumer can place several orders, but many customers cannot place the
same order.
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ER and EER Modeling

• Types of Relationships: Many-to-One Relationship
• A many-to-one connection is one in which more than one element of one entity is connected
to only one element of another.
• For instance, although only one course is available, students may enrol in many courses.

• Types of Relationships: Many-to-Many Relationship

• A many-to-many connection exists when several elements of one entity relate to multiple
elements of another entity.
• An employee, for instance, may be assigned to several projects, and a project may have
several employees.
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ER and EER Modeling

• Enhanced Entity-Relationship (EER) Modeling
• Enhanced Entity-Relationship (EER) Modeling is an extension of traditional ER modeling that
incorporates additional concepts to handle more complex data structures.
• EER models are particularly useful for advanced database applications that require a higher
level of detail and accuracy.
• Why Use EER Modeling?
• EER modeling enhances the traditional ER model by adding constructs to represent:
• Specialization and Generalization
• Aggregation
• Categorization (Union Types)
• Inheritance
• These features make EER modeling well-suited for complex real-world applications, such as
enterprise information systems and data warehouses.
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ER and EER Modeling

• Components of EER Modeling
• Specialization and Generalization:
• Generalization: Combines similar entities into a single generalized entity.
• Example: Combining Car, Truck, and Motorcycle into a generalized Vehicle entity.
• Specialization: Breaks down a general entity into more specific entities.
• Example: Employee can be specialized into Faculty and Staff.
• Notation: Represented as a triangle connecting the generalized and specialized entities
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ER and EER Modeling

• Components of EER Modeling
• Inheritance: Sub Class and Super Class
• Inheritance allows specialized entities to inherit attributes and relationships from their generalized entity.
• Example: An Employee entity may have attributes EmployeeID and Name, which are inherited by
Faculty and Staff.
• The relationship between sub class and super class is denoted with symbol.
• Super Class
• Super class is an entity type that has a relationship with one or more subtypes.
• An entity cannot exist in database merely by being member of any super class.
• For example: Shape super class is having sub groups as Square, Circle, Triangle.
• Sub Class
• Sub class is a group of entities with unique attributes.
• Sub class inherits properties and attributes from its super class.
• For example: Square, Circle, Triangle are the sub class of Shape super class.
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ER and EER Modeling

• Components of EER Modeling
• Category or Union
• Category represents a single super class or sub class relationship with more than one super class.
• It can be a total or partial participation.
• For example Car booking, Car owner can be a person, a bank (holds a possession on a Car) or a
company.
• Category (sub class) → Owner is a subset of the union of the three super classes → Company,
Bank, and Person. A Category member must exist in at least one of its super classes.
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ER and EER Modeling

• Components of EER Modeling
• Aggregation
• Aggregation is a process that represent a relationship between a whole object and its component
parts.
• It abstracts a relationship between objects and viewing the relationship as an object.
• It is a process when two entity is treated as a single entity.
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ER and EER Modeling

• Advantages of EER Modeling:
• Better Data Abstraction: Models real-world scenarios more accurately.
• Enhanced Clarity: Adds semantic meaning to the data model.
• Supports Complex Relationships: Handles advanced database requirements effectively.
• Reusability and Inheritance: Minimizes redundancy through inheritance

• EER modeling extends the basic ER model by adding advanced concepts such as
specialization, generalization, aggregation, and categorization.
• These features make it well-suited for designing complex databases where real-world entities
have intricate relationships and hierarchical structures.
• Understanding EER modeling is essential for creating scalable and maintainable databases in
advanced applications.
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Normalization Process and Its Significance

• Normalization is a process used in relational database design to minimize
data redundancy and eliminate undesirable characteristics like insertion,
update, and deletion anomalies.
• The primary goal of normalization is to decompose relations (tables) into
smaller, well-structured relations without losing information.
• This process ensures data integrity and efficiency in database systems.

• Before diving directly into normalization, it is essential to understand the

concept of functional dependency, as it forms the basis for various
normalization techniques.
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Normalization Process and Its Significance

• Functional Dependency
• A functional dependency (FD) is a relationship between two attributes, typically between a
primary key and a non-key attribute within a table. It indicates that the value of one
attribute uniquely determines the value of another attribute.
• Notation:
• If A and B are attributes of a relation R, then A → B denotes that B is functionally dependent on A.
• Example:
• In a Student table with attributes StudentID, Name, and Department, the functional dependency
can be expressed as:
• StudentID → Name (StudentID uniquely identifies the student name)
• StudentID → Department (StudentID uniquely identifies the department)
StudentID Name Department
•A functional dependency is considered valid if the
UGR/001/17 Solomon BAIS determinant uniquely determines the dependent attribute.
UGR/002/17 Ruth ECON
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Normalization Process and Its Significance

• Database Normalization:
• Database normalization involves organizing data in a database to reduce redundancy and
improve data integrity.
• It divides a database into two or more tables and defines relationships between them to
increase consistency and minimize anomalies.
▪ Features of Normalization
▪ Data Integrity: Maintains consistency and accuracy in data.
▪ Reduced Redundancy: Minimizes duplication of data.
▪ Efficient Data Updates: Makes data modification more straightforward and efficient.
▪ Structured and Organized Data: Breaks complex data into simpler tables.
▪ Elimination of Anomalies: Reduces insertion, update, and deletion anomalies.
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Normalization Process and Its Significance

• Normalization : Why it is Required?
• It is very difficult or almost impossible to manage data if any of the anomaly occur i.e.
either Insertion, Deletion or Updation. Hence, removal of redundant data is very necessary.
• Consider the example of a company having table “company_details” of accounts
department.

Insertion Anomaly ?
Deletion Anomaly ?
Updation Anomaly?

• Department, Dept_ID and Manager_Name are the attributes which are same for all
the employees. This type of repetition of data is called as redundancy.
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Normalization Process and Its Significance

• Is There Any Solution?
• we can split or decompose the whole Company_Details table into
• Employee_Details(E_ID, Name, Dept_ID) and
• Department_details(Dept_ID, Dept_Name, Manager_Name).

•If in case we want to update the name of

manager, we will be required to update value
of just an attribute only once in
the Department_Details table.

•By splitting the table into two, it will enable us

to remove all the anomalies
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Normalization Process and Its Significance

• First Normal Form (1NF)
• First Normal Form (1NF) is the initial step in the normalization process that eliminates
repeating groups and ensures atomicity in a relational database.
• It means, a relation is said to be in "1NF" if, every attribute in a relation is has “Single
Valued” tuple.
• NOTE : Atomic values are those which cannot be decomposed further.

E_ID Name Title Specialization E_ID Name Title Specialization

101 Yohannes Professor AI, ML 101 Yohannes Professor AI

102 Tesfaye Lecturer Programming 101 Yohannes Professor ML

103 Eyob Lecturer Java, C# 102 Tesfaye Lecturer Programming

103 Eyob Lecturer Java
103 Eyob Lecturer C#
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Normalization Process and Its Significance

• Second Normal Form (2NF)
• Second Normal Form (2NF) builds on the foundation established by First Normal Form (1NF)
and aims to eliminate partial dependency. A table is in 2NF if:
• It is already in 1NF.
• All non-key attributes are fully functionally dependent on the entire primary key.

• In simpler terms, 2NF removes partial dependencies, where a non-key attribute is

dependent on only part of a composite primary key.

• Understanding Partial Dependency:

• A partial dependency occurs when an attribute is dependent on only a portion of a
composite primary key rather than the entire key. This situation arises in tables that have
composite primary keys (a primary key made up of multiple columns).
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Normalization Process and Its Significance

• Example of a Table Not in 2NF:
StudentID CourseID StudentName CourseName Instructor
101 C101 Abel Math Dr. Math
102 C102 Biniyam Physics Dr. PI
103 C103 Mahlet Chemistry Dr. Chem

• Partial Dependency Problem:

• The attributes StudentName and CourseName depend only on StudentID and
CourseID, respectively, not on the entire composite key.
• This partial dependency leads to data redundancy and update anomalies.
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Normalization Process and Its Significance

• Conversion to 2NF:
• Remove Partial Dependencies: Separate attributes that depend on only part of the
composite key into a new table.
• Create Separate Tables: Each table should have a single primary key without partial
dependencies.
StudentID StudentName StudentID CourseID Instructor
101 Abel 101 C101 Dr. Math
102 Biniyam 102 C102 Dr. PI
103 Mahlet 103 C103 Dr. Chem

CourseID CourseName • Elimination of Partial Dependency: The StudentName and CourseName

attributes have been moved to separate tables to eliminate partial dependency.
C101 Math • Reduction of Data Redundancy: Student and course information are now stored
only once, reducing data duplication.
C102 Physics • Improved Data Integrity: Updating a student's name or course name only requires
changing data in one place.
C103 Chemistry
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Normalization Process and Its Significance

• Third Normal Form (3NF)
• Third Normal Form (3NF) is an advanced step in the normalization process that aims to
eliminate transitive dependencies. A table is said to be in 3NF if:
• It is already in 2NF.
• There are no transitive dependencies, meaning that no non-key attribute depends on another
non-key attribute.
• Every non-prime attribute (an attribute that is not part of a candidate key) is non-transitively
dependent on every key.
• In simpler terms, 3NF ensures that all non-key attributes are directly dependent on
the primary key, and not on any other non-key attribute.
• Transitive Dependency:
• A transitive dependency exists when a non-key attribute depends on another non-
key attribute, which, in turn, depends on the primary key.
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Normalization Process and Its Significance

• Example of Transitive Dependency:

StudentID StudentName Department DepartmentHead

101 Abel Math Dr. Math
102 Biniyam Physics Dr. PI
103 Mahlet Chemistry Dr. Chem
• Primary Key: StudentID
• Transitive Dependency:
• DepartmentHead is functionally dependent on Department, and Department is
functionally dependent on StudentID.
• This creates a transitive dependency (StudentID → Department → DepartmentHead).
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Normalization Process and Its Significance

• Conversion to 3NF:
• To convert the table to 3NF, we must remove the transitive dependency by creating separate tables.

StudentID StudentName Department Department DepartmentHead

101 Abel Math Math Dr. Math
102 Biniyam Physics Physics Dr. PI
103 Mahlet Chemistry Chemistry Dr. Chem

• Elimination of Transitive Dependency:

• DepartmentHead no longer indirectly depends on StudentID.
• The Department and DepartmentHead information is stored separately.
• Data Integrity and Reduction of Redundancy:
• Updating the department head now requires changes in only one place, preventing
inconsistency.
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Reading Assignment:
Fundamental Concepts and Advanced Normalization
• To build a strong foundation before diving into advanced database concepts, please read and
understand the following topics:
• Advanced Normalization Forms:
• Boyce-Codd Normal Form (BCNF): Resolves anomalies not addressed by 3NF.
• Fourth Normal Form (4NF): Eliminates multi-valued dependencies.
• Fifth Normal Form (5NF): Decomposes tables to remove redundancy without losing information.
• Sixth Normal Form (6NF) (if applicable): Used mainly in temporal and data warehousing systems.
• Denormalization:
• Understand when and why to apply denormalization.
• Explore different denormalization techniques and their impact on performance.
• ACID Properties:
• Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation, Durability – crucial for reliable database transactions.
• Transaction Management and Concurrency Control:
• Techniques to maintain data consistency when multiple users access or update the database
simultaneously.
• Database Security and Integrity:
• Methods to protect data and ensure it remains accurate and consistent.