The Copperbelt University

School of Mathematics And Natural Sciences

Department of Mathematics

BEC/BS 140: Mathematical Analysis

Supplementary Notes
April 7, 2024

Lecture Notes. Lecturer: Mr. T.W. Sinyangwe.

To Students;
This study material contains twenty six lessons called chapters. Each chapter has
been written in such a way as to make learning more effective and more interesting.
It is like having a personal tutor because you proceed at your own rate of learning
and any difficulties you may have are cleared before you have the chance to practise
the some tutorial questions via worked out examples. You will find that each chapter
is divided into numbered sections.
You are all encouraged to try the problems that will be given to you in class as home
work on your own before coming to the next class. Do as many of these tutorial
questions as you can. Remember that, in mathematics, as in many other situations,
practice makes perfect or more nearly so. Additionally, you are advised to work
together and not to memorise the material, but to understand every idea presented
to you in depth, as test questions may or may not come direct from the tutorial
questions. Also you are strongly advised to make it a habit of asking questions any-
time you get stuck or don’t understand the concepts presented to you.

1
Why Study Mathematical Analysis?
Mathematical Analysis is one of those subjects that is nice to learn about, although
to many students it may be hard to see how we would actually use it in real life. As
an economics student or Business student, mathematics is the foundation to under-
standing most of the courses that are in this programme. For example, in probability
& statistics, you will learn about probability density function which is simply a for-
mula to calculate the probability that a random variable is equal to a certain value.
This needs knowledge about integration (i.e. a subtopic within calculus) and comes
in when you need to determine the probability that the random variable is less than
a given value, or more than a given value. You will also need integration for finding
expected values too. Another popular application of integration is finding the area
under a curve.
Furthermore, you will need to know how to differentiate (i.e. another subtopic within
calculus). Quite often you’ll need to turn a cumulative distribution function into a
probability density function. You will do that by differentiating.
In financial mathematics, you need integration once you start calculating present
values of streams of continuous payments and/or cash flows with interest that is paid
continuously.
In economics, we use (differential) calculus in solving optimization problems and
(integral) calculus to finding producer and consumer surplus and to solve differential
equations for economic problems.
In statistical inference, we use the concept of stationary points (turning points) and
partial differentiation (subtopics within calculus) more often to determine the maxi-
mum likelihood estimators (MLEs) of the population parameters, just to mention a
few.

If that meant nothing to you, then you should learn something from the course that
you do not already know (i.e. Mathematical Analysis). In both style and content,
this is an applied mathematics course, and most of the applications will be learnt in
class as the notes do not present them.

Timothy SINYANGWE.

1
Notice: This material must NOT be used as a substitute for attending the
lectures.

Page 2 of 336
Contents
1 Set Theory 10
1.1 Introduction to Set Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.2 Sets of Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.3 New Sets from Old Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.4 Application of Set Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

2 Sets of Real Numbers 17

2.1 Some Properties of Real Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.1.1 Rational Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

3 Exponents and Radicals 21

3.1 Properties of Exponents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.2 Zero and Negative Integers as an Exponent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.3 The Principal nth Root of x ∈ R . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.4 Laws of Exponents and Radicals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.5 Rationalization of Fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

4 Operations With Algebraic Expressions 26

4.0.4 Special Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

5 Long and Synthetic Division 28

5.1 Long Division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
5.2 Synthetic Division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
5.3 Factoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
5.4 Fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
5.4.1 Simplifying Fractions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
5.4.3 Multiplying Fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
5.4.5 Division of Fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
5.4.6 Rationalizing the Denominator of Two Terms . . . . . . . . . 32
5.5 Addition and Subtraction of Fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
5.5.1 Addition of Fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
5.5.3 Subtraction of Fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

6 Equations 34
6.1 Linear Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
6.2 Fractional Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
6.3 Radical Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
6.4 Quadratic Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
6.5 Solutions of a Quadratic Equation By Factoring . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
6.6 Quadratic Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
6.7 Quadratic Form Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
6.8 Finding Rational Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
6.9 Application of Equations (Modeling) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

Page 3 of 336
7 Inequalities 48
7.1 Linear Inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
7.2 Rules for Inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
7.3 Open and Closed Interval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
7.4 Applications of Inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
7.5 Absolute Value Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
7.5.4 Absolute Value Inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
7.6 Quadratic Inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
7.7 Quotient and Absolute Quotient Inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

8 Relations and Functions 55

8.1 Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
8.1.3 Types of Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
8.2 Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
8.2.6 Testing for Function By Graphical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
8.2.8 Testing for Function By Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
8.2.10 The Vertical Line Test For Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
8.2.15 A Piecewise Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
8.2.19 The Domain And Range of a Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
8.3 Types of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
8.3.2 How To Check for One-To-Oneness of a Function . . . . . . . 68
8.3.4 Combinations of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
8.3.6 Composite Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
8.3.9 Inverse Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

9 Graphs 74
9.1 Parabolas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
9.2 Even and Odd Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
9.3 Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
9.3.1 Vertical Shifts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
9.3.4 Horizontal Shifts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
9.3.7 Vertical and Horizontal Shifts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
9.4 Reflections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
9.4.1 Reflection about the x-axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
9.4.3 Reflection about the y-axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

10 The Straight Line 91

10.1 Mid Point of Two Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
10.2 The Gradient (or Slope ) of a Straight Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
10.3 The Equation of a Straight Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
10.4 Finding Equation of a Straight Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
10.4.1 Given One Point A(x1 , y1 ) and The Gradient m of The Line . 94
10.4.3 Given Two Points A(x1 , y1 ) and B(x2 , y2 ) on The Line . . . . 94
10.4.5 Given The Gradient m and The y−intercept . . . . . . . . . . 95
10.4.7 Equation of a Straight Line When Two Intercepts are Given . 96

Page 4 of 336
 10.5 Parallel And Perpendicular Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
10.5.1 Two Parallel Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
10.5.3 Two Perpendicular Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

11 Simultaneous Equations and Its Applications 101

11.1 Simultaneous Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
11.1.1 Unique Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
11.1.3 No Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
11.1.5 Infinitely Many Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
11.2 Three Simultaneous Equations In Three Unknowns . . . . . . . . . . 102
11.3 Application of Simultaneous Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
11.3.1 Demand and Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
11.3.4 Tax Effect On Equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
11.4 Equilibrium and Break-Even Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
11.5 More On Demand, Supply, Cost and Revenue . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
11.5.1 The Demand Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
11.5.4 The Supply Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
11.5.5 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113

12 Elasticity of Demand, Supply and Income 118

12.1 Price Elasticity of Demand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
12.1.2 Point Elasticity of Demand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
12.1.4 Coefficient of Price Elasticity of Demand . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
12.1.5 Arc Elasticity of Demand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
12.1.6 Income Elasticity of Demand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
12.1.7 Worked Out Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
12.2 Budget and Cost Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
12.2.1 Worked Out Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
12.3 Consumer and Producer Surplus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
12.3.1 Consumer Surplus (CS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
12.3.3 Producer Surplus (PS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
12.4 National Income Model and The IS − LM Model . . . . . . . . . . . 136
12.4.2 Steps for Deriving The Equilibrium Level of National Income . 137
12.4.3 Equilibrium Level of National Income When E = C + I . . . . 137
12.5 The IS − LM Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
12.5.1 The IS Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
12.5.3 The LM Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
12.5.5 The Short-Run IS − LM Equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144

13 Non-linear Functions and Applications 148

13.1 Non-linear Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
13.1.1 Non-linear Supply and Demand Functions . . . . . . . . . . . 148
13.1.3 Non-linear Total Revenue for a Profit-maximising Monopolist 149
13.1.5 Total Revenue and Total Cost: Break-even Points . . . . . . . 150
13.2 Cubic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152

Page 5 of 336
 13.2.1 Plotting Cubic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
13.3 Exponential Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
13.4 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
13.4.1 Properties of Exponents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
13.5 Exponential Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
13.5.2 Exponential Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
13.5.5 Properties of f (x) = bx . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
13.5.6 Translations of Exponential Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
13.6 The Laws of Growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
13.6.1 Unlimited Growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
13.6.4 Limited Growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
13.6.6 Logistic Growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
13.7 Logarithmic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
13.7.3 Changing from Logarithmic to Exponential Form and Vice Versa169
13.7.7 Properties of Logarithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
13.7.9 Special Properties of Logarithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
13.7.13 Change of Base Property . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
13.7.16 Domain of Logarithmic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
13.7.19 Graphs of Logarithmic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
13.7.21 Natural Logarithm (Base e) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
13.7.24 Solving Exponential and Logarithmic Equations . . . . . . . . 181
13.8 Hyperbolic Functions of The Form a/(bx + c) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
13.8.1 Functions of the form y = a/(bx + c) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
13.8.3 Equations and Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187

14 Matrix Algebra 190

14.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
14.2 Order or Size of a Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
14.3 Types of Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
14.3.1 Row Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
14.3.3 Column Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
14.3.6 Square Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
14.3.9 Diagonal Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
14.3.11 Triangular Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
14.3.13 Scalar Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
14.3.15 Identity Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
14.3.17 Zero Matrix or Null Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
14.3.19 Equality of Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
14.3.21 Transpose of a Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
14.3.25 Multiplication of a Matrix by a Scalar . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
14.4 Operations on Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
14.4.1 Addition and Subtraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
14.4.5 Matrix Multiplication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
14.5 Algebraic Properties of Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
14.6 Determinants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202

Page 6 of 336
 14.6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
14.6.3 Notation for Determinant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
14.6.4 Determinant of a 2 × 2 Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
14.6.8 Determinant of a 3 × 3 Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
14.7 Inverse of a Square Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
14.7.1 The inverse of a 2 × 2 matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
14.7.4 The Inverse of a 3 × 3 Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
14.8 Properties of Square Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
14.9 Crammer’s Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
14.10Reduced Row Echelon Form (RREF) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
14.10.2 Applications of Matrix Arithmetic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
14.10.5 General Expressions for Equilibrium in the Income-determination
Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
14.10.8 Input/output Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223

15 Arrangements, Permutations and Combinations 228

15.1 Arrangements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
15.1.1 The Multiplication Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
15.1.4 Factorial Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
15.2 Permutations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
15.3 Combination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
15.4 The Binomial Expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
15.4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
15.5 The Formula for a Binomial Coefficient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
15.5.2 Pascal’s Triangle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
15.5.7 The (k + 1)th Term of a Binomial Expansion . . . . . . . . . . 235
15.5.10 The Term Independent of x In The Binomial Expansion . . . 236
15.5.12 The Binomial for any Index or Power n . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237

16 Financial Mathematics 242

16.1 Sequences and Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
16.1.1 Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
16.1.7 Finding Terms of Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
16.1.12 Finding Explicit Formulas for Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
16.2 Arithmetic Sequences (Arithmetic Progression AP) . . . . . . . . . . 245
16.2.3 A Recurrence form of Arithmetic Sequence . . . . . . . . . . . 245
16.2.4 The nth term of an Arithmetic Sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
16.2.8 Arithmetic Means . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
16.2.10 The Sum of The First n terms of an Arithmetic Progression . 248
16.3 Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
16.4 The Geometric Sequence (0r Progression) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
16.4.4 Geometric Means . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
16.4.6 PThe Sum of the nth Terms of a Geometric Sequence . . . . . . 251
16.4.8 Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
16.4.10 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252

Page 7 of 336
 16.4.15 The Sum to Infinite of a Geometric Series . . . . . . . . . . . 254
16.4.23 Applications of Arithmetic and Geometric Series . . . . . . . . 257
16.5 Simple Interest, Compound Interest and Annual Percentage Rates . . 257

17 Limits of a Function 258

17.1 Properties of Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
17.2 Further Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
17.3 One Sided Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
17.4 Existence and Non-Existence of a Limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
17.5 Infinite Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
17.6 Limits at Infinity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
17.7 Further Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262

18 Continuity 263
18.1 Continuity at a Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
18.2 Classifying Discontinuities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
18.3 Continuity on Intervals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265

19 Differentiation 267
19.1 Differentiation by Delta Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
19.2 Standard Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
19.3 Rules of differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
19.3.1 Sum or Difference Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
19.3.4 Product Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
19.3.5 Quotient Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
19.3.8 Function of a Function Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
19.4 Logarithmic Differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
19.5 Implicit Differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
19.5.3 Applications To Be Discussed in Class! . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278

20 Integration 279
20.1 Introduction to Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
20.2 The General Solution of Integrals of the Form axn . . . . . . . . . . . 280
20.3 Rules of Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
20.3.1 Integral of the Product of a Constant and a Function . . . . . 280
20.3.2 Integrals of Sum or Difference (±) of Functions . . . . . . . . 281
20.3.3 The Integral of a Constant k . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
20.4 Definite Integrals and their Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
20.5 Standard Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
20.6 The Fundamental Theorem of Integral Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
20.7 Application of Definite Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
20.7.1 Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
20.7.4 Tutorial Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290

Page 8 of 336
21 Techniques of Integration 292
21.1 Integration by Substitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
21.1.1 Illustration of Integration by Substitution . . . . . . . . . . . 292
21.1.2 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
21.2 Integration by Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
21.2.2 Tutorial Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297

22 Application of Integration to Modelling in Economics and Business298

22.1 Consumer and Producer Surplus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
22.1.1 Consumer Surplus (CS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
22.1.3 Producer Surplus (PS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
22.2 First-Order Differential Equations and Applications . . . . . . . . . . 303
22.2.1 General and Particular Solutions of Differential Equations . . 303
22.2.2 Solution of Differential Equations of the Form dy/dx = f (x) . 304
22.2.4 Application of Differential Equations in Economics and Business 305
22.2.6 Tutorial Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306

23 Partial Fractions 309

23.1 Introduction to Partial Fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
23.1.1 Partial Fractions with Linear Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
23.1.5 Partial Fractions with Repeated Linear Factors . . . . . . . . 313
23.1.8 Partial Fractions with Quadratic Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
23.1.11 Tutorial Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316

24 Application of Partial Fractions in Integration 317

24.1 Integration by Partial Fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
24.1.1 Integration using Partial Fractions with Linear Factors . . . . 317
24.1.4 Integration using Partial Fractions with Repeated Linear Factors318
24.1.7 Integration Using Partial Fractions With Quadratic Factors . 319
24.1.9 Tutorial Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320

25 Stationary Points or Turning Points 322

25.0.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
25.0.3 Procedure for Finding and Distinguishing Stationary Points . 323
25.1 Economic Applications of Maximum and Minimum Points . . . . . . 325
25.1.3 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331

26 Partial Derivatives 332

26.0.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
26.1 Application Using the Lagrange Multiplier for Optimisation of Functions334

Page 9 of 336
1 Set Theory
Learning outcomes
When you have completed this chapter you will be able to;

• Define a set

• Obtain new sets from old sets using, intersection, union, compliment of a set
and to apply De-Morgan’s laws

• Apply set theory to solve practical problems

1.1 Introduction to Set Theory

It is natural for us to classify items into groups, or sets and consider how those
sets overlap with each other. We can use these sets to understand the relationship
between groups, and to analyse survey data. For example, an art collector might own
a collection of paintings, while a music lover might keep a collection of CDs. Any
collection of items can form a set.

Definition 1.1.1 (Set) A set is a well defined collection of objects or items called
elements.

A set is defined in such a manner that we can determine for any given objects x
whether or not x belongs to the set.

The objects that belong to the set are called it’s elements or members. We denote
sets by capital letters as A, B, . . . or we can also use variables X, Y, . . . and elements
by small letters as a, b, . . . or x, y, . . .. For example A = {a, b, c}. If a is an element of
set A, we write a ∈ A, the symbol ∈ means belongs to or a member of and if a does
not belong to set A, we write a ∈ / A, the symbol ∈ / means does not belong to. A set,
say A is usually specified by either listing all of it’s elements inside a pair of braces
{} or by finding a suitable mathematical formula that represents the elements of set
A.

Example 1.1.2 Suppose that A and B are sets defined by A = {4, 8, 12} and
B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}. Here we see that 4 ∈ A and 4 ∈ B,but 8 ∈
/ B similarly 6 ∈
/ A.

Definition 1.1.3 Let A and B be sets and let a be an element, we write A ⊂ B if

every element in the collection A is contained in set B, and say that A is a subset of
B. Otherwise, we write A 6⊂ B, to mean that set A is not a subset of set B.

Example 1.1.4 Let A and B be sets defined by A = {2, 3, 4} and B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

then clearly we can say that A ⊂ B, since every elements in set A is contained in set
B but B 6⊂ A.

Page 10 of 336
1.2 Sets of Numbers
Some of the most important sets that are considered in this course are the following.
(i) The set of natural numbers denoted by N and defined as
N = {n|n is a natural number}
= {1, 2, 3, 4, . . . }

(ii) The set of integers denoted by Z and defined by

Z = {n|n is an integer}
= {. . . , −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, . . . }

(iii) The set of rational numbers. These are numbers that can be expressed in the
a
form or fractional form. This set is denoted by Q and defined by
b
Q = {r|r is a rational number}
 
p
= |p, q ∈ Z, q 6= 0
q

(iv) The set of real numbers denoted R and is defined by

R = {x|x is a real number}

(v) The set of complex numbers is denoted by C. These are numbers that can be
expressed in the form a + bi where a is the real part and b is the imaginary part.
C = {z|z is a complex numbers}
z = {a + bi}

(vi) The empty set. This is the set with no elements and is usually denoted by
∅ or {}.
A summary of the sets is as follows;
N ⊂ Z ⊂ Q ⊂ R ⊂ C.
Remark 1.2.1 The set of complex numbers, will not be discussed in this course.
Since, in business we do not deal with imaginary numbers, but only real numbers.
Definition 1.2.2 (Equality of sets) Let A and B be sets, we say that the two sets
are equal i.e A = B if and only if A and B have the same elements. Otherwise A
and B are not equal and we write this as A 6= B.
Remark 1.2.3 Two sets are equal written A = B if we can show that A ⊂ B and
B ⊂ A.
Definition 1.2.4 (Universal set) The universal set denoted U or E is the set com-
prising of all elements under consideration.

Page 11 of 336
1.3 New Sets from Old Sets
Definition 1.3.1 (Intersection) Let A and B be sets. Then the intersection of set
A and set B denoted by A ∩ B is the set that contains all common elements in set A
and set B. This is written as

A ∩ B = {a|a ∈ A and a ∈ B}.

The notation ”|” or ” : ” reads as ”such that”.

Example 1.3.2 Let A = {a, b, c, e} and B = {c, d, e, f } and C = {f, g}

(i) A ∩ B = {a, b, c, e} ∩ {c, d, e, f } = {c, e}

(ii) A ∩ C = {a, b, c, e} ∩ {f, g} = {}

(iii) B ∩ C = {c, d, e, f } ∩ {f, g} = {f }

Definition 1.3.3 (Union) Let A and B be sets. Then the union of two sets A and
B denoted by A ∪ B is the set that contains all elements either in set A or in set B
defined by
A ∪ B = {a|a ∈ A or a ∈ B}.

Example 1.3.4 Consider Example 1.3.2, find the following

(i) A ∪ B = {a, b, c, e} ∪ {c, d, e, f } = {a, b, c, d, e, f }

(ii) A ∪ C = {a, b, c, e} ∪ {f, g} = {a, b, c, e, f, g}

(iii) B ∪ C = {c, d, e, f } ∪ {f, g} = {c, d, e, f, g}

Note 1.3.5 Whenever you have common elements in sets you only list them once in
the union set.

Definition 1.3.6 (Compliment of a Set) Let A be any set and U be the universal
set. Then the compliment of set A denoted by A0 or A is a set consisting of elements
in the universal set but not contained in A.

∴ A = {a|a ∈ U and a ∈
/ A}.

Proposition 1.3.7 For any non empty set A ∈ U the following holds true.

(i) A ∪ A = A (ii) A ∩ A = {} (iii) A00 = A

We prove (iii) and leave the rest for students.

To prove (iii) we show that

A00 ⊂ A (1)
A ⊂ A00 . (2)

Page 12 of 336
(⇒) Let x ∈ A00 , then x ∈
/ A0 this implies that x ∈ A. Thus,

A00 ⊂ A (3)

Conversely:(⇐)
/ A0 which implies that x ∈ A00 . Therefore,
Let x ∈ A, then x ∈

A ⊂ A00 . (4)

Thus, from (3) and (4) we conclude that A00 = A. Hence proved.

Proposition 1.3.8 Let A, B and C be sets then;

(i) A ∩ A = A and A ∩ A0 = {}

(ii) A ∪ {} = A, and A ∩ {} = {}

(iii) A ∪ (B ∪ C) = (A ∪ B) ∪ C and A ∩ (B ∩ C) = (A ∩ B) ∩ C

(iv) A ∪ B = B ∪ B and A ∩ B = B ∩ A

(v) A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C)

(vi) A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C)

Theorem 1.3.9 (De-Morgan’s Laws) Let A and B be sets. Then

(i) (A ∪ B)0 = A0 ∩ B 0

(ii) (A ∩ B)0 = A0 ∪ B 0

Proof (i)
To prove that
(A ∪ B)0 = A0 ∩ B 0
we need to show that
(A ∪ B)0 ⊂ A0 ∩ B 0 (5)
And also that
A0 ∩ B 0 ⊂ (A ∪ B)0 (6)
Considering (5) we have;

(⇒) Let x ∈ (A ∪ B)0 then x ∈ / A ∪ B, this implies that x ∈

/ A or x ∈
/ B and
0 0 0 0
so x ∈ A and x ∈ B . Thus x ∈ A ∩ B . Therefore,

(A ∪ B)0 ⊂ A0 ∩ B 0 . (7)

Conversely (⇐):
We show that A0 ∩ B 0 ⊂ (A ∪ B)0 . Let x ∈ A0 ∩ B 0 , then x ∈ A0 and x ∈ B 0 , this

Page 13 of 336
means that x ∈/ A or x ∈ / B (by definition of Union), it follows that x ∈
/ (A ∪ B)
which implies that x ∈ (A ∪ B)0 . Hence
A0 ∩ B 0 ⊂ (A ∪ B)0 (8)
Thus, from (7) and (8) we obtain A0 ∩ B 0 = (A ∪ B)0 as required.

Proof (ii)
To prove that (A ∩ B)0 = A0 ∪ B 0 . We have to first show that
(A ∩ B)0 ⊂ A0 ∪ B 0 (9)
A0 ∪ B 0 ⊂ (A ∩ B)0 (10)
Considering (9). Let x ∈ (A ∩ B)0 , then x ∈
/ A ∩ B,
⇒x ∈
/ A and x ∈ /B
⇒x ∈ A or x ∈ B 0
0

⇒x ∈ A0 ∪ B 0 .
Therefore,
(A ∩ B)0 ⊂ A0 ∪ B 0 . (11)
Conversely:
We now show that A0 ∪ B 0 ⊂ (A ∩ B)0 . Let x ∈ A0 ∪ B 0 by definition of union, it
follows that x ∈ A0 or x ∈ B 0
⇒x ∈
/ A and x ∈/ B (by definition of intersection)
⇒x ∈
/ A∩B
⇒x ∈ (A ∩ B)0
Hence,
A0 ∪ B 0 ⊂ (A ∩ B)0 . (12)
Therefore, from (11) and (12), we conclude that
(A ∩ B)0 = A0 ∪ B 0 .

Definition 1.3.10 (Cartesian products) Let A and B be sets. Then we define a

new set A × B called the Cartesian product of A and B as a set of ordered pairs. That
is
A × B = {(a, b)|a ∈ A and b ∈ B}.
Here (a, b) is the ordered pair whose first coordinate is a and second coordinate is b.

Example 1.3.11 Let A = {a, b}, B = {1, 2, 3}, Then A × B 6= B × A since

A × B = {(a, 1), (a, 2), (a, 3), (b, 1), (b, 2), (b, 3)}
B × A = {(1, a), (1, b), (2, a), (3, a), (3, b)}

Page 14 of 336
2

Definition 1.3.12 (Power sets) Let A be any set, then we define the power set of
set A denoted by P(A) to be the set of all subsets of set A including the empty set
and the set itself.

Example 1.3.13 Let A = {a, b, c} then the power set of A is


P(A) = {}, {a}, {b}, {c}, {a, c}, {b, c}, {a, b}, {a, b, c}

The number of elements in P(A) can be determined by the formula 2n , where ”n” is
the number of elements in set A. Therefore in Example 1.3.13 we expected

n(P(A)) = 2n

That is n(P(A)) = 23 = 8 elements in P(A).

1.4 Application of Set Theory

Example 1.4.1 The Volkswagen car manufacturing company sold a number of cars
during the month of December 2020. Of the cars sold, 90 had air conditioning, 100
had automatic transmission and 75 had power steering. Five cars had all three of these
extras. Twenty cars had none of these extras. Twenty cars had only air conditioning,
60 cars had only automatic transmission, and 30 cars had only power steering. 10
cars had both automatic transmission and power steering. Find

(i) How many cars had both power steering and air conditioning?

(ii) How many cars had both automatic transmission and air conditioning?

(iii) How many cars had neither power steering nor automatic transmission?

(iv) How many cars were sold by the company?

Solution
Let

AC : denote cars with air conditioning

AT : denote cars with automatic transmission
P S : denote cars with power steering.

Then we have;
2
We can define the Cartesian product of n sets to be

A1 × · · · × An = {(a1 , . . . , an )|ai ∈ Ai for i = 1, . . . , n}.

And if A = A1 = A2 = · · · = An , we often write An for A × · · · × A (where A would be written n

times). For example, the set R3 consists of all of 3-tuples of real numbers.

Page 15 of 336
 • 90 cars with AC
• 100 cars with AT
• 75 cars with PS
• 5 cars with all the three extras
• 20 cars with none of the extras
• 20 cars with only AC
• 60 cars with only AT
• 10 cars with both AT and PS.
Then by the Venn diagram, we have;

Figure 1: Venn diagram

Thus, it follows that;

(i) Cars with both PS and AC are;
P S ∩ AC = 5 + 35 = 40 cars.

(ii) Cars with both AT and AC are;

AT ∩ AC = 30 + 5 = 35 cars.

(iii) Cars with neither PS nor AT are;

(P S ∩ AT )c = (P S)c ∪ (AT )c = 20 + 20 = 40 cars.

(iv) The company sold a total number of

100 + 90 + 75 + 20 = 285 cars.

Page 16 of 336
2 Sets of Real Numbers
Learning outcomes
When you have completed this chapter you will be able to;
• Know all the properties of real numbers
• Convert decimals into fractions

2.1 Some Properties of Real Numbers

We now state some properties of properties of real numbers. Lets a, b and c be reaal
numbers.
(i) Transitive Property of Equality; If a = b and b = c, then a = c. For
example, if x = y, and y = 7, then x = 7.
(ii) The Closure Properties of Addition and Multiplication; For all a, b ∈ R,
we have
a + b ∈ R.
And for all a, b ∈ R, we have
a · b ∈ R.
That is any two real numbers can be added and multiplied and the result of
each is a real number.
(iii) The Commutative Property of Addition and Multiplication; For all
a, b ∈ R, we have
a+b=b+a
And
a·b=b·a
For example;
3+4=7=4+3
And
3 × 4 = 12 = 4 × 3.
(iv) Associative Properties of Addition and Multiplication;
For all a, b, c ∈ R, we have
a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c
And
a(bc) = (ab)c.
For example;
2 + (3 + 4) = 9 = (2 + 3) + 4
And
2 · (3 · 4) = 24 = (2 · 3) · 4.

Page 17 of 336
 (v) The Identity Properties; There are unique real numbers 0 and 1, for each
real number a such that
a+0=a=0+a
And
1 · a = a = a · 1.
The elements 0 and 1 are called identity elements under addition and multipli-
cation respectively.

(vi) The Inverse Properties; For each real number a, there exists a unique real
number denoted −a such that

a + (−a) = 0 = −a + a.

The number −a is called the negative of a. For example;

6 + (−6) = 0 = −6 + 6.

For each real number a 6= 0, there is a unique real number denoted by a−1 such
that
a · a−1 = 1 = a−1 · a.
1
The number a−1 = is called the reciprocal of a.
a
(vii) Distributive Properties; For all a, b, c ∈ R, we have;

a(b + c) = ab + ac

And
(b + c)a = ba + ca.
For example;
2(3 + 4) = 2(3) + 2(4) = 6 + 8 = 14.
Similarly,
(2 + 3)4 = 2(4) + 3(4) = 8 + 12 = 20.
3

3
Subtraction is defined in terms of addition, that is a − b = a + (−b), where −b is the negative
of b. Thus, 6 − 8 = 6 + (−8). Similarly,
  division is defined as in terms of multiplication. That is, if
−1 1 a 3 1
b 6= 0, then a ÷ b = a(b ) = a = . Thus, = 3 × . And finally, division by zero 0, is not
b b 5 5
a
defined. That is, for all a ∈ R, is undefined.
0

Page 18 of 336
2.1.1 Rational Numbers
Recall by definition that a rational number is a number that can be expressed in the
a
form of , where a, b ∈ Z and b 6= 0.
b
Example 2.1.2 (Converting Decimals Into Fractions) Express each of the fol-
a
lowing repeating decimals in the form , a, b ∈ Z and b ∈ Z \ {0} or b 6= 0.
b
(i) 0.3 (ii) 0.13 (iii) 6.156
Solution

(i) Here for 0.3, we let;

x = 0.3 (13)

Then, multiplying Equation (13) by 10, we get;

10x = 3.3 (14)

Now subtracting (13) from (14) and solving for x, we get;

10 − x = 3.3 − 0.3
9x = 3
3
x=
9
1
⇒ x= .
3

(ii) For 0.13, we let;

x = 0.13 (15)

Then multiplying Equation (15) through by 10, we get;

10x = 1.3 (16)

On multiplying Equation (16) by 10, we get;

100x = 13.3 (17)

Now subtracting Equation (16) from Equation (17) we get;

100x − 10x = 13.3 − 1.3

90x = 12
12
x=
90
2
⇒ x= .
15
Page 19 of 336
(iii) For 6.156,

Let

x = 6.156 (18)

Multiplying Equation (18) by 10 we get;

10x = 61.56 (19)

(20)

On multiplying Equation (20) by 100, we get;

1000x = 6156.56 (21)

Subtracting Equation (20) from Equation (21) we get;

1000x − 10 = 6156.56 − 61.56

990x = 6095
6095
x=
990
1219
⇒ x= .
198

Page 20 of 336
3 Exponents and Radicals
The product x·x·x of 3x’s is abbreviated as x3 . In general, for n a positive integer, xn
is the abbreviation of n, x’s, the letter n in xn is called the exponent, and x is called
the base. In general, if n is a positive integer, then we have the following properties
that;
Definition 3.0.1 If n any positive integer and b is any real number, then

xn = x
| × x × x{z× · · · × x} (22)
n−times

If we adopt the conversion that the operator × means the same as · then we can write
Definition 3.0.1 as
xn = x| · x ·{zx · · · x}
n−times

where x is the base and n is the exponent of x. So xn can be read as x to the nth
power. The term squared and cubed are commonly associated with the exponent of 2
and 3 respectively.

Example 3.0.2 We can write;

(i) 43 = 4 · 4 · 4 = 64

(ii) 32 = 3 · 3 = 9

3.1 Properties of Exponents

A real number can be raised to a zero power or a negative power integer.
(i) xm · xn = xm+n product of two powers.

(ii) (xm )n = xmn power of a power.

(iii) (xy)n = xn · y n power of a product of two bases.

 n
x xn
(iv) = n power of a quotient provided that y 6= 0.
y y
xm
(v) = xm · x−n = xm+(−n) = xm−n .
xn
(vi) x0 = 1 for all x ∈ R.
1
(vii) x−1 =
x
Example 3.1.1 Simplify the following
7
a2

2 3 2 3 5
(i) (3x y)(4x y ) (ii) (−2y ) (iii)
b4

Page 21 of 336
Solution
(i) (3x2 y)(4x3 y 2 ) = 3 · 4 · x2+3 · y 1+3 = 12x5 y 3
(ii) (−2y 3 )5 = (−2)5 · y3 · 5 = −32y 15
 2 7
a a2·7 a14
(iii) = =
b4 b4·2 b8

3.2 Zero and Negative Integers as an Exponent

Definition 3.2.1 Suppose that x is any non-zero real number, then x0 = 1.
Example 3.2.2 According to definition 3.2.1 the following are true
(i) 50 = 1 (ii) (xy)0 = 1.
Definition 3.2.3 If n is any positive integer and x is any non-zero real number, then
1
x−n = n .
x
Example 3.2.4 Simplify the following
 −3 −2
−5 −1 2 −4 2
(i) x (ii) (2 3 ) (iii)
3−2
Solution

1 −1 2 −4 1 24 16
(i) x−5 = 5
(ii) (2 3 ) = −1 2 4
= 2·4
=
x (2 3 ) 3 729
 −3 −2  2 −2  3 2
2 3 2 23·2 26 64
(iii) −2
= 3
= 2
= 2·2
= 4
= .
3 2 3 3 3 81
Example 3.2.5 Simplify the following
12x2 y 2
(i) (3x2 y −4 )(4x−3 y) (ii)
−3x−1 y 5
Solution

(i)
(3x2 y −4 )(4x−3 y) = 3 · 4x2−3 · y −4+1
= 12x−1 y −3
12
= 3
xy

(ii)
12x2 y 2 x2 y2 4x3
   
12 3
= − = −4x y−3 = − 3
−3x−1 y 5 3 x−1 y5 y

Page 22 of 336
3.3 The Principal nth Root of x ∈ R
The principal nth root of x is the nth root that is positive if x is positive and is
negative if x is negative and n is odd. This id denoted by;
(√
√
n
n
x; if x is positive
x= √
− x; if x is negative and n is odd.
n

Example 3.3.1 Simplify the following

√ √
r
2
√ 1
(i) 9 (ii) −8 (iii) 3
3
and (iv) n 0.
27
Solution

(i) √ √
2 1
9= 9 = 9 2 = 3.
(ii) √
3
−8 = −2
(iii) r
3 1 1
=
27 3
(iv) √
n
0 = 0.
√ √
The symbol x is called a radical. Here, n is the index, x is the radicand, and
n

is the radical sign. For the square root of x, we usually omit the index and write
√
2
√
x as x.
p
If x is any positive integer, the expression x q , where p, q ∈ Z (integers) with no
common factors and q is positive is defined as
p √
x q = q xp .
Example 3.3.2 .
(i) √
3 4
x4 = x3 .
(ii) √ √
2 3 3
83 = 82 = 64 = 4.
(iii)
√
r
− 12 2 1 1
4 = 4−1 = = .
4 2
4
Some numbers do not have the nth root that is a real number. For example, since the square
root of any real number is non-negative, there is no real number that is a square root of −4.

Page 23 of 336
3.4 Laws of Exponents and Radicals
In addition to the properties in Section 3.1, the following are some more laws of
exponents and radicals.
1
(1) x−n =
xn
1
(2) = xn
x−n
xn
(3) =1
xn
 −n  n
x y
(4) =
y x
1 √
(5) x n = n x
1 1 1
(6) x− n = = √
1
x n
n
x
√ √ √
(7) n x · n y = n xy.
√ r
n
x x
(8) √
n y
= n
y

m √ √
q
n
(9) x = mn x

Example 3.4.1 Eliminate negative exponents in the following

x−2 y 3
z −2
Solution
Here
x−2 y 3 y3z2
= .
z −2 x2

3.5 Rationalization of Fractions

To rationalize either the denominator or numerator is to simplify the numerator or
denominator and make it free from the radicals.

Example 3.5.1 Rationalize the denominator of the following fractions,

1 2
(i) √ (ii) √
6
.
5 3x5
Solution

Page 24 of 336
(i) √ √
2 2 5 2 5
√ =√ √ = .
5 5· 5 5

(ii)
2 2
√
6
= √6
√
6
3x 5 3 · x5
5 1
2(3 6 · x 6 )
= 1 5 5 1
(3 6 · x 6 )(3 6 · x 6 )
1
2(35 x) 6
=
√ 3x
6
2 35 x
= .
3x

Page 25 of 336
4 Operations With Algebraic Expressions
If numbers represented by symbols are combined by any or all of the operations of
addition, subtraction, and extraction of roots, then the resulting expression is called
an algebraic expression.

Example 4.0.1 The following are examples of algebraic expressions.

r
3
3 3x − 5x + 4
(i) ; is an algebraic expression in x variable.
x+1
(ii) 10 + 3y 2 + 4y; is an algebraic expression in y variable.
(x + y)2
(iii) + 4; is an algebraic expression in x and y variables.
xy
The algebraic expression

5ax3 − 2bx + 3 (23)

Consists of three terms; +5ax3 , − 2bx and +3. In Expression (23) we call 5a the
coefficient of x3 , − 2b the coefficient of x and 3, is a constant, where a and b are
arbitrary constants.

Definition 4.0.2 (Polynomial) A polynomial in x variable is an algebraic expres-

sion of the form
cn xn + cn−1 xn−1 + · · · + c1 x1 + c0
where n is a non-negative integer and c0 , c1 , . . . , cn are constants with cn 6= 0.

Example 4.0.3 Simplify the following expressions

(i) (3x2 y − 2x + 1) + (4x2 y + 6x − 3) and

(ii) (3x2 y − 2x + 1) − (4x2 y + 6x − 3).

(iii) 6x(2x + 3) + 5x[4x2 − (3 − 4x)]

Solution

(i) The first step is to remove the parenthesis, and gather the similar terms together,
that is;

(3x2 y − 2x + 1) + (4x2 y + 6x − 3) = 3x2 y − 2x + 1 + 4x2 y + 6x − 3

= 3x2 y + 4x2 y − 2x + 6x + 1 − 3
= 7x2 y + 4x − 2.

Page 26 of 336
 (ii) Here we first distribute the negative as follows;

(3x2 y − 2x + 1) − (4x2 y + 6x − 3) = 3x2 y − 2x + 1 − 4x2 y − 6x + 3

= 3x2 y − 4x2 y − 2x − 6x + 1 + 3
= −x2 y − 8x + 4.

(iii) Here we have;

6x(2x + 3) + 5x[4x2 − (3 − 4x)] = 12x2 + 18x + 5x(4x2 − 3 + 4x)

= 12x2 + 18x + 5x(4x2 + 4x − 3)
= 12x2 + 18x + 20x3 + 20x2 − 15x
= 20x3 + 32x2 + 3x.

4.0.4 Special Products

(i) Distributive Property; x(y + z) = xy + xz

(ii) (x + a)(x + b) = x2 + (a + b)x + ab

(iii) (ax + c)(bx + d) = abx2 + (ad + cd)x + cd

(iv) Square of a sum; (x + a)2 = x2 + 2ax + a2

(v) Square of a difference; (x − a)2 = x2 − 2ax + a2

(vi) Difference of two squares (x + a)(x − a) = x2 − a2

(vii) (x + a)3 = x3 + 3ax2 + 3a2 x + a3

(viii) (x − a)3 = x3 − 3ax2 + 3a2 x − a3 .

Example 4.0.5 Expand and simplify the following expressions

(i) (x + 2)(x − 5)
p p
(ii) ( y 2 + 1 + 3)( y 2 + 1 − 3)

x3 + 3x
(iii)
x
Solution

(i) Here,

(x + 2)(x − 5) = x2 − 5x + 2x − 10
= x2 − 3x − 10.

Page 27 of 336
 (ii) Here we have
p p p p p
( y 2 + 1 + 3)( y 2 + 1 − 3) = ( y 2 + 1)2 − 3 y 2 + 1 + 3 y 2 + 1 − 9
= y2 + 1 − 9
= y 2 − 8.

(iii) Here
x3 + 3x x3 3x
= + = x2 + 3.
x x x

5 Long and Synthetic Division

To divide a polynomial by another polynomial, we use the methods called, long
division and synthetic division, when the degree of the divisor is less than or equal to
the degree of the dividend.

5.1 Long Division

Example 5.1.1 Use long division, to divide 2x3 − 14x − 5 by x − 3.

Solution
Here, the polynomial 2x3 − 14x − 5 is called the dividend and x − 3 is the divisor.

Re-writing the dividend in the form of a decreasing powers, we have;

2x3 − 14x − 5 = 2x3 + 0x2 − 14x − 5.

And so
2x3 − 14x − 5 7
= 2x2 + 6x + 4 + .
x−3 x−3

Page 28 of 336
Which means that;
Dividend Remainder
= Quotient +
Divisor Divisor

5.2 Synthetic Division

Example 5.2.1 Use the method of synthetic division to divide 2x3 −14x−5 by x−3.

Solution
Re-writing the dividend as

2x3 − 14x − 5 = 2x3 + 0x2 − 14x − 5.

Then using the coefficients, we have by synthetic division;

Thus,
2x3 − 14x − 5 7
= 2x2 + 6x + 4 + .
x−3 x−3

5.3 Factoring
If two or more expressions are multiplied together, the expressions are called factors
or the products. Thus, if c = ab, then a and b are both factors of the products c.

Example 5.3.1 Factorize the following expressions completely;

(i) x2 − 4

(ii) 3k 2 x2 + 9k 3

(iii) 3x2 + 6x + 3

(iv) x2 − x − 6.

Solution.

(i) Here
x2 − 4 = x2 − 22 = x − 2 x + 2 .

Page 29 of 336
(ii) Since,

3k 2 x2 + 9k 3 x = 3k 2 x x + 3k 2 x 3k

= 3k 2 x x + 3k .

We factored 3k 2 x because it was common in both terms.

(iii) For 3x2 + 6x + 3. Let us first re-write the expression in form of

ax2 + bx + c,

where a, bandc are real constants. Then we find the product given by P = ac
and sum given by S = b. And then we look for factors say r and k denoted
F = r, k such that
r · k = Product
and
r + k = Sum.
Now , from
3x3 + 6x + 3
We have;

P =a·c=3·3=9
S=b=6
F = r, k = 3, 3.

Therefore,

3x2 + 6x + 3 = 3x2 + 3x + 3x + 3


= 3x x + 1 + 3(x + 1)



= 3x + 3 x + 1



=3 x+1 x+1

2
=3 x+1 .

(iv) Here, from x2 − x − 6, we have

P = 1 × (−6) = −6
S = −1
F = −3, 2.

Therefore,

x2 − x − 6 = x2 − 3x − 2x − 6



=x x−3 +2 x−3



= x+2 x−3 .

Page 30 of 336
Exercise 5.3.2

(1) Factor the following expressions completely;

(i) 3x2 y − 9x3y 3

(ii) 5x2 + 25x + 30
(iii) 10xy + 5xz
(iv) t2 − 18t + 72
(v) 9y 2 − 18y + 8
(vi) x2 + 2x − 24
(vii) x2 + 2x − 24.

(2) Use long and synthetic division to divide the following;

(i) x3 by x + 2
(ii) 6x2 + 8x + 1 by 2x + 3
(iii) x3 + x2 + x by x2 − x + 1
(iv) x4 + 3x2 + 2 by x + 1


(v) 3x2 − 2x2 + x − 3 by x + 2 .

5.4 Fractions
5.4.1 Simplifying Fractions.
We can simplify algebraic expressions that are fractions.

Example 5.4.2 Simplify the following algebra expressions

(i)
x2 − x − 6
x2 − 7x + 12
(ii)
2x2 + 6x − 8
8 − 4x − 4x2
Solution.

x2 − x − 6
(i) From , we factorize the numerators and denominators completely,
x2 − 7x + 12
that is;


x2 − x − 6 x−3 x+2 x−2
2
=

= .
x − 7x + 12 x−3 x−4 x−4

Page 31 of 336
 (ii) Similarly,


2x2 + 6x − 8 2 x2 + 3x − 4
=

8 − 4x − 4x2 2 2 − x − x2



2 x−1 x−4
=


4 1−x 2+x



2 x−1 x+4
=


−4 x − 1 2 + x
x−4
=
.
−2 2 + x

5.4.3 Multiplying Fractions

Example 5.4.4 Multiplying the following fractions


x x+3 x x+3
· =

.
x+2 x−5 x+2 x−5

5.4.5 Division of Fractions

Divide,
x x+3 x x−5
÷ = ×
x−2 x−5 x+2 x+
3
x x−5
=

.
x+2 x+3

5.4.6 Rationalizing the Denominator of Two Terms

Sometimes the denominator of a fraction has two terms and involves square roots.

Example 5.4.7 Rationalize the denominator of the following

x
(i) √
2−6
√ √
5− 2
(ii) √ √
5+ 2
Solution

(i) Here,

Page 32 of 336
 √
x x 2+6
√ =√ ·√
2−6 2−6 2+6

√
√

x 2+6 x 2+6
= √
2 =
2 − 62 2 − 36
√

x 2+6
=− .
34
(ii) Similarly,
√ √ √ √ √ √
5− 2 5− 2 5− 2
√ √ =√ √ ·√ √
5+ 2 5+ 2 5− 2
√ √
2
5− 2
= √
2 √
2
5 − 2
√
2 √ √ √
2
5 −2 2 5+ − 2
=
√ 5−2
5 − 2 10 + 2
=
√3
7 − 2 10
= .
3

5.5 Addition and Subtraction of Fractions

5.5.1 Addition of Fractions
Example 5.5.2 Add
x2 − 5 3x + 2
+
x−2 x−2
Solution

x2 − 5 3x + 2 x2 − 5 + 3x + 2
+ =

x−2 x−2 x−2
x2 + 3x − 3
= .
x−2

5.5.3 Subtraction of Fractions

Example 5.5.4 Subtract
x 4
−
3x + 2 x − 1

Page 33 of 336
Solution



x 4 x x − 1 − 4 3x + 2
− =


3x + 2 x − 1 3x + 2 x − 1
x2 − x − 12x − 8
=


3x + 2 x − 1
x2 − 13x − 8
=

.
3x + 2 x − 1

6 Equations
Definition 6.0.1 (Equation) An equation is a statement that two expressions are
equal.
Example 6.0.2 The following are examples of equations
(i) x + 2 = 3
(ii) x2 + 3x + 2 = 0
y
(iii) = 6.
y−4

6.1 Linear Equations

Definition 6.1.1 (Linear Equation) A liner equation in the variable x is an equa-
tion that is equivalent to one that can be written in the form
ax + b = 0
where a, and b are constants and a 6= 0.
Example 6.1.2 Solve the following linear equations
(i) 5x − 6 = 3x
(ii) 2(q + 4) = 7q + 2
7x + 3 9x − 8
(iii) − =6
2 4
Solution.

(i) By collecting the like terms we have

5x − 6 = 3x
=⇒ 5x − 3x = 6
=⇒ 2x = 6
6
=⇒ x = = 3.
2
Page 34 of 336
 (ii) Here,


2 q + 4 = 7q + 2
=⇒ 2q + 8 = 7q + 2
=⇒ 2q − 7q = 2 − 8
=⇒ −5q = −6
6
=⇒ q = .
5

(iii) Here,
7x + 3 9x − 8
− =6
 2 4 
7x + 3 9x − 8
4 − = 4(6)
2 4



=⇒ 2 7x + 3 − 9x − 8 = 24
=⇒ 14x + 6 − 9x + 8 = 24
=⇒ 5x + 14 = 24
=⇒ 5x = 24 − 14
=⇒ 5x = 10
10
=⇒ x =
5
=⇒ x = 2.

6.2 Fractional Equations

A fractional equation is an equation in which an unknown variable(s) is in a denom-
inator.
5 6
Example 6.2.1 Solve = .
x−4 x−3
Solution.
We first write the equation in a form that is free from

fractions.

Multiplying through
by the lowest common denominator (LCD) x − 4 x − 3 , we have;

   


5 6


x−4 x−3 = x−4 x−3
x−3 x−3



=⇒ 5 x − 3 = 6 x − 4
=⇒ 5x − 15 = 6x − 24
=⇒ 5x − 6x = −24 + 15
=⇒ −x = −9
=⇒ x = 9.

Page 35 of 336
6.3 Radical Equations
A radical equation is one in which an unknown variable occurs in a radicand.

Example 6.3.1 Solve the following radical equations

√
(i) x2 + 33 − x = 3
p √
(ii) y − 3 − y = −3.

Solution

(i) Here,
√
x2 + 33 − x∗ = 3
√
=⇒ x2 + 33 = x + 3 (24)

squaring both sides Equation (24) we get;

2
√


2
x2 + 33 = x+3

x2 + 33 = x2 + 6x + 9
=⇒ x2 − x2 + 33 = 6x + 9
=⇒ 6x = 24
=⇒ x = 4.

Therefore, the solution set is {x ∈ R|x = 4}.

(ii) When an equation has two terms involving radicals, first re-write the equation
so that one radical is on each side. Then square both sides and solve for the
unknown variable. That is;
p √
y − 3 − y = −3
p √
y−3= y−3
 2  2
p √
y−3 = y−3
 2
√ √
y−3= y − (3)(2) y + (−3)2
√
y−3=y−6 y+9
√
y 12
=
6 6
√
y=2 (25)

On squaring on both sides of Equation (25) we get;

Page 36 of 336
  2
√
y = 22

=⇒ y = 4.
(Checking!!!) Substituting y = 4 into the left hand side of the original equation
we have;
p √ √ √
y−3− y = 4−3− 4
√ √
= 1− 4
=1−2
= −1.
Since the left hand side does not equal the right hand side −3, then there is no
solution. That is the solution set is {} or ∅.
Exercise 6.3.2 Solve the following equations
(i) 4x = 10
√
(ii) 3 x + 2 = 11
5x 6
(iii) − = 2 − 4x
7 7
x+2 2−x
(iv) − =x−2
3 6
1 2
(v) =
q−1 q−2
2t + 1 3t − 1
(vi) =
2t + 3 3t + 4
x+2 x+1
(vii) + =0
x−1 3−x
2x − 3
(viii) =6
4x − 5
t t t
(ix) t + − + = 10
3 4 36

6.4 Quadratic Equations

Definition 6.4.1 (Quadratic Equation) A quadratic equation in variable x is an
equation that cab be written in the form

ax2 + bx + c = 0
where a, b and c are constants and a 6= 0.
A quadratic equation is also known as a second degree equation or an equation of
degree two. Since the highest degree occurs in the second.

Page 37 of 336
6.5 Solutions of a Quadratic Equation By Factoring
A useful method of solving quadratic equations is based on factoring.

Example 6.5.1 Solve the quadratic equations by factor method;

(i) x2 + x − 12 = 0

(ii) 6w2 = 5w



(iii) 3x − 4 x + 1 = −2

(iv) 4x − 4x3 = 0

(v) x2 = 3

Solution

(i) Since
x2 + x − 12 = x − 3 x + 4

Then,

x2 + x − 12 = 0



=⇒ x − 3 x + 4 = 0
=⇒ x − 3 = 0 or x + 4 = 0
=⇒ x = 3 or x = −4.

Thus, solution set is {−4, 3}.

Note: Whenever, the product of two or more quantities is zero, at least one of
the quantities must be zero.

(ii) We write the equation 6w2 = 5w as

6w2 − 5w = 0
=⇒ w(6w − 5) = 0
=⇒ w = 0 or 6w − 5 = 0
=⇒ 6w = 5
5
=⇒ w = .
6
 
Therefore, the solution set is 0, 56 .

Page 38 of 336



(iii) For 3x − 4 x + 1 = −2, we write it as



3x − 4 x + 1 + 2 = 0 (26)

Expanding Equation (26), we get;

3x2 + 3x − 4x − 4 + 2 = 0
=⇒ 3x2 − x − 2 = 0
=⇒ (3x + 2)(x − 1) = 0
=⇒ 3x + 2 = 0 or x − 1 = 0
−2
=⇒ x = or x = 1.
3
 
−2
Thus,the solution set is 3 , 1 .

(iv) The equation 4x − 4x3 = 0 is called the third degree equation. Thus, we proceed
as follows;

4x − 4x3 = 0
4x 1 − x2 = 0

But
1 − x2 = 1 − x 1 + x

Therefore, it follows that;

4x 1 − x 1 + x = 0
=⇒ 4x = 0 or 1 − x = 0 or 1 + x = 0
=⇒ x = 0 or x = 1 or x = −1.

And so the solution set is {−1, 0, 1}.

(v) Since,

x2 = 3
x2 − 3 = 0
√
√

=⇒ x − 3 x + 3 = 0
√ √
=⇒ x − 3 = 0 or x + 3 = 0
√ √
=⇒ x = 3 or x = − 3.

5
√
A general form of the equation x2 = 3 is u2 = k, we can show that if u2 = k, then u = ± k.

Page 39 of 336
6.6 Quadratic Formula
Theorem 6.6.1 (Quadratic Formula) The roots of a quadratic equation

ax2 + bx + c = 0

where a, b and c are constants and a 6= 0 are given by

√
−b ± b2 − 4ac
x= .
2a
Proof. Re-writing the quadratic equation in the form
b c
x2 + x + = 0
a a
b c
=⇒ x2 + x = − .
a a
Adding half square of the coefficient of x on both sides we get;

 2  2
2 b b b c
x + x+ = −
a 2a 2a a
 2 2
b b 4ac
x+ = 2− 2
2a 4a 4a
2
b2 − 4ac

b
x+ =
2a 4a2
r
b b2 − 4ac
=⇒ x + =± 2
2a 4a
r
b b2 − 4ac
x=− ±
2a √ 4a2
−b ± b2 − 4ac
∴x= .
2a
Example 6.6.2 (A quadratic Equation with Two Distinct Roots) Solve

4x2 − 17x + 15 = 0

by the quadratic formula.

Solution.
Here a = 4, b = −17 and c = 15. Thus substitutiong into the quadratic formula, we

Page 40 of 336
get;
√
−b ± b2 − 4ac
x=
2a p
−(−17) ± (−17)2 − 4(4)(15)
=
2(4)
√
17 ± 49
=
8
17 ± 7
= .
8
The roots are ;
17 + 7 10 5
x= = =
8 8 4
or
17 + 7 24
x= = =3
8 8
5
Thus, the solution set is { , 3}.
4
Example 6.6.3 (A Quadratic Equation with one Real Root ) Solve
√
2 + 6 2 y + 9y 2 = 0
by the quadratic formula.

Solution.
Re-arranging the terms, we have;
√
9y 2 + 6 2 y + 2 = 0.
√
Then a = 9, b = 6 2 and c = 2. Thus,

√
−b ± b2 − 4ac
y=
2aq
√ √
−6 2 ± (6 2)2 − 4(9)(2)
=
2(9)
√ √
−6 2 ± 72 − 72
=
√ 18
−6 2 − 0
=
√18
−6 2
=
18
√
2
∴y=− .
3

Page 41 of 336
 2
Thus, the only root − .
3
Example 6.6.4 (A Quadratic Equation with No Real Solution) Solve

z2 + z + 1 = 0

by the quadratic formula.

Solution.
Here, a = 1, b = 1 and b = 1. The roots are;
√ √
−b ± b2 − 4ac −1 ± −3
z= = .
2a 2
√
Now, −3 denotes the number whose square is −3. However, no such real number
exists. Since the square of any number is non-negative. Thus, the equation
√ has no
−1 ± i 3
real roots.Therefore, the equation has complex roots of the form , where
√ 2
i = −1. And they are not discussed in this course.

6.7 Quadratic Form Equation

Sometimes an equation that is not quadratic can be transformed into a quadratic
equation by an appropriate substitution. In this case, the given equation is said to
have quadratic form.

Example 6.7.1 (Quadratic Form Equation) Solve the quadratic form equation
1 9
6
+ 2 + 8 = 0.
x x
Solution
The equation can be written as
 2  
1 1
+9 3 +8=0 (27)
x3 x
1
Let w = . Then it follows that;
x3
w2 + 9w + 8 = 0



=⇒ w + 8 w + 1 = 0
=⇒ w = −8 or w = −1

Returning back to the variable x, we have

1 1
= −8 or = −1
x3 x3
Page 42 of 336
So that
1
=⇒ x3 = − or x3 = −1
r8
3 1
√
=⇒ x = or x = 3 −1
8
1
=⇒ x = − or x = −1.
2
 
1
Thus,the solution set − , −1 .
2

Exercise 6.7.2

(1) Solve by factoring (factor method) the following quadratic equations.

(i) x2 − 4x + 4 = 0
(ii) t2 + 3t + 2 = 0

2
3
(iii) p − 3 − 4 p − 3 = 0
(iv) −x2 + 3x + 10 = 0

(2) Find all real roots by using the quadratic formula.

(i) 16x2 − 40 + 25 = 0
(ii) 4x2 + 5x − 2 = 0
(iii) u2 − u = 1
(iv) w2 − 2w + 1 = 0

2
2
(v) w − 3 w − 1 = 0.

6.8 Finding Rational Solutions

Theorem 6.8.1 (Rational Root Theorem) Consider the polynomial equation of
the form
an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a1 x1 + a0 = 0
p
where the coefficients a0 , a1 , a2 , . . . , an are integers. If the rational number reduces
q
to lowest terms, is a solution of the equation, then p is a factor of the constant term
ao , and q is a factor of the leading coefficient an .

Example 6.8.2 Find all the rational solutions of the polynomial equation

3x3 + 8x2 − 15x + 4 = 0

.
Solution

Page 43 of 336
 p
We know that, if is a rational solution of the polynomial equation, the p must be a
q
factor of 4 and q must be a factor of 3. Therefore, the possible values for p and q are
p
as follows: For p : ±1, ±2, ±4 and for q : ±1, ±3. Thus, the possible values for are
q
1 2 4
±1, ± , ± , ±4, ±
3 3 3
By using synthetic division, we can test x − 1 is a factor of the polynomial equation.
That is

and so x − 1 is factor of the polynomial 3x3 + 8x2 − 15x + 4 = 0. Hence, 1, is a

rational solution of the equation.
From the above synthetic division, we have 3x3 + 8x2 − 15x + 4 = 0 factorises to
(x − 1)(3x2 + 11x − 4) = 0
Using the factor method, we can factorise the quadratic equation (3x2 + 11x − 4) = 0
and get factors as (3x − 1)(x + 4) = 0. Therefore, the polynomial equation
3x3 + 8x2 − 15x + 4 = 0
is equivalent to
(x − 1)(3x − 1)(x + 4) = 0.
Thus, the roots are (x − 1) = 0 or (3x − 1) = 0 or (x + 4) = 0.
1
⇒ x = 1 or x = or x = −4.
3

Hence, the polynomial equation has a rational solution set {1, 13 , −4}.

6.9 Application of Equations (Modeling)

To solve practical problems you must be able to translate the relationships stated in
the problems into mathematical symbols. This is called mathematical modeling.

Example 6.9.1 A student must prepare 350ml of chemical solution made up of two
parts of alcohol and three parts of acid. How much of each should be used?

Solution.
Let x be the number of millilitres in each part. The problem can be interpreted graph-
ically as

Page 44 of 336
 Figure 2: Chemical Solution

Thus, from Figure 2 above, we have;

2x + 3x = 350
=⇒ 5x = 350
=⇒ x = 70.

But this is not the required answer. Thus, the amount of acid required is
Acid: 3x = 3(70) = 210ml and that of Alcohol is;
Alcohol: 2x = 2(70) = 140ml.

Let us first look at some business terms relative to a manufacturing firm, before we
look at the next examples.

Definition 6.9.2 (Fixed cost) Fixed cost (FC) is the sum of all costs that are in-
dependent of the level of production such as rent, insurance, and so on. This cost
must be paid whether or not output is produced.

Definition 6.9.3 (Total Cost) The total cost is the sum of the variable costs and
fixed cost and is given by

Total cost (TC) = variable cost (VC) + fixed cost (FC)

Definition 6.9.4 (Total Revenue) Total revenue is the money that the manufac-
ture receives for selling the outputs and is given by

Total revenue(TR) = (Price per unit)(Number of units sold)

Definition 6.9.5 (Profit) Profit is defined as the total revenue minus total cost .
That is
Profit(π) = total revenue (TR) − total cost (TC)

In business, we denote the number of units by q.

Page 45 of 336
Example 6.9.6 A certain company produces a product for which the variable cost
per unit is k6 and fixed cost is k80, 000. Each unit has a selling price of k10. Deter-
mine the number of units that must be sold for the company to earn a profit of k60, 000.

Solution
Let q be the units sold by the company, then the variable cost in kwacha is 6q. And
the total cost is

T C = V C + F C = 6q + 80, 000
The total revenue from the sales of q units is T R = 10q. Thus,

P rof it = T R − T C
60, 000 = 10q − (6q + 80, 000)
60, 000 = 10q − 6q − 80, 000
=⇒ 4q = 140, 000
=⇒ q = 35, 000.

Thus, q = 35, 000 units must be sold to earn a profit of k60, 000.

Example 6.9.7 A total of k10, 000 was invested in two business ventures, A and B.
At the end of the first year, A and B yielded returns of 6% and 5 43 % respectively, on
the original investments. How was the original amount allocated if the total amount
earned was k588.75?

Solution.
Let x be the amount (in kwacha) invested at 6% of project A. Then the amount in-
vested in project B is 10, 000 − x at 5 44 %. Then the interest earned from project A
was (0.06)(x). And that of the project B was (0.0575)(10, 000 − x) with a total of
588.75. Therefore,

(0.06)(x) + (0.0575)(10, 000 − x) = 588.75

0.06x + 575 − 0.0575x = 588.75
0.0025x = 13 · 75
=⇒ x = 5500.

Therefore, k5, 500 was invested in project A at 6% and k10, 000 − k5, 500 = k4500
was invested in project B at 5 43 %.

Example 6.9.8 A real estate firm in Kitwe owns the parkland Mukuba apartments,
which consists of 96 apartments. At k550 per month, every apartment can be rented.
However,for each k25 per month increase, there will be three vacancies with no possi-
bility of filling then. The firm wants to receive k54, 600 per month from rents. What
rent should be charged for each apartment?

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Solution.
Suppose x denotes the number of k25 increase in rent. Then the increase in rent per
apartment will be 25x and there will be 3x vacancies.

Now since total rent is given by

Total rent= (Rent per apartment)(Number of apartments rented )

Then it follows that

54, 000 = (550 + 25x)(96 − 3x)

54, 600 = 52, 800 + 750x − 75x2
=⇒75x2 − 750x + 1800 = 0
=⇒x2 − 10x + 24 = 0
(x − 6)(x − 4) = 0.

Thus, x = 6 or x = 4. Therefore, the rent charged should be either

550 + 25(6) = k700

or
550 + 25(4) = k650.

Page 47 of 336
7 Inequalities
7.1 Linear Inequalities
Definition 7.1.1 (Inequality) An inequality is any statement that one quantity is
less than (<), or greater than (>), or less than or equal to (≤), or greater than or
equal to (≥), another quantity.

7.2 Rules for Inequalities

(i) If a < b, then a + c < b + c and a − c < b − c for all a, b, c ∈ R.
a
(ii) For all a, b, cR. If a < b and c > 0, then ac < bc and c
< cb .
a
(iii) For all a, b, cR, if a < b and c < 0, then a(c) > b(c) and c
> cb .

(iv) For all a, b, cR. If a < b and a = c, then c < b.

Definition 7.2.1 (Linear Inequality) A linear inequality in the variable x is an

inequality that can be written in the form

ax + b < 0
Where a, and b are constants and a 6= 0.

Note 7.2.2 The inequality can be true for some value of x and false for others. To
solve the inequality involving the variable x, is to find all values of x for which the
inequality is true.

Example 7.2.3 Solve 2(x − 3) < 4

Solution
Since 2(x − 3) < 4, then

2x − 6 < 4
=⇒ 2x < 4 + 6
=⇒ 2x < 10
=⇒ x < 5.

The solution is all real numbers less then 5. In interval notation, we have (−∞, 5),
or set builder notation, the solution is {x ∈ R|x < 5}.

Page 48 of 336
7.3 Open and Closed Interval
The set of all real number x such that a < x < b is called an open interval and is
denoted by (a, b).

Similarly, the set of all real numbers x such that a ≤ x ≤ b is called a closed in-
terval and is denoted by [a, b].

Example 7.3.1 Solve 3 − 2x ≤ 6.

Solution
Here;

3 − 2x ≤ 6
−2x ≤ 6 − 3
−2 3
=⇒ x≤
−2 2
3
=⇒ x ≥ − .
2
In interval notation − 32 , ∞ or set builder notation {x ∈ R|x ≥ − 32 }.


1−t 3t − 7
Example 7.3.2 Solve < .
2 3
Solution

Since
1−t 3t − 7
< ,
2 3
multiplying through by 6 we get;

3(1 − t) < 2(3t − 7)

3 − 3t < 6t − 14
−3t − 6t < 14 − 3
−9t −17
=⇒ <
−9 −9
17
=⇒ t > .
9
 
17
Thus, the solution in interval notation is , ∞ . And in set builder notation, we
9
have
17
{t ∈ R|t > }
9

Page 49 of 336
7.4 Applications of Inequalities
Example 7.4.1 Consider company X that manufactures metals, the combined cost
for labor and materials is k21 per metal. Fixed cost (costs incurred in a given period,
regardless of output) are k70, 000. If the selling price of a metal is k35, how many
metals must be sold for the company to earn profit?
Solution.
Recall that

Profit=total revenue − total cost

Thus, we will find total revenue and total cost and then determine when their differ-
ence is positive.

So let q denote the number of metals that must sold. Then their cost is 21q. the
total revenue from the sales of q metals is T R = 35q. And the total cost is T C =
21q + 70, 000. Now we want profit to be greater than 0, that is profit > 0, So

total revenue − total cost > 0

35q − (21q + 70, 000) > 0

35q − 21q − 70, 000 > 0
14q 70, 000
>
14 14
=⇒ q > 5000.

And so the company must sell at least 5001 for it to make a profit.

Example 7.4.2 A builder must decide whether to rent or buy an excavating machine.
If he were to rent the machine, the rental fee would be k3, 000 per month (on a yearly
basis) and the daily cost (gas, oil, and driver) would be k180 for each day the ma-
chine is used. If he were to buy it, his fixed annual cost would be k20, 000, and daily
operating and maintenance costs would k230 for each day the machine is used. What
is the least number of days each year that the builder would have to use the machine
to justify renting it rather than buying it?

Solution
We will first determine expressions for the annual cost of renting and the annual cost
of purchasing. We then find when the cost of renting is less than that of purchasing.

So let d denote the number of days each year that the machine is used

Case 1: When the machine is rented;

Page 50 of 336
If the machine is rented, then the total annual cost is 12 × 3000 and daily charges of
180d

Case 2: When the machine is purchased.

when the machine is purchased, the cost per year is 20, 000 + 230d.
But we want;
Cost rent < Cost Purchase.
Therefore,
(12)(3000) + 180d < 20, 000 + 230d
=⇒ 36, 000 + 180d < 20, 000 + 230d
16, 000 50d
<
50 50
=⇒ d > 320.
Thus, the builder must use the machine at least 321 days to justify renting it.

7.5 Absolute Value Equations

Definition 7.5.1 (Absolute Value) The absolute-value of a real number x written
|x|, is defined by
(
x; if x ≥ 0
|x| =
−x; if x < 0.
Example 7.5.2 Evaluate by applying the definition;
(i) | − 5| = −(−5) = 5.
(ii) −| − 2| = −[−(−2)] = −(2) = −2.
(iii) |7| = 7.
Example 7.5.3 Solve the following absolute valued equations
(i) |x − 3| = 2 (ii) |7 − 3x| = 5 (iii) |x − 4| = −3.

Solution

(i) Here,
|x − 3| = 2
=⇒ x − 3 = 2 or x − 3 = −2
=⇒ x = 3 + 2 or x = −2 + 3
=⇒ x = 5 or x = 1.

Solution set 1, 5 .

Page 51 of 336
 (ii) Here, |7 − 3x| = 5 means,

7 − 3x = 5 or 7 − 3x = −5
=⇒ −3x = 5 − 7 or − 3x = −5 − 7
=⇒ −3x = −2 or − 3x = −12
2
=⇒ x = or x = 4.
3
Solution set { 32 , 4}.

(iii) For |x − 4| = −3, Since the absolute value of a number is never negative, then
the solution set is ∅ or {}.

7.5.4 Absolute Value Inequalities

The solutions to absolute value inequalities are given by

Inequality (d > 0) Solution

|x| < d −d < x < d
|x| ≤ d −d ≤ x ≤ d
|x| > d x < −d or x > d
|x| ≥ d x ≤ −d or x ≥ d

Example 7.5.5 Solve the following absolute value inequalities

(i) |x − 2| < 4 (ii) |3 − 2x| ≤ 5 (iii) |x + 5| ≥ 7

(iv) |3x − 4| > 1

Solution
(i) |x − 2| < 4, then
−4<x−2<4
−4+2<x<4+2
−2<x<6
Thus, the solution is an open interval (−2, 6)
(ii) Here 13 − 2x| ≤ 5
=⇒ −5 ≤ 3 − 2x ≤ 5
− 3 − 5 ≤ −2x ≤ 5 − 3
− 8 ≤ −2x ≤ 2 (dividing through by -2)
4 ≥ x ≥ −1
=⇒ −1 ≤ x ≤ 4
The solution is the closed interval [−1, 4]

(iii) Since |x − 5| ≥ 7, then

− (x + 5) ≥ 7 or X + 5 ≥ 7
x+ ≤ −7 − 5 or x + 5 ≥ 7

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 x ≤ −7 − 5 or x ≥ 7 − 5
x ≤ −12 or x ≥ 2
The solution is (−∞, 12] ∪ [2, ∞).

(iv) From |3x − 4| > 1 we have

− (3x − 4) > 1 or 3x − 4 > 1

=⇒ 3x − 4 < −1 or 3x − 4 > 1
3x < −1 + 4 or 3x > 1 + 4
3x < 3 or x > 35
=⇒ x < 1  or x > 53
Solution is − ∞, 1 ∪ 53 , ∞ .

7.6 Quadratic Inequalities

We know that ax2 + bx + c = 0, where a 6= 0 is a quadratic equation, but
ax2 + bx + c < 0 is called a quadratic inequality, and the other forms of quadratic
equations are obtained by replacing the operation < by >, ≤, ≥. We use the method
of factorization of a quadratic expression to solve the quadratic inequality. That is if
ax2 +bx+c < 0 is a quadratic inequality, the by factoring, we have (px+k)(qx+r) < 0.
Here we need to first to set (px + k)(qx + r) = 0 and solve for x-critical values, then
plot these values on the real line. These critical values divide the real line into three
intervals. We demonstrate the solution of the quadratic inequality in the following
example.
Example 7.6.1 Solve the following quadratic inequalities
(i) (x − 1)(x + 2) < 0

(ii) 3x2 + 5x − 2 ≥ 0
Solution.(To be answered in class)

7.7 Quotient and Absolute Quotient Inequalities

f (x)
An inequality of the form < 0, where g(x) 6= 0 is called a quotient inequality,and
g(x)
the method of solving a quotient inequality is the same as that of the quadratic
inequality.
Example 7.7.1 Solve the following quotient inequalities;
x+5
(i) <0
x−2
x−1
(ii) ≤2
x+2

Page 53 of 336
 x+1 x+2
(iii) >
x−1 x−2
2x + 1
(iv) <4
x−2
x+1
(v) ≤3
x−2
Solution.(To be answered in class)

Page 54 of 336
8 Relations and Functions
8.1 Relations
Definition 8.1.1 (Relation) For sets A and B, a relation between A and B is any
subset of the Cartesian product A × B. In the case where A = B, we speak of R being
a relation in A.

Remark 8.1.2 Since A × B and B × A are not generally the same sets
(i.e A×B 6= B×A), a relation between A and B maybe quite a different mathematical
object from a relation between B and A.

8.1.3 Types of Relations

There are basically four types of relations, namely;

(i) One-to-one Correspondence: In one-to-one correspondence, every element

of set A corresponds to only one element in set B. Let A = {0, 1, 2} and
B = {3, 4, 5}, then graphically we have;

Figure 3: One-to-one correspondence

From Figure 3, we can define a rule that relates elements of set A to elements
of set B as y = x + 3.
6

6
A relation is simply a rule that shows how elements of set A are related to elements of set B.

Page 55 of 336
(ii) One-to-many relation: In one-to-many, one element from set A relates to
many elements in set B. Let A = {4, 9, 16} and B = {−2, 2, 3, 4}, graphically;

Figure 4: One-to-many relation

From Figure 4, a relation between A and B is ”a square of”.

(iii) Many-to-one relation: In many-to-one relation, two elements from set A

relates to one element in set B. Let A = {−1, 1, 2} and B = {1, 4}, then we
can show this graphically as;

Figure 5: Many-to-one relation

From Figure 5, a relation between elements of set A and elements of set B is

”a square-root of”.

Page 56 of 336
 (iv) Many-to-many relation: In many-to-many relation, elements from both sets
A and B relates to at least two elements. Let A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {4, 6, 9},
then a graphical representation of many-to-many is as follows;

Figure 6: Many-to-many relation

The relation between the elements of set A and set B from Figure 6 above is
”a factor of”.

8.2 Functions
We will now use the letters X, Y, Z, . . . to denote sets.

Definition 8.2.1 (Function) Let X and Y be sets. Then a function f from set X
to set Y is a rule that assigns each element x ∈ X one and only one element y ∈ Y .
The set X is called the domain of f and the set Y (the set of all images) is called the
range of the function f .

We denote a function f from set X to set Y by

f :X −→ Y
x 7→ f (x) = y ∈ Y, ∀x ∈ X.

Note 8.2.2 (i) In a function f : X −→ Y , each object (element) x ∈ X is mapped

to exactly only one image y ∈ Y

(ii) Here X =Domain and Y =Co-domain

(iii) The set of all actual images, is a subset of Y and is called the Range

(iv) Only one-to-one relation and many-to-one relations can be functions

7

7
A function is a relation with special characteristics.

Page 57 of 336
Example 8.2.3 Four first year students namely, Kelvin, Brenda, Nancy and David
are given a Mathematics test which is marked out of 5. Their marks are shown
graphically below;

Figure 7: Marks allocation

Note 8.2.4 From Figure 7 above,

(i) Elements in the first set X are known as objects and elements in the second set
Y are called images.

(ii) Each object in X of a function must be assigned to only one image in Y .

(iii) The first set X is known as the domain and the second set B is called the
co-domain.

(iv) The set of actual images of the objects is known as the range.

Therefore, from Figure 7, we have;

Domain = {Kelvin,Brenda,Nancy,David}
Co-domain = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
Range = {2, 3, 5}

Remark 8.2.5 The range is always a subset of the co-domain. i.e. Range ⊆ Co-domain.
8

8
If R is the relation between two sets X and Y , then
(i) domain(R) ⊆ X, range(R) ⊆ Y and R ⊆ domain(R) × range(R).
(ii) it may happen that domain(R) = X, then R is called a relation from X into Y .

Page 58 of 336
8.2.6 Testing for Function By Graphical
Example 8.2.7 (Testing for Functions) Let X = {a, b, c} and Y = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}.
Which of the following ordered pairs represents a function from set X to set Y ? Define
the ordered pairs as follows;

(i) {(a, 2), (b, 3), (c, 4)} (ii) {(a, 4), (b, 5)} (iii) {(a, 1), (b, 1), (c, 3)}

(iv) {(a, 1), (a, 2), (b, 3), (c, 5)}

Solution
Here we determine functions graphically. Since;

(i) The graphical representation of ordered pairs in {(a, 2), (b, 3), (c, 4)} is

Figure 8: Is a function

From Figure 8, we see that this is a one-to-one function also known as an

injection function, with

Domain = {a, b, c}
Co-domain = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
Range = {2, 3, 4}
9

9
A one-to-one function is also known as an injective function. This will be discussed further in
the later sections.

Page 59 of 336
(ii) The graphical representation of ordered pairs in {(a, 4), (b, 5)} is

Figure 9: Not a function

From Figure 9, we see that an element c ∈ X has no image in Y . Hence, this

is not a function.

(iii) The graphical representation of ordered pairs in {(a, 1), (b, 1), (c, 3)} is

Figure 10: Is a function

We notice from Figure 10 that this is a many-to-one function. Hence, it is a

function. 10

10
A many-to-one is a function, but a one-to-many is not a function.

Page 60 of 336
(iv) The graphical representation of ordered pairs in {(a, 1), (a, 2), (b, 3), (c, 5)} is

Figure 11: Not a function

From Figure 11, since an element a ∈ X has more than one image in Y , then
this is not a function.

8.2.8 Testing for Function By Equation

One can also test for a function by solving an equation y = f (x) for y in terms of x
as follows;

Example 8.2.9 Which of the following equations represents y as a function of x;

(i) x2 + y = 1 (ii) −x + y 2 = 1

Solution

(i) Let f : X −→ Y be a function defined by x2 + y = 1. Then solving for y in

terms of x, we have;
y = 1 − x2 .
And so f (x) = 1 − x2 is a function since every element x ∈ X maps to one
y ∈Y.

(ii) Let f : X −→ Y be a function defined by −x + y 2 = 1, then solving for y in

terms of x we have;
√
y 2 = 1 + x =⇒ y = ± 1 + x.
√
Since every element x ∈ X maps to two elements ±y ∈ Y , then f (x) = ± 1 + x
is not a function.

Page 61 of 336
8.2.10 The Vertical Line Test For Functions
Let y = f (x) represent the curve (or graph) of a function. Then if we draw a vertical
line and the line intersects the graph of f (x) in atmost one point, then the function
represented by the curve y = f (x) is a function. Otherwise, if the vertical line
intersects the curve y = f (x) in at least two points, then the curve y = f (x) is not a
function.

Example 8.2.11 The set of ordered pairs R = {(x, y)|x, y ∈ R|x2 + y 2 = 25} is a
relation in R, but not a function.

Solution
Since x2 + y 2 = 25 is the equation of a circle with radius 5 centred at the origin, by
the Vertical Line Test, the line must intersect the graph of x2 + y 2 = 25 in at most
one point, which is not the case here.

Figure 12: Not a function

√ 12, we see that if we define a real-valued function f : X −→ Y by

From Figure
f (x) = ± 52 − x2 for every element x ∈ X. Then each element x ∈ X will map to
two elements y ∈ Y . Hence, f (x) is not a function.
11

11
The set of ordered pairs R = {(x, y)|x, y ∈ R|x2 + y 2 = a2 } is a relation in R, but not a function.

Page 62 of 336
Example 8.2.12 Let f : X −→ Y be defined by f (x) = x2 . Determine whether f (x)
is a function by using the vertical line test.

Solution We first sketch the curve of y = x2 ;

Figure 13: Is a function

Clearly, from Figure 13, we see that every element x ∈ X maps to only one element
y ∈ Y since the vertical line test cuts the curve of y = x2 in at-most one point. Hence,
f (x) = x2 is a function.
12

Note 8.2.13 We use lower case letters to denote names of functions. For example
f and g may be used to name functions specified by equations y = 2x + 1 and
y = x2 + 2x − 3 as f (x) = 2x + 1 and g(x) = x2 + 2x − 3 respectively.

Example 8.2.14 Let f (x) = 2x + 1 and g(x) = x2 + 2x − 3 be functions. Evaluate;

(i) f (3) (ii) f (−3) (iii) g(−2)
12

(i) A function is a relation from X into Y in which each x ∈ X is related to exactly one y ∈ Y .
(ii) y is called the functional value or image of x under f , denoted f (x).
(iii) f (x) is the unique second component of f having x as first component.
(iv) f = {(x, f (x))|x ∈ X}.
(v) To convey the information that f is a function from X into Y , we write f : X −→ Y ; in
particular this signifies that domain(f ) = X.
(vi) For most functions f : X −→ Y it is not the case that range(f ) = Y . And this will lead to
the definition of Surjectivity (onto).

Page 63 of 336
Solution

(i) Since f (x) = 2x + 1, substituting x = 3, we have;

f (3) = 2(3) + 1
=6+1
= 7.

(ii) Similarly, since f (x) = 2x + 1, we substitute x = −3, so that;

f (−3) = 2(−3) + 1
= −6 + 1
= −5.

(iii) Given g(x) = x2 + 2x − 3, then substituting x = −2, we have;

g(−2) = (−2)2 + 2(−2) − 3

=4−4−3
= −3.

8.2.15 A Piecewise Function

Definition 8.2.16 (Piecewise Function) A piecewise function is a function that
is defined on a sequence of intervals. For example;
(
x for x ≥ 0
f (x) = |x| =
−x for x < 0.

Example 8.2.17 Given that

(
2x + 1 for x ≥ 0
f (x) =
3x − 1 for x < 0.

Find

(i) f (2), (ii) f (0) (iii) f (−3).

Page 64 of 336
Solution
The graph of f (x) is;

Figure 14: Piecewise function

(i) To find f (2), we consider the function defined on x ≥ 0. That is;

since x = 2 > 0, then we can use the function; f (x) = 2x + 1. Substituting
x = 2, we get
f (2) = 2(2) + 1 = 5.

(ii) Similarly, substituting x = 0, we get;

f (0) = 2(0) + 1 = 1.

(iii) Here the value x = −3 < 0, thus, we use the function defined for all x < 0, i.e.
f (x) = 3x − 1. Substituting x = −3, we get;

f (−3) = 3(−3) + 1 = −9 − 1 = −10.

f (x + h) − f (x)
Example 8.2.18 Find for each function below;
h
1
(i) f (x) = 3x + 1 (ii) f (x) = .
x
Solution

(i) Given that f (x) = 3x + 1. We find f (x + h), that is

f (x + h) = 3(x + h) + 1.

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 Therefore,
f (x + h) − f (x) 3(x + h) + 1 − (3x + 1)
=
h h
3h
= = 3.
h
1
(ii) Given f (x) = . We first find f (x + h), that is;
x
1
f (x + h) = .
x+h
Therefore,
1 1
f (x + h) − f (x) −
= x+h x
h  h 
1 1
= − ÷h
x+h x
 
x−x−h
= ÷h
x(x + h)
 
−h 1
= ×
x(x + h) h
−1
= .
x(x + h)

8.2.19 The Domain And Range of a Function

The domain and range of a function are generally suppose to be the set of real numbers
R = (−∞, +∞). However, depending on the particular function being considered,
some real numbers may be excluded from the set R to give us a domain or range as
the given function is not defined for those values. 13
Example 8.2.20 Find the domain and the range of each of the following functions.
1 √ √
(i) f (x) = 3x + 2 (ii) f (x) = 2 (iii) f (x) = x − 1 (iv) f (x) = 4 − x2
x −9
Solution
(i) Since the function f (x) = 3x + 1 is defined fo all real numbers, then the domain
and range of the function is the set of all real numbers, that is;

Domain = R

and
Range = R.
13
Domain of f , are all x−values in R for which the function is defined, and range are all y−values
in R for which the function is defined on.

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 1
(ii) For the function f (x) = , we set the denominator to zero, and find the
x2 −9
x-critical values as;

x2 − 9 = 0
=⇒ (x − 3)(x + 3) = 0
=⇒ x = 3 or x = −3.

Thus, the function f is defined for all real values of x ∈ R\{−, 3, 3} except
−3 and 3. Hence, the domain is {x ∈ R|x 6= −3 & x 6= 3} And the range is
obtained by setting f (x) = y and solving for x in terms of y as;
1
y=
x2 −9
1
=⇒ x2 − 9 =
y
1
=⇒ x2 = 9 +
y
r
9y + 1
=⇒ x = ± .
y
Therefore, the range is the set of all real numbers except y = 0. That is

Range = {y ∈ R|y 6= 0}.

√ √
(iii) For the function f (x) =√ x − 1. We know that the function f (x) = x has
real roots if and only if x ≥ 0 if and only if x ≥ 0. Thus,
√
x−1≥0
=⇒ x − 1 ≥ 0
=⇒ x ≥ 1.

Hence, the domain is the set of all real numbers greater or equal to one. That
is
Domain := {x ∈ R|x ≥ 1}.
And the range of f is obtained by setting f (x) = y and solve for x in terms of
y as follows;
√
y = x−1
y2 = x − 1
=⇒ x = y 2 + 1.

And clearly, we see that the result is defined for all values of y ∈ R. Thus,

Range := R.

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 (iv) Similarly, the function f has real roots if and only if
√
4 − x2 ≥ 0
=⇒ 4 − x2 ≥ 0
=⇒ (2 − x)(2 + x) ≥ 0.

Factors x < −2 −2 < x < 2 x>2

Pick x = −3 Pick x = 0 Pick x = 3
(2 + x) − + +
(2 − x) + + −
(2 − x)(2 + x) − + −

From that table above, we can clearly see that the domain is {x ∈ R| − 2 ≤ x ≤ 2}.
And the range of f is obtained as follows; Set f (x) = y and solving for x in terms of
y we get;
√
y = 4 − x2
y 2 = 4 − x2
y 2 − 4 = −x2
4 − y 2 = x2
p
=⇒ x = ± 4 − y 2 .
p
Now solving for the values of y when 4 − y 2 ≥ 0 we get;

4 − y2 ≥ 0

(2 − y)(2 + y) ≥ 0
And so the rage of f is;

Range := {y ∈ R| − 2 ≤ y ≤ 2}.

8.3 Types of Functions

Definition 8.3.1 (Injective or One-to-one) A function f : X −→ Y is said to
be one-to-one (injective) if and only if for all x1 , x2 ∈ X with x1 6= x2 , implies that
f (x1 ) 6= f (x2 ), that is distinct elements in the domain have distinct functional values.
Similarly, for all x1 , x2 ∈ X, if f (x1 ) = f (x2 ), then x1 = x2 .

8.3.2 How To Check for One-To-Oneness of a Function

Algebraically
(i) Suppose that x1 , x2 ∈ Domain(f ), x1 6= x2 , show that f (x1 ) 6= f (x2 ) or

(ii) Suppose that f (x1 ) = f (x2 ), show that x1 = x2 for all x1 , x2 ∈ Domain(f ).

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Graphically Using The Horizontal Line Test (HLT)
The function f is one-to-one if and only if every horizontal line intersects the graph
of f in at most one point.
Example 8.3.3 Show whether the following functions are one-to-one or not;
(i) f (x) = 3x − 2 and
(ii) g(x) = x2 on R.
Solution
We are going to solve these problems both graphically and algebraically.
(i) Algebraically; Let f : X −→ Y be a function defined by f (x) = 3x − 2. Then
for all x1 , x2 ∈ X, if f (x1 ) = f (x2 ), we must show that x1 = x2 . Since;
f (x1 ) = f (x2 )
=⇒ 3x1 − 2 = 3x2 − 2
=⇒ 3x1 = 3x2
=⇒ x1 = x2 .
As required. Hence, f is one-to-one.

Graphically; Let us consider the graph of f (x) = 3x − 2 below;

Figure 15:

Clearly, from Figure 15, we can see that the Horizontal line test (HLT) intersects
the graph of f at at-most one point. Hence, the function f is one-to-one.

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 (ii) Algebraically; Let g : R −→ R be a function defined by g(x) = x2 . Then for
x1 , x2 ∈ R, we show that if g(x1 ) = g2 (x), then x1 = x2 . Since;

g(x1 ) = g(x2 )
=⇒ x21 = x22
=⇒ x21 − x22 = 0
=⇒ (x1 − x2 )(x1 + x2 ) = 0.

Here we see that either x1 = x2 or x1 = −x2 . Thus, the function g is not

one-to-one.

Graphically; Consider the graph of g = x2 below;

Figure 16:

Since the Horizontal line test intersects the graph of g in two points, the the
function g is not one-to-one. But notice that if we restrict the domain [0, ∞),
the function g will be a one-to-one function.

Now let f : X −→ Y be a function from set X to set Y as shown graphically below;

Figure 17:

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From Figure 17, the domain, co-domain and range are given by;

Domain := {a, b, c} = X

Co-domain := {1, 2, 3, 4} = Y
Range := {1, 2}.
Note that from Figure 17 the Range(f ) ⊂ Y it is called a proper subset of the co-
domain.

8.3.4 Combinations of Functions

Two functions can be combined together by using the following properties. Let f, g
be functions, then for all x ∈ R, we have;

(i)
(f ± g)(x) = f (x) ± g(x)

(ii)
(f g)(x) = f (x)g(x)

(iii)  
f f (x)
(x) = for g(x) 6= 0.
g g(x)

Example 8.3.5 If f (x) = 3x − 1 and g(x) = x2 + 3x. Find the following combina-
tions;
 
f
(i) (f + g)(x) (ii) (f − g)(x) (iii) (f g)(x) (iv) (x).
g
Solution

(i) Since

(f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x)

= 3x − 1 + x2 + 3x
= x2 + 6x − 1

(ii) Since,

(f − g)(x) = f (x) − g(x)

= (3x − 1) − (x2 + 3x)
= −x2 − 1.

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(iii) Since

(f g)(x) = f (x)g(x)
= (3x − 1)(x2 + 3x)
= 3x3 + 8x2 − 3x.

(iv) Since
 
f f (x)
(x) =
g g(x)
3x − 1
= 2 .
x + 3x

8.3.6 Composite Functions

We can also combine two functions by first applying one function to an input and
then applying the other function to the output of the first. Below is the composite of
f with g.

Figure 18:

Definition 8.3.7 (Composite Function) Let g : X −→ Y and f : Y −→ Z be

functions, then the composite of f with g is the function

f ◦ g : X −→ Z

defined by
(f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x)).
where the domain of f ◦ g is the set of all those x in the domain of g, such that g(x)
is in the domain of f .
√
Example 8.3.8 Let f (x) = x and g(x) = x + 1. Find

(i) (f ◦ g)(x) and (ii) (g ◦ f )(x)

Solution

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 (i) Since,
(f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x))
p
= g(x)
√
= x + 1.

(ii) Since,
(g ◦ f )(x) = g(f (x))
= f (x) + 1
√
= x + 1.

8.3.9 Inverse Function

A function that is one-to-one has an inverse. We denote the inverse of a function f
by f −1 . Below are some examples;
Example 8.3.10 Show that the following functions are one-to-one and find the in-
verse of each function if it is one-to-one.
(i)
f (x) = 3x + 7
(ii)
g(x) = (x − 1)2
Solution

(i) Since f is one-to-one (Check that its one-to-one), then the inverse exists. To
find the inverse of a one-to-one function, we solve the equation y = f (x) for x
in terms of y as;
y = 3x + 7
=⇒ 3x = y − 7
y−7
=⇒ x = .
3
Therefore,
x−7
f −1 (x) = .
3
(ii) The function g(x) = (x − 1)2 is one-to-one (Check!!!) then the inverse exists
and is obtained by letting
y = (x − 1)2
√
=⇒ (x − 1) = y
√
=⇒ x = y + 1.
Therefore, √
g −1 (x) = x + 1.

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9 Graphs
To sketch the graph of any given function, we need to understand the concept of
x-intercept and y-intercept.

Definition 9.0.1 An x-intercept of the graph of an equation in x and y is a point

where the graph intersects the x-axis. A y-intercept is a point where the graph inter-
sects the y-axis.

To find the x-intercepts of the graph of an equation in x and y, we first set y = 0 and
then solve the resulting equation for x. To find the y-intercepts, we first set x = 0
and then solve for y.

Example 9.0.2 Find the x- and the y-intercepts of the graph y = 2x + 3 and sketch
the graph of f ,

Solution
If y = 0, then

0 = 2x + 3
3
=⇒ x = − .
2
 
3
Thus, the x-intercept is − , 0 . And if x = 0, then
2

y = 2(0) + 3 = 3.

And so the y-intercept is (0, 3).

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 Figure 19: Graph of f (x) = 2x + 3.

Example 9.0.3 Determine the intercepts if any of the function s(t) below;
100
s(t) = , for t 6= 0.
t
and sketch the graph of s(t).

Solution
We will label the horizontal axis t and the vertical axis s. Since t can not equal 0, there
is no s-intercept. Thus, the graph has no point corresponding to t = 0. Moreover,
there is no t-intercept, because if s = 0, then the equation
100
0=
t
has no solution. Therefore, considering the table of values below;

t 5 −5 10 −10 20 −20 25 −25

s(t) 20 −20 10 −10 5 −5 4 −4

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 100
Figure 20: Graph of s(t) = .
t

√
Example 9.0.4 Graph the function f : R −→ R given by f (x) = x.

Solution √
Recall that
√ x denotes the primitive square root of x. Thus, for x = 9,
f (9) = 9 = 3, not ±3. Also the domain of f is [0, ∞) because its values are declared
to be real numbers. Let us now consider intercepts. If
√
f (x) = 0 then x = 0 =⇒ x = 0.

Also if x = 0, then f (x) = 0. Thus, the x-intercept and the y-intercept are the same,
that is (0, 0). Making the table of values, we have;
1
x 0 4
1 4 9
1
f (x) 0 2
1 2 3

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 √
Figure 21: Graph of f (x) = x.

Example 9.0.5 Sketch the graph of the absolute-valued function f (x) = |x|

Solution
Here the x and y intercepts are the same point (0, 0). Thus,

Figure 22: Graph of f (x) = |x|

Example 9.0.6 Graph the case-defined function defined by


x
 if 0 ≤ x < 3
f (x) = x − 1 if 3 ≤ x ≤ 5

4 if 5 < x ≤ 7.


Solution
We know that f (x) = x is a linear function, f (x) = x − 1 is also a linear function
passing through point x = 1 (or shifted 1 unit in the x-axis to the right) and the
function f (x) = 4 is a constant function. Therefore, considering the domain of each
function, we have;

Page 77 of 336
 Figure 23:

9.1 Parabolas
In this section we want to look at the graph of a quadratic function. The most general
form of a quadratic function is,

f (x) = ax2 + bx + c

The graphs of quadratic functions are called parabolas. Here are some examples of
parabolas.

Figure 24:

All parabolas are ”∪” shaped and they will have a highest or lowest point that is
called the vertex. Parabolas may open up ”∪” if a > 0 or down ”∩” if a < 0 and may

Page 78 of 336
or may not have x-intercepts and they will always have a single y-intercept. Let’s
take a look at the first form of the parabola.

f (x) = a(x − h)2 + k

We know that if a is positive then the parabola will open up and if a is negative then
the parabola will open down. Secondly, the vertex of the parabola is the point (h, k).
Be very careful with signs when getting the vertex here.

Example 9.1.1 Sketch the graph of each of the following parabolas.

f (x) = 2(x + 3)2 − 8

Solution For the function f (x) = 2(x + 3)2 − 8. First, we need to find the vertex.
We will need to be careful with the signs however. Comparing our equation to the
form above we see that we must have h = −3 and k = −8. Therefore, the vertex is

(−3, −8)

Now let’s find the y-intercept, setting x = 0, we have.

f (0) = 2(0 + 3)2 − 8 = 2(9) − 8 = 10

Thus, y-intercept is (0, 10). Next we get the x-intercepts by setting f (x) = 0 and solve
the following equation.
0 = 2(x + 3)2 − 8
We have;

2(x + 3)2 = 8
(x + 3)2 = 4
√
x + 3 = ± 4 = ±2
x = −3 ± 2
=⇒ x = −1, & x = −5.

Therefore, the x-intercepts are (−1, 0) and (−5, 0). Therefore, the graph of the func-
tion is

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 Figure 25:

We have seen from Example 9.1.1 now of this form of the parabola. However, as
noted earlier most parabolas are not given in that form. So, we need to take a look
at how to graph a parabola that is in the general form of;

f (x) = ax2 + bx + c

If the parabola is in this general form above, then the vertex for a parabola in the
general form is given by;   
b b
− ,f −
2a 2a
Example 9.1.2 Find the x-intercepts, y-intercept and the vertex for the graph of
y = x2 + 2x − 3.

Solution
Setting y = 0, and solving for x gives,

x2 + 2x − 3 = 0
=⇒ (x + 3)(x − 1) = 0
=⇒ x = −3 or x = 1.

Thus, the x-intercepts are (−3, 0) and (1, 0). Similarly, if x = 0, then we have

y = 02 + 2(0) − 3 = −3.

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Thus, (0, −3) is the y-intercept. And the vertex is
  
b b
− ,f − = (−1, −4)
2a 2a
Therefore, the graph of the function is

Figure 26: Graph of f (x) = x2 + 2x − 3.

Example 9.1.3 Sketch the graph of the following parabola

f (x) = −x2 + 8x

Solution. To be done in Class.

Now let us look at how to convert a general form of a quadratic function

f (x) = ax2 + bx + c

into the form of

f (x) = a(x − h)2 + k
We do this using a modified completing the square process. It’s probably best to do
this with an example.
Example 9.1.4 Convert each of the following into the form f (x) = a(x − h)2 + k.
(i) f (x) = 2x2 − 12x + 3

(ii) f (x) = −x2 + 10x − 1

Page 81 of 336
Solution
(i) In order to complete the square of f (x) = 2x2 − 12x + 3 we must have the
coefficient 1 of x2 . Thus factoring it out, we have,
 
2 3
f (x) = 2 x − 6x +
2
Now we take one-half the coefficient of x and square it. However, instead of
adding this to both sides we do the following with it.
 2
6
− = (−3)2 = 9
2
Therefore,  
2 3
f (x) = 2 x − 6x + 9 − 9 +
2
The next step is to factor the first three terms and combine the last two as
follows.  
2 15
f (x) = 2 (x − 3) −
2
As a final step we multiply the 2 back through.
f (x) = 2(x − 3)2 − 15
as required.
(ii) Try this!!!
Example 9.1.5 The demand function for a manufacturer’s product is given by
p = 1000 − 2q
where p is the price (in kwacha) per unit, when q units are demanded, q (per week) by
consumers. Find the level of production that will maximize the manufacturer’s total
revenue and determine this revenue.

Solution. To be done in class.

9.2 Even and Odd Functions

A function can be classified as Even, Odd or Neither. This classification can be
determined graphically or algebraically.
Definition 9.2.1 (Even Function) Let f : X −→ Y be a function, then f (x) is
said to be an even function if for all x ∈ X,
f (−x) = f (x).
Graphically, the function f (x) is said to be an even function if its graph is symmetric
with respect to the y-axis as shown below;

Page 82 of 336
 Figure 27: Even Function

Definition 9.2.2 (Odd Function) Let f : X −→ Y be a function, then f (x) is

said to be an odd function if for all x ∈ X,

f (−x) = −f (x).

Graphically, the function f (x) is said to be an even function if its graph is symmetric
with respect to the origin as shown below;

Figure 28: Odd Function

Page 83 of 336
Example 9.2.3 Algebraically determine whether the following functions are Even,
Odd, or Neither

(i) f (x) = x2 + 4

(ii) f (x) = x3 − 2x

(iii) f (x) = x2 − 3x + 4

Solution To be done in class!!!

9.3 Transformations
9.3.1 Vertical Shifts
The first transformation we’ll look at is a vertical shift.

Definition 9.3.2 (Vertical Shift) Given the graph of f (x) the graph of g(x) =
f (x) + c will be the graph of f (x) shifted up by c units if c is positive and or down by
c units if c is negative.

So, if we can graph f (x) getting the graph of g(x) is fairly easy. Let’s take a look at
a couple of examples.

Example 9.3.3 Using transformations sketch the graph of the following functions.

(i) g(x) = x2 + 3 and

√
(ii) f (x) = x − 5

Solution

(i) In this case we first need to graph x2 (the dotted line on the graph below) and
then pick this up and shift it upwards by 3. Coordinate wise this will mean
adding 3 onto all the y coordinates of points on x2 . Here is the sketch for this
one.

Page 84 of 336
 Figure 29:

√
(ii) Okay, in this case we’re going to be shifting the graph of x (the dotted line
on the graph below) down by 5. Again, from a coordinate
√ standpoint this means
that we subtract 5 from the y coordinates of points on x. Here is this graph.

Figure 30:

9.3.4 Horizontal Shifts

These are fairly simple as well although there is one bit where we need to be careful.

Page 85 of 336
Definition 9.3.5 (Horizontal Shifts) Given the graph of f (x) the graph of g(x) =
f (x + c) will be the graph of f (x) shifted left by c units if c is positive and or right by
c units if c is negative.
Now, we need to be careful here. A positive c shifts a graph in the negative direction
and a negative c shifts a graph in the positive direction. They are exactly opposite
than vertical shifts and it’s easy to flip these around and shift incorrectly if we aren’t
being careful.
Example 9.3.6 Using transformations sketch the graph of the following functions.
(i) h(x) = (x + 2)3 and
√
(ii) g(x) = x − 4
Solution
(i) Okay, with these we need to first identify the ”base” function. That is the
function that’s being shifted. In this case it looks like we are shifting f (x) = x3 .
We can then see that,

h(x) = (x + 2)3 = f (x + 2)

In this case c = 2 and so we’re going to shift the graph of f (x) = x3 (the
dotted line on the graph below) and move it 2 units to the left. This will mean
subtracting 2 from the x coordinates of all the points on f (x) = x3 . Here is the
graph for this problem.

Figure 31:

Page 86 of 336
 √
(ii) In this case it looks like the base function
√ is x and it also looks like c =?4 and
so we will be shifting the graph of x (the dotted line on the graph below) to
the right by 4 units. In terms of coordinates this√will mean that we’re going to
add 4 onto the x coordinate of all the points on x. Here is the sketch for this
function.

Figure 32:

9.3.7 Vertical and Horizontal Shifts

Now we can also combine the two shifts we just got done looking at into a single
problem. If we know the graph of f (x) the graph of g(x) = f (x + c) + k will be the
graph of f (x) shifted left or right by c units depending on the sign of c and up or
down by k units depending on the sign of k. Let’s take a look at a couple of examples.

Example 9.3.8 Use transformation to sketch the graph of each of the following.

(i) f (x) = (x − 2)2 + 4 and

(ii) g(x) = |x + 3| − 5

Solution

(i) In this part it looks like the base function is x2 and it looks like will be shift this
to the right by 2 (since c = −2) and up by 4 (since k = 4). Here is the sketch
of this function.

Page 87 of 336
 Figure 33:

(ii) For this part we will be shifting |x| to the left by 3 (since c = 3) and down 5
(since k = −5). Here is the sketch of this function.

Figure 34:

9.4 Reflections
The final set of transformations that we’re going to be looking at in this section aren’t
shifts, but instead they are called reflections and there are two of them.

9.4.1 Reflection about the x-axis

Definition 9.4.2 Given the graph of f (x) then the graph of g(x) = −f (x) is the
graph of f (x) reflected about the x-axis. This means that the signs on the all the y
coordinates are changed to the opposite sign.

Page 88 of 336
9.4.3 Reflection about the y-axis
Definition 9.4.4 Given the graph of f (x) then the graph of g(x) = f (−x) is the
graph of f (x) reflected about the y-axis. This means that the signs on the all the x
coordinates are changed to the opposite sign.

Example 9.4.5 Using transformation sketch the graph of each of the following.
(i) g(x) = −x2
√
(ii) h(x) = −x
Solution
(i) Based on the placement of the minus sign (i.e. it’s outside the square and NOT
inside the square, or (−x)2 ) it looks like we will be reflecting x2 about the x-axis.
So, again, the means that all we do is change the sign on all the y coordinates.
Here is the sketch of this graph.

Figure 35:

(ii) Now with this one let’s first address the minus sign under the square root in more
general terms. We know that we can’t take the square roots of negative numbers,
however the presence of that minus sign doesn’t necessarily cause problems. We
won’t be able to plug positive values of x into the function since that would give
square roots of negative numbers. However, if x were negative, then the negative
of a negative number is positive and that is okay. For instance,
p √
h(−4) = −(−4) = 4 = 2

So, don’t get all worried about that minus sign. Now, let’s address the reflection
here. Since the minus sign is under the square root as opposed to in front of

Page 89 of 336
it we are doing a reflection about√the y -axis. This means that we’ll need to
change all the signs of points on x. Note as well that this syncs up with our
discussion on this minus sign at the start of this part. Here is the graph for this
function.

Figure 36:

Page 90 of 336
10 The Straight Line
10.1 Mid Point of Two Points
Consider a straight line with two points A(x1 , y1 ) and B(x2 , y2 ).

Figure 37:

Then the mid point of the line AB is given by

 
x1 + x2 y1 + y2
mid poit = ,
2 2

Example 10.1.1 Find the mid point of (3.4) and (−7, 2).

Solution
Since (3, 4) and (−7, 2) are two given points of a straight line, then mid point of these
two points is
 
3 + (−7) 4 + 2
mid point = ,
2 2
 
−4 6
= ,
2 2
= (−2, 3).

Example 10.1.2 Suppose that (−2, 1) is the mid point of a line AB, where point A
is at (−3, 2). Find the coordinates of point B.

Solution
Since point A is at (−3, 2). Let A(−3, 2) = A(x1 , y1 ) and B(x2 , y2 ). Then it follows
from the mid point that
 
x1 + x 2 y 1 + y 2
, = (−2, 1)
2 2

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So that
x1 + x2 y1 + y2
= −2 and =1
2 2
But from point A, we know that A is at (−3, 2). Thus x1 = −3 and y1 = 2. And so
−3 + x2
=2
2
⇒ −3 + x2 = −4
⇒ x2 = −1

Similarly,
2 + y2
=1
2
⇒ 2 + y2 = 2
⇒ y2 = 0

Therefore, point B is at (−1, 0). And a geometric representation is

Figure 38:

10.2 The Gradient (or Slope ) of a Straight Line

Let m be the gradient of a straight line, then the gradient m is given by
y2 − y1 4y
m= = .
x2 − x1 4x
Example 10.2.1 Find the gradient of the line joining points
(i) A(−2, 7) and B(4, 5)
(ii) C(2, −5) and D(6, 3)
Solution:

Page 92 of 336
 (i) For points A(−2, 7) and B(4, 5), the gradient is
y2 − y1 5−7 −2 1
m= = = =−
x2 − x1 4+2 6 3

(ii) For points C(2, −5) and D(6, 3), we have;

y2 − y1 3+5 8
m= = = =2
x2 − x1 6−2 4

10.3 The Equation of a Straight Line

Every equation of a straight line of the form ax+by +c = 0 can be written in standard
form as y = mx + c. Here m is called the gradient of the equation and (0, c) is called
the y−intercept.

Note 10.3.1 In the general equation ax + by + c = 0, where a, b, c ∈ Z and the

standard form y = mx + c, the value of c in both equations is not the same.

Example 10.3.2 Write down the gradient of the following equations

(i) y = −3x + 5 (ii) 4x − 2y + 5 = 0

Solution:

(i) From the standard form

y = mx + c
Comparing with
y = −3x + 5
it follows that m = −3 (gradient).

(ii) Writing the general equation into standard form y = mx + c, we have;

4x − 2y + 5 = 0
−2y = −4x − 5
4 5
⇒y = x+
2 2
5
⇒ y = 2x + (28)
2
Therefore, gradient m = 2.

Page 93 of 336
10.4 Finding Equation of a Straight Line
10.4.1 Given One Point A(x1 , y1 ) and The Gradient m of The Line
The equation of a straight line when one point A(x1 , y1 ) and gradient m are given is
given by;
y − y1 = m(x − x1 )

Example 10.4.2 Find the equation of a straight line passing through point (3, −1)
2
with gradient m =
3
Solution:
2
Let A(x1 , y1 ) = (3, −1) and m = . Then from the equation
3
y − y1 = m(x − x1 )

we have;
2
y − (−1) = (x − 3)
3
2
⇒y = x−2−1
3
2
⇒y = x−3
3
In standard form. And in general form, the equation is

3y = 2x − 9
⇒ 2x − 3y = 9

10.4.3 Given Two Points A(x1 , y1 ) and B(x2 , y2 ) on The Line

The equation of a straight line when two points A(x1 , y1 ) and B(x2 , y2 ) are given is
still given by
y − y1 = m(x − x1 )
where m is the gradient to be determined and is given by
y2 − y1
m=
x2 − x 1
Example 10.4.4 Find the equation of a straight line passing though (2, −3) and
(−1, 4).

Solution:
Let A(x1 , y1 ) = (2, −3) and B(x2 , y2 ) = (−1, 4). Then

y2 − y1 4 − (−3) 7 7
m= = = =−
x2 − x1 −1 − 2 −3 3

Page 94 of 336
Taking the point A(2, −3) and m = − 73 , the required equation of a straight line is

y − y1 = m(x − x1 )
7
⇒ y − (−3) = − (x − 2)
3
7 14
⇒y+3=− x+
3 3
7 5
⇒y =− x+
3 3
and in general form, we have

3y = −7x + 5 =⇒ 7x + 3y − 5 = 0.

10.4.5 Given The Gradient m and The y−intercept

When the gradient m and the y−intercept (0, c) are given, we use the standard
equation;
y = mx + c
to obtain the equation of a straight line.

Example 10.4.6 Find the equation of a straight line passing through (0, −4) whose
2
gradient is .
3
Solution:
2
From the standard form, with m = and c = −4, we have;
3
y = mx + c

which implies;
2
y = x − 4.
3

Page 95 of 336
10.4.7 Equation of a Straight Line When Two Intercepts are Given
Consider the graph below;

Figure 39:

The equation of a line passing through two intercepts, the x−intercept (x, 0) and the
y−intercept (0, y1 ) is given by
x y
+ = 1.
x1 y 1
Example 10.4.8 Find the equation of the line l, below;

Figure 40:

Solution:

From Figure 40, the x−intercept is (3, 0) and the y−intercept is (0, 2). Thus, the

Page 96 of 336
required equation is;
x y
+ =1
x1 y1
 
x y
⇒ + =1 ×6
3 2
⇒ 2x + 3y = 6.

10.5 Parallel And Perpendicular Lines

10.5.1 Two Parallel Lines
Let l1 denote the first straight line with gradient m1 , and l2 denote the second straight
line with gradient m2 . Then the two lines l1 and l2 are said to be parallel lines if they
have equal gradients. That is if m1 = m2 , as shown below;

Figure 41:

Example 10.5.2 Find the equation of a line parallel to

3x − 4y + 5 = 0

passing through point (1, −2).

Solution:
Since the required equation is parallel to 3x − 4y + 5 = 0, then the gradient and
xy−coefficients are equal.

Let
3x − 4y + c = 0 (29)
be the required equation parallel to 3x − 4y + 5 = 0.
Since the required equation passes through (1, −2), then substituting into Equation

Page 97 of 336
(29) to find the value of the y−intercept c, we have;

3(1) − 4(−2) + c = 0
⇒3+8+c=0
⇒ c = −11

Hence
3x − 4y − 11 = 0
is the required line.

10.5.3 Two Perpendicular Lines

Consider the figure below;

Figure 42:

Let m1 and m2 be gradients of lines l1 and l2 respectively. Then the line l1 is perpen-
dicular to the line l2 if
m1 × m2 = −1.

Example 10.5.4 Find the equation of the straight line passing through (1, 3) and
perpendicular to the line 2x + y − 7 = 0.

Solution:
From the equation 2x + y − 7 = 0, the gradient is

−2 x + 7
y = |{z}
m1

That is m1 = −2. Thus the required equation has gradient

m1 · m2 = −1

Page 98 of 336
Which implies;
−1 −1 1
m2 = = = .
m1 −2 2
Since the required equation passes through (1, 3). Then

y − y1 = m2 (x − x1 )
1
y − 3 = (x − 1)
2
1 1
y = x− +3
2 2
1 5
y = x+
2 2
or

2y = x + 5
⇒ x − 2y + 5 = 0

Hence, x − 2y + 5 = 0 is the required equation which is perpendicular to the equation

2x + y − 7 = 0.

Example 10.5.5 Find the equation of the perpendicular bisector of the straight line
joining points A(−1, 2) and B(3, 10)

Solution:
We first find the mid point at which the line of the required equation cuts. That is;
 
x1 + x2 y1 + y2
mid point = ,
2 2
 
−1 + 3 2 + 10
= ,
2 2
= (1, 6).

And the gradient m1 of the line AB is;

y2 − y1
m1 =
x2 − x 1
10 − 2
=
3 − (−1)
8
= = 2.
4
Thus, the gradient of the equation perpendicular to the line AB is
1 1
m2 = − =− .
m1 2

Page 99 of 336
 1
Using the mid point (1, 6) and the gradient m2 = − , the equation of perpendicular
2
bisector is;

y − y1 = m2 (x − x1 )
1
y − 6 = − (x − 1)
2
1 1
(y − 6 = − x + ) × 2
2 2
2y − 12 = −x + 1
⇒ x + 2y − 13 = 0
⇒ x + 2y = 13.

Page 100 of 336

11 Simultaneous Equations and Its Applications
11.1 Simultaneous Equations
A set of simultaneous equations may have;

• A unique solution

• No solution

• Infinitely many solutions

11.1.1 Unique Solution

This occurs when a set of equations has one set of values which satisfy all equations.

Example 11.1.2 Solve the following system of equations below;

x − 2y = 3 (30)
3x + 5y = 20 (31)

Solution
Using elimination method, eliminating y, we multiply Equation (30) throughout by 5
and Equation (31) by 2, that is;
 
x − 2y = 3 × 5
 
3x + 5y = 20 × 2

We get;

5x − 10y = 15 (32)
6x + 10y = 40 (33)

Adding Equation (32) and Equation (33) together, we get;

11x = 55

which implies that;

x = 5.
Solving for y, we substitute x = 5 into Equation (30), we get;

5 − 2y = 3
=⇒ − 2y = −2
=⇒ y = 1.

Therefore, x = 5 and y = 1.

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11.1.3 No Solution
This occurs when a set of equations has no set of values which satisfy all equations.

Example 11.1.4 Solve the following simultaneous equation;

y =1+x (34)
y =2+x (35)

Solution
Subtraction Equation (35) from Equation (34), we get;

0 = −1

And this is not possible, therefore, there is no solution.

11.1.5 Infinitely Many Solutions

A set of equations has infinitely many solutions when there is an infinite number of
sets of values that satisfy all equations.

Example 11.1.6 Solve the following simultaneous equation

y =2−x (36)
2y = 4 − 2x (37)

Solution
Dividing Equation (37) by 2, we get
2y 4 2x
= − =⇒ y = 2 − x
2 2 2
So, Equations (36) and (37) are the same. Therefore, there is only one equation
in two unknowns. And so there is an infinite number of (x, y) pairs which satisfy
Equations (36) and (37).

11.2 Three Simultaneous Equations In Three Unknowns

The methods used above to solve two equations in two unknowns may be extended
to three equations in three unknowns, four equations in four unknowns, etc. The
strategy is to eliminate one of the variables first by adding multiples of equations to
other equations and hence reducing the problem to two equations in two unknowns.

Example 11.2.1 Solve the following equation

2x + y − z = 4 (38)
x+y−z =3 (39)
2x + 2y + z = 12 (40)

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Solution
The simplest approach is to add Equation (40) to equation (38), and hence eliminate
z, giving an equation in x and y.

4x + 3y = 16 (41)

Then add Equation (40) to Equation (39), eliminating z again, giving another equa-
tion in x and y.

3x + 3y = 15 (42)

Equations (41) and (42) are the usual two equations in two unknowns, so solve for x
and y. Then solve for z later. Subtraction Equation (42) from Equation (41) we get;

x=1

And substituting x = 1 into Equation (41) we get;

4(1) + 3y = 16 =⇒ y = 4

Then substituting x = 1, y = 4 into Equation (39), we get the value of z,

1 + 4 − z = 3 =⇒ z = 2.

Therefore, the values x, y, z which satisfy all three equations are x = 1, y = 4 and
z = 2.

11.3 Application of Simultaneous Equations

11.3.1 Demand and Supply
We now look at the application of simultaneous equations.

Example 11.3.2 Suppose that the supply and demand sets S and D for a particular
market are described as follows;

{(q, p) ∈ S|2p − 3q = 12}

And
{(q, p) ∈ D|2p + q = 20}.
Determine the supply function q S (p), the inverse supply function pS (q), the demand
function q D (p) and the inverse demand function pD (q). Sketch S and D and deter-
mine the equilibrium set E = S ∩ D. Comment briefly on the interpretation of the
results.

Solution

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the supply function is obtained by expressing quantity q in terms of price p for points
in the supply set. That is
2p − 3q = 12
=⇒ −3q = 12 − 2p
12 − 2p
=⇒ q =
−3
2
=⇒ q = −4 + p
3
Therefore,
2
q S (p) = p − 4.
3
D
Similarly, the demand function q (p) is obtained by expressing q in terms of p. That
is
2p + q = 20
=⇒ q = 20 − 2p
Therefore,
q D (p) = 20 − 2p.
We now obtain the inverse supply and inverse demand functions by expressing p in
terms of q on the supply and demand sets. Thus, the inverse supply function is
3
Supply: pS (q) = q + 6.
2
1
Demand: pD (q) = 10 − q.
2
And a sketch of S and D is obtained by first forming tables of values for each function.

Considering the function defined on S

2p − 3q = 12
The table of values is;
q 0 2 4
p 6 9 12
And that of the function defined on D, which is
2p + q = 20
the table of values is;
q 0 2 4
p 10 9 8

Thus, E consists of the single point (2, 9) and when the market is in equilibrium, the
selling price will be 9 and the quantity will be 2.

Page 104 of 336

 Figure 43:

In general, when the demand and supply curves of a product are represented on the
same coordinate plane, the point (q, p) where the curves intersect is called the point
of equilibrium, the price p is called the equilibrium price, and is the price at
which consumer will purchase the same quantity of a product that producers wish to
sell at that price. The quantity q is called the equilibrium quantity.

Page 105 of 336

 Figure 44:

Note 11.3.3 The equilibrium point can also be obtained by solving the demand and
supply equations simultaneously to find the point of intersection.

11.3.4 Tax Effect On Equilibrium

We illustrate this in the following example.

Example 11.3.5 Let

8
p= q + 50
100
be the supply equation for a manufacturer’s product, and suppose the demand equation
is
7
p=− q + 65.
100
(i) If a tax of k1.5 per unit is to be imposed on the manufacturer, how will the
original equilibrium price be affected if the demand remains the same?

(ii) Determine the total revenue obtained by the manufacturer at the equilibrium
point both before and after tax.

Solution

Page 106 of 336

(i) Before tax, the equilibrium price is obtained by solving the system of equations
simultaneously, that is for the equations,
8
p= q + 50 (43)
100
7
p=− q + 65 (44)
100
Equating Equation (44) to Equation (43), we get;
7 8
− q + 65 = q + 50
100 100
15
=⇒ 15 = q
100
=⇒ q = 100.
Thus, the equilibrium quantity is q = 100. To solve for the equilibrium price p,
we substitute q = 100 into Equation (43), and solve for p, we have;
8
p= (100) + 5 = 58.
100
Therefore, k58.0 is the original equilibrium price. Now before tax, the manufac-
turer supplies q units at a price of
8
p= q + 50
100
per unit. After tax, the the manufacturer sells the same quantities q units for
an addition of k1.5 per unit. Thus, the price per unit will be
 
8 8
p= q + 50 + 1.5 = q + 51.5
100 100
and is the new supply equation. And so solving the system
8
p= q + 51.5
100
7
p=− q + 65
100
will give the new equilibrium price; That is equating the two equations, we get;
8 7
q + 51.5 = − q + 65
100 100
15
q = 13.5
100
=⇒ q = 90.
Hence,
8
p= (90) + 51.5 = 58.7.
100
Therefore, the tax of k1.5 per unit increases the equilibrium price by k0.7.

Graphically, we have;

Page 107 of 336

 Figure 45:

(ii) We know that

T R = p × q.
where, T R denotes total revenue, p denotes price and q denotes quantity. If
q units of a product are sold at a price p kwacha each, then the total revenue
before tax is
T R = (58)(100) = 5800.
And the total revenue after tax will be;

T R = (58.7)(90) = 5283.

11.4 Equilibrium and Break-Even Points

Suppose that a manufacturer produces product A and sells it at k8 per unit. Then
the total revenue (T R) received from selling q units is;

T R = 8q.

The difference between the total revenue received for q units and the total cost (T C)
of q units is the manufacturer’s profit (π). That is

Profit(π) = Total Revenue(T R) − Total Cost(T C)

π = TR − TC

Note 11.4.1 If profit is negative, then we have a lose.

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Recall that

Total Cost(T C) = Total Variable Cost(T V C) + Total Fixed Cost(T F C)

where fixed costs are those costs that, under normal conditions do not depend on the
level of production (over the period of time, they remain constant). For example,
rent, officer’s salaries, etc. And the variable costs are those costs that vary with the
level of production (such as cost of materials, labor, maintenance due to wear and
tear, etc.)

For example, for q units produced of product A, suppose that fixed cost is 5000,
and variable cost is 22q, then the total cost is

T C = V C + F C = 22q + 5000.

The break-even point is the point at which total revenue equals total cost. That is

Break-Even Point: T R = T C

This usually occurs when the level of production and sales result in neither a profit
nor lose to the manufacturer.

Consider the graph below, demonstrating a break-even point.

Figure 46: Break-even Point

From Figure 46, the break-even point is the point (m, n) at which the graph of
T R = 8q and T C = 22q +5000 intersect. Here m is called the equilibrium quantity
and n is the equilibrium price.

Page 109 of 336

Example 11.4.2 A manufacturer sells a product at k8 per unit, selling all that is
22
produced. Fixed cost is k5000 and variable cost per unit is k .
9
(i) Find the total output and revenue at the break-even point.

(ii) Find the profit when 1800 units are produced.

(iii) Find the loss when 450 units are produced.

(iv) Find the output required to obtain a profit of k10, 000.

Solution

(i) At an output level of q units, the variable cost is

22
VC = q.
9
And the total revenue is
T R = 8q.
Therefore, the total cost is given by;
22
TC = V C + FC = q + 5000.
9
At the break-even point, T C = T R. And so;
22
q + 5000 = 8q
9
50
=⇒ q = 5000
9
=⇒ q = 900.

Thus, the required output is q = 900 units resulting in a total revenue.

T R = 8(900) = 7200.

(ii) Since,

Profit = T R − T C, when q = 1800

 
22
= 8q − q + 5000
9
 
22
= 8(1800) − (1800) + 5000
9
= 5000.

Thus, the profit when 1800 units are produced and sold is k5, 000.

Page 110 of 336

(iii) The loss when 450 units are produced is
 
22
T R − T C = 8q − q + 5000 , q=450
9
 
22
= 8(450) − (450) + 5000
9
= −2500 < 0.

Thus, a loss of k2, 500 occurs when the level of production is 450 units.

(iv) In order to obtain a profit of k10, 000, we have;

Profit = T R − T C
 
22
10, 000 = 8q − q + 5000
9
50
15, 000 = q
9
=⇒ q = 2700.

Therefore, 2700 units must be produced, in order to make a profit of k10, 000.

11.5 More On Demand, Supply, Cost and Revenue

Demand and supply decisions by consumers firm and the government determine the
level of economic activity within an economy.

11.5.1 The Demand Function

There are several variables that influence the demand for a good X. These may be
expressed by the general demand function

Q = f (P, Y, PS , PC , T, A, . . .)

Where;

Q = is the quantity demand for good X

P = is the price for good X
Y = is the income of the consumer
PS = is the price of substitute goods
PC = is the price of the complementary goods
T = is the table or fashion of the consumer
A = level of the advertising.

Definition 11.5.2 (A Substitute Good) A substitute good is one that can be used
instead of another good. For example, trains and buses.

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Definition 11.5.3 (A Complementary Good) A complementary good is one that
is consumed in conjunction with another. For example, petrol and cars, compact disc
and stereo system.

The demand function P = g(Q) can be modelled by the simple linear equation

P = a − bQ
∆P
where a and b are constants. This equation is a straight line with slope = −b
∆Q
and the graph is;

Figure 47: Graph of the demand equation P = a − bQ

11.5.4 The Supply Function

There are several variables that influence the supply of a good X. These maybe
expressed by the general supply fucntion,

Q = f (P, C, P0 , T, N, O, . . .)

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where,

Q = is the quantity supplied for good X

P = is the price of a good X
C = is the cost of production
P0 = is the price of other goods
T = is the available technology
N = is the number of producers in the market
O = Other factors, e.g. tax or subsidies.

The model for the supply function is written as

Q = f (P ).

That is the quantity supplied depend on the price only as long as the other variables
upon which supply demands remain constant.

The equation of the supply function can be modelled by the simple linear equation

P = C + dQ
∆P
where c and d are constants and the slope = +d, and has a graph
∆Q

11.5.5 Examples
Example 11.5.6 The demand function is given by the equation

P = 100 − 0.5Q

(i) State and give a verbal description of the slope and intercepts.

(ii) What is the quantity demanded when P = 5?

(iii) Plot the demand function

P = 100 − 0.5Q for 0 ≤ Q ≤ 200.

(iv) Find an expression for the demand function in the form Q = f (P ) and graph
it.
Solution

∆P
(i) The vertical intercept is 100 when Q = 0. And the slope is = −0.5. This
∆Q
means that the price drops by 0.5 units for each successive unit increase in
quantity demanded.

Page 113 of 336

 Figure 48: Graph of the supply equation P = c + dQ

(ii) The quantity demanded when P = 5 is obtained by substituting P = 5 into the

demand function as;

P = 100 − 0.5Q
5 = 100 − 0.5Q
=⇒ 0.5Q = 95
=⇒ Q = 190 units.

(iii) To plot the demand function over the range 0 ≤ Q ≤ 200, we choose various
quantity values with this range, that is

Q P (Q)
0 100
40 80
80 60
90 55
120 40
160 20
200 0

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 Plotting these data points, we have,

Figure 49: Graph of the demand function P = 100 − 0.5Q.

(iv) The demand function Q = f (P ) is derived as follows;

P = 100 − 0.5Q
0.5Q = 100 − P
=⇒ Q = 200 − 2P

And its graph is given by;

Page 115 of 336

 Figure 50: Graph of the demand function Q = 200 − 2P.

Example 11.5.7 The supply function is given by

P = 10 + 0.5

(i) State and verbally describe the slope and intercepts.

(ii) Plot the supply function, P = 10 + 0.5Q for 0 ≤ Q ≤ 100.

Solution

(i) The vertical intercept is 10 and this means tha the firm will supply no units less
∆P
or equal to 10. The slope is = +0.5. This means that price increases by
∆Q
0.5 units for every successive unit increase in quantity supplied.

(ii) To plot the supply function over the interval 0 ≤ Q ≤ 100, we choose various
quantity values within this range. And so

Page 116 of 336

Figure 51: Graph of supply equation P = 10 + 0.5Q.

Page 117 of 336

12 Elasticity of Demand, Supply and Income
12.1 Price Elasticity of Demand
Price elasticity of demand measures the responsiveness (sensitivity) of quantity de-
manded to changes in the good’s own price. This is denoted by εd and is given
by
Percentage change in quantity demanded
εd =
Percentage change in price

%∆Q
=
%∆P

∆Q
× 100
Q
=
∆P
× 100
P

∆Q P
∴ εd = · .
∆P Q
The numerical value or coefficient for price elasticity of demand is normally negative
∆P
since the slope from a demand functio, is negative. That is for the linear demand
∆Q
function
P = a − bQ
∆P b
has slope = − . And so inverting both sides, we get;
∆Q 1
∆Q 1
= − < 0.
∆P b
Note 12.1.1 .
(i) The negative sign associated with εd indicates the direction and magnitude of the
responsiveness of one variable with respect to another. A negative sign indicates
that an increase in one variable is accompanied by a decrease in the other or
vice-versa. A positive sign indicates that an increase (decrease) in one variable
is accompanied by an increase (decrease) in the other.
(ii) Some books give a numerical value of elasticity without a sign. This is known
as the absolute-value or magnitude of elasticity denoted |ε|, that indicates the
magnitude of the responsiveness of one variable to a change in another and not
the direction of the responsiveness.
There are basically two approaches to measure price elasticity; namely Point elas-
ticity and Arc elasticity.

Page 118 of 336

12.1.2 Point Elasticity of Demand
Point elasticity of demand measures elasticity at a point on the demand function.
Given the linear demand function,

P = a − bQ.

The formula for point elasticity of demand at any point (P0 , Q0 ) is

∆Q P
εd = ·
∆P Q
Or
1 P0
εd = −
b Q0
∆Q 1
Since slope =− .
∆P b
Example 12.1.3 Given the demand function for computers as

P = 2400 − 0.5Q.

(A) Determine the coefficient of point elasticity of demand when

(i) P = 1800 (ii) P = 1200 and P = 600.

Give a verbal description of each result.

(B) If the price of computers increases by 12%. Calculate the percentage change in
the quantity demanded at P = 1800, P = 1200 and (iii) P = 600.

(i) First use the definition of elasticity

%∆Qd
εd = .
%∆P

(ii) Then calculate the exact percentage changes and compare them with an-
swers in part (B)(i).

(C) Graph the demand function, indicating where demaand is elastic, unit elastic
and inelastic.
Solution
(A) (i) At point P = 1800, the quantity of computers demanded, Q is calculated
by substituting P = 1800 into the demand function. That is,

P = 2400 − 0.5Q
=⇒ 1800 = 2400 − 0.5Q
=⇒ Q = 1200.

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 The value of point elasticity of demand at (P = 1800, Q = 1200) is calcu-
lated by substituting these values along with b = 0.5 into the formula
1 P0
εd = −
b Q0
 
1 1800
=⇒ εd = −
0.5 1200
1800
=−
600
∴ εd = −3.

Hence, the coefficient of point elasticity of demand is εd = −3. This means

that at the price P = 1800, a 1% increase (decrease) in the price will cause
a 3% decrease (increase) in the quantity of computers demanded. Demand
elastic |εd | > 1.

The calculations for (ii) and (iii) for price elasticity of demand for P =
1200 and P = 600 are carried out in the same way as part (i). And so we
proceed as follows;
(ii) For P = 1200, we have;

P0 = 2400 − 0.5Q
=⇒ 1200 = 2400 − 0.5Q
=⇒ Q0 = 2400.

Thus,  
1 P0 1 1200
εd = − =− = −1.
b Q0 0.5 2400
And
|εd | = 1.
Means that demand is unit elastic.
(iii) For P = 600, we have;

600 = 2400 − 0.5Q

=⇒ Q0 = 3600.

Thus,  
1 P0 1 600 1
εd = − =− = − ≈ −0.33.
b Q0 0.5 3600 3
And
1
|εd | = ≈ 0.33 < 1.
3
Therefore, demand is inelastic.

Page 120 of 336

(B) (i) Using the definition
%∆Qd
εd = (45)
%∆P
Equation (45) can be rearranged as follows;

%∆Q = %∆P × εd . (46)

(a) Thus, at P = 1800, we have calculated that εd = −3. To calculate the
percentage change in Q, we substitute εd = −3 and ∆P = 12% into
Equation (46), we get;
∆Q = 12% × −3 = −36%.
Therefore, the quantity demanded decrease by 36%, a larger percent-
age than 12% price increase. Demand is strongly responsive to price
change and is described as elastic demand.
(b) For P = 1200, εd = −1, ∆P = 12%. Substituting in Equation (46),
we have
∆Q = 12% × −1 = −12%.
Therefore, the quantity demanded decreases by 12%, percentage price
increase is 12%. This is decribed as unit elastic demand.
(c) For P = 600, εd = −0.33 and ∆P = 12%, we have;
∆Q = %∆P × εd
= 12% × −0.33
= −3.96%.
Hence, the quantity demanded decreases by 3.96%, a smaaller percent-
age decrease than the 12% price increase. So the demand is weakly
responsive to price. Therefore, it is described as inelastic demand.
(ii) The calculations of the exact percentage change in Q requires basic arith-
metic. We start by first calculating the price which results from an increase
of 12% on the initial price.

Increase P = 1800 by 12%, is

112
Pnew = P = 1.12(1800) = 2016.
100
Thus, calculating the corresponding values of Q from the equation of the
demand function when P = 1800, Q = 1200, and when P = 2016, Q = 768.
%∆Q By Direct Calc. %∆Q = %∆P × εd
Qnew −Q0
P0 Q0 Pnew Qnew Q0
× 100 εd By Formula
768−1200
1800 1200 2016 768 1200
× 100 = −36% −3 ∆Q = −3 × 12 = −36%
2122−2400
1200 2400 1344 2122 2400
× 100 = −12 −1 ∆Q = −1 × 12 = −12%
3456−3600
600 3600 672 3456 3600
× 100 = −4% −0.33 ∆Q = − 13 × 12 = −4%

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 (C) The graph of the demand function is

Figure 52: Variation of Price Elasticity of Demand With Price Along The Demand
Function P = 2400 − 0.5Q

12.1.4 Coefficient of Price Elasticity of Demand

There are three categories of price elasticity , namely; Elastic, Inelastic and Unit
elastic.

• Elastic; when −∞ < εd < −1, then demand is strongly responsive to changes
in price, that is the percentage change in demand is greater than the percentage
change in price.

• Unit elastic; when εd = −1, then the percentage change in demand is equal
to the percentage change in price.

• Inelastic; when −1 < εd < 0, then the demand is weakly responsive to changes
in price, that is the percentage change in demand is less than the percentage in
price.

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In general, for a given percentage change in price, there is a greater percentage change
in quantity demanded if demand is elastic, as smaller percentage change if demand
is inelastic, and an equal percentage change if demand is unit elastic.

12.1.5 Arc Elasticity of Demand

Arc elasticity measures elasticity over an interval on the demand function. Instead of
using the price and quantity at a point as in point elasticity, arc elasticity, uses tha
average of the prices and quantities at the beginning and end of the stated interval.
Therefore, arc elasticity is given by
1
∆Q (P1 + P2 )
εd = × 12
∆P 2
(Q1 + Q2 )

 
∆Q P1 + P2
∴ εd = × (47)
∆P Q1 + Q2

Formula (47) is often referred to as the midpoints elasticity formula or arc-price

elasticity formula.

12.1.6 Income Elasticity of Demand

Income elasticity of demand measures the responsiveness of quantity demanded to
change in income. Arc-price elasticity formula for the income elasticity of demand,
measures the percentage change in quantity demanded divided by the percentage
change in income. This is given by
Percentage change in quantity demanded
εy =
Percentage change in income

%∆Qd
=
%∆Y

∆Q Y1 + Y2
∴ εd = ·
∆Y Q1 + Q2
Where;

Y1 = initial level of income

Y2 = new level of income
Q1 = initial level of quantity demanded
Q2 = new level of quantity demanded.

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The coefficient of income elasticity of demand may be positive or negative.

Coefficient of income elasticity εy Types of Goods

Positive income elastic εy > 1 Normal (luxury)
Unit income elastic εy = 1 Normal
Positive income inelastic 0 < εy < 1 Normal (necessity)
Negative income elastic εy < 0 Inferior

12.1.7 Worked Out Examples

(1) A firm has fixed production cost of k35, 000 and variable production costs of
k7, 000 per unit produced.

(i) Write down the equation of the total cost function.

(ii) Graph the total cost function.

Solution

(i) We know that

TC = V C + FC
where T C = k35, 000, and if q units are produced, then the variable cost
is V C = k7, 000q. Thus,

T C = 7, 000q + 35, 000.

∆T C
(ii) Since slope = 7, 000, and the T C-intercept is 35, 000, then the graph
∆q
of T C function is

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 Figure 53: Graph of T C = 7000q + 35000

(2) Suppose that each chicken snack box is sold for k12, 250 irrespective of the
number of units sold.

(i) Write down the equation of the total revenue (TR) function.
(ii) Graph the total revenue (TR) function.

Solution

(i) We know that

TR = p × q
Since price for each chicken snack box is k12, 250 then if q chicken snack
boxes are sold, then the total revenue will be

T R = 12, 250q

Notice that the price is constant at 12, 250 irrespective of the value of q.
∆T R
(ii) Since the slope = 12, 250 and the intercept is 0, then the graph is
∆q

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 Figure 54: The Graph of T R = 12, 250q

(3) Given that the demand function for silicon chips is

P = 12 − 0.5Q

where P is the price of silicon chips for each batch of 1000. Calculate the
coefficient of point elasticity of demand εd when

(i) P = 0 (ii) P = 4 (iii) P = 6 (iv) P = 8 and (v) P = 12.

Solution
Since
1 P0
εd = −
b Q0
and b = 0.5. Then the coefficient of point elasticity of demand for silicon chips
is calculated as;

Price, P Quantity, Q Coefficient of Point Elasticity of Demand, εd

0 24 0
4 16 −0.5
6 12 −1
8 8 −2
12 0 −∞

And the graphical representation of the table above is;

Page 126 of 336

 Figure 55: Elasticity Varies Along a Demand Function

(4) The demand function for a good A is given by

Q = 20000 − 2PA + 2PB + 0.6Y.

Where PA is the price of a good A and PB is the price of a substitute good B,

and Y is the income. Calculate the coefficient of income elasticity of demand
when income increases from k280, 000 to k420, 000, assuming that prices are
fixed at PA = k140, 000 and PB = k210, 000.

Since the prices are fixed at PA = 140, 000 and PB = 210, 000, then quan-
tity is a function of income, that is Q = f (Y ). Therefore, the demand function
can be written as;

Q = 20000 − 2PA + 2PB + 0.6Y

= 20000 − 2(140000) + 2(210000) + 0.6Y
= 20000 − 280000 + 420000 + 0.6Y
∴ Q = 160000 + 0.6Y.

And when income increases from k280, 000 to k420, 000, the demand becomes;

For Y1 = k280, 000, we have;

Q1 = 160000 + 0.6(280000) = 328000.

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And for Y2 = 420000, we have;

Q2 = 160000 + 0.6(420000) = 412000.

And so the coefficient of income elasticity is calculated by substituting the

income and quantity values
∆Q Y1 + Y2
εy = ·
∆Y Q1 + Q2

(412000 − 328000) (420000 + 280000)

= ·
(410000 − 280000) (328000 + 412000)

84 700
= ×
140 740

= 0.568.

Since the coefficient of income elasticity is 0.568, good A, is a normal good is

income inelastic.

12.2 Budget and Cost Constraints

A budget constraint (or budget line), relates to the amount of goods that a
consumer can afford to purchase from his or her income and price. Consider a
consumer who spends all his or her income, M , on two goods, referred to as X
and Y , price at Px and Py per unit respectively. Then the consumer can choose
to spend his or her income on one of the following;

(i) A combination of X and Y

(ii) All X and no Y
(iii) All Y and no X.

The general equation for budget constraint is given by;

xPx + yPy = M.

A cost constraint also known as as iso-cost (equal cost) line, relates the amount
of inputs that a firm can afford to purchase given its total allowable expenditure
(budget) and the cost per unit of the inputs. Assuming that the inputs are
labour, L, and capital, K, and if the cost per unit of labour is the wage rate w,
the cost per unit of capital is rent r, and the firms total allowable expenditure
is C. Then a firm can allocate its expenditure on one of the following;

(i) A combination of L and K

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 (ii) All L and no K
(iii) All K and no L.
The general equation of the iso-cost line is given by;
wL + rK = C.

12.2.1 Worked Out Examples

(1) A consumer has an income M = k630, 000 to spend on good X, where
price is Px = k10, 500 and good Y , where price is Py = k21, 000.
(i) Write down the equation of of the budget constraint. Hence, state the
value of the slope and intercepts.
(ii) Write down the equation of the budget constraints which result when
each of the following changes are introduced. Describe the relationship
to the original constraint in part (i), when
(a) Px = k5, 250 while Py = k21, 000 and M = k630, 000 remain the
same.
(b) Py = k10, 500, while Px = k10, 500 and M = k630, 000 remain the
same.
(c) Px = k10, 500, Py = k21, 000 remain the same, but income changes
to M = k840, 000.
Graph the original constraint with each of the constraints (a),(b) and (c)
on separate diagrams.

Solution

(i) We know that the general equation of the constraint is given by;
xPx + yPy = M (48)
Making the substitutions, we have,
10500x + 21000y = 630000
=⇒ y = 30 − 0.5x.
∆y
Thus, slope is = −0.5, y-intercept is y = 30 and x-intercept is
∆x
x = 60.
(ii) (a) When Px = k5, 250, while Py = k21, 000 and M = k630, 000.
Substituting into Equation (48), the constraint equation becomes
5250x + 21000y = 630000
=⇒ y = 40 − 0.5x.
∆y
Therefore, the slope is = −0.5, y-intercept is y = 40 and
∆x
x-intercept is x = 80.

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Figure 56: ∆Px and its effect on the budget constraint.

(b) When Py = k10, 500, Px = k10, 500 and M = k630, 000, then
Equation (48) becomes;

10500x + 10500y = 630000

=⇒ y = 60 − x.

∆y
Hence, the slope = −1, y-intercept is y = 60 and x-intercept
∆x
is x = 60.

Page 130 of 336

Figure 57: ∆Py and its effect on the budget constraint.

(c) When Px = k10, 500, Py = k21, 000 remain the same, but income
changes to M = k840, 000, then Equation (48) becomes,

10500x + 21000y = 840000

=⇒ y = 40 − 0.5x.

∆y
Thus, = −0.5, y-intercept is y = 40 and x-intercept is x = 80.
∆x

Page 131 of 336

 Figure 58: ∆M and its effect on the budget constraint.

12.3 Consumer and Producer Surplus

12.3.1 Consumer Surplus (CS)

This is the difference between the expenditure a consumer is willing to make

on a successive units of a good from Q = 0 to Q = Q0 and the actual amount
spent on Q0 units of the good at the market price of P0 per unit. Graphically,
consumer surplus is the area bounded by the demand function (Pd = a − bQd ),
equilibrium line (P = P0 ) and the vertical axis (Q = Q0 ). Consider the demand
function
P = a − bQ
represented in the graph below;

Page 132 of 336

 Figure 59: Consumer Surplus

To calculate consumer surplus when the market price P = P0 , the consumer will
purchase Q0 units. The consumer therefore, spends P0 × Q0 which is equivalent
to the area of the rectangle P0 E0 Q0 since

Area = length × breadth = P0 Q0

The total amount which the consumer is willing to pay for the first Q0 units is
given by the area 0AE0 Q0 . Since consumer surplus is the difference between the
amount the consumer is willing to pay and the amount the consumer actually
pays
CS = Expected Price − Actual Price
Then,

CS = AE0 Q0 − 0P0 E0 Q0
= AP0 E0
1
= P0 Q0 (Area of the triangle AP0 E0 )
2
The area AP0 E0 is a benefit to the consumer as the amount which the consumer
is willing to pay exceeds the amount which is actually paid.

Example 12.3.2 Consider the demand function P = 100 − 0.5Q. Calculate

the consumer surplus when the market price is P0 = 55.

Solution

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When the market price P0 = 55, the consumer will purchase

55 = 100 − 0.5Q0
0.5Q0 = 100 − 55 = 45
Q0 = 90 units

Figure 60:

Therefore, Consumer surplus is;

1
CS = P0 Q0
2
1
= (55)(90)
2
= 2475.

Page 134 of 336

12.3.3 Producer Surplus (PS)

The Producer surplus is the difference between the revenue the producer receives
for Q0 units of a good when the market price is P0 per unit and the revenue
that the prodducer was willing to accept for successive units of the good from
Q = 0 to Q = Q0 . Consider the supply function

P = a + bQ

and its graph below;

Figure 61: Producer Surplus

To calculate the producer surplus when the market price P = P0 per unit is
given. When the market price per unit is P = P0 , the producer will supply Q0
units. Thus, the producer receives a total revenue P0 ×Q0 . This is equivalent to
the area of OP0 E0 Q0 . Since the producer is the difference between the revenue
the producer receives at Q = Q0 units and the revenue that the producer was
willing to accept for Q0 units supplied, then

P S = 0P0 E0 Q0 − 0BE0 Q0
= BP0 E0
1
= P0 Q0 (Area of Triangle BP0 E0 )
2
Therefore, the area BP0 E0 is a benefit to the producer.

Example 12.3.4 Consider the supply function P = 10 + 0.5Q. Calculate the

producer surplus when the market price is P0 = 55 per unit.

Page 135 of 336

Solution
When the market price P0 = 55, then the producer will supply Q0 = 90 units,
since

P = 10 + 0.5Q
=⇒ 55 = 10 + 0.5Q0
0.5Q0 = 45
∴ Q0 = 90 units

Therefore, producer surplus is;

Figure 62:

1
P S = P0 Q0
2
1
= (55)(90)
2
= 2475.

12.4 National Income Model and The IS − LM Model

National income, Y , is the total income generated within an economy from all
productive activity over a given period of time, usually one year. Equilibrium
national income occurs when aggregate national income, Y , is equal to aggregate
planned expenditure, E, that is.

Y =E (49)

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Now in this discussion which follows it is assumed that all expenditure is planned
expenditure. Aggregate expenditure, E, which is the sum of households’ con-
sumption expenditure, C; firms investment expenditure, I; government expen-
diture, G; foreign expenditure on domestic exports, X minus domestic expen-
diture on imports, M , that is,
E =C +I +G+X −M (50)
Thus substituting Equation (49) and Equation (50) we get the equation for
equilibrium national income;
Y =C +I +G+X −M (51)
Equation (51), that is, equilibrium national income exists when total income is
equal to total expenditure.

Note 12.4.1 Expenditure on imports is income lost to the economy, hence the
minus sign.

12.4.2 Steps for Deriving The Equilibrium Level of National Income

There are basically two methods used to get the equilibrium level of national
income, that is the algebraic method, and the graphical method.
(i) Algebraic Method:
∗ Step 1: Express expenditure in terms of income, Y : That is,
E = f (Y ).
∗ Step 2: Substitute expenditure, expressed as a function of Y , into
the RHS of the equilibrium condition, Y = E. Solve the equilibrium
equation for the equilibrium level of national income, Ye .
(ii) Graphical Method: The point of intersection of the equilibrium condi-
tion,
Y =E
and the expenditure equation,
E =C +I +G+X −M
gives the equilibrium level of national income. Since E = f (Y ), then the
horizontal axis will be labelled Y and the vertical axis will be labelled E.

12.4.3 Equilibrium Level of National Income When E = C + I

Initially, the model assumes the existence of only two economic agents, house-
holds and firms operating in a closed economy (no foreign sector) with no gov-
ernment sector and no inflation. Households consumption expenditure, C, is
modelled by the equation,
C = C0 + bY

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where C0 is autonomous consumption, that is, consumption which does not
depend on income, and b (0 < b < 1) is called the marginal propensity to
consume,
4C
b = MP C =
4Y
measures the change in consumption per unit increase in income. Firm’s invest-
ment expenditure is autonomous, I = I0 .

Remark 12.4.4 The equilibrium level of national income, Ye can be simplified

as follows; Since
Ye = E
and E = C + I0 , then
Ye = E
= C + I0 (52)
But C = C0 + bYe . Therefore, Equation (52) becomes;
Ye = C0 + bYe + I0
Ye − bYe = C0 + I0
(1 − b)Ye = C0 + I0
1
=⇒ Ye = (C0 + I0 ).
1−b
Example 12.4.5 In a two sector economy, autonomous consumption expendi-
ture, C0 = K50, autonomous investment expenditure, I0 = K100 and b = 0.5.
(i) Determine;
(a) the equilibrium level of national income, Ye and
(b) the equilibrium level of consumption, Ce , algebraically.
(ii) Plot the consumption function, C = C0 +bY , the expenditure function E =
C + I0 and the equilibrium condition, Y = E on the same diagram. Hence,
determine the equilibrium level of national income, Ye and the equilibrium
level of consumption, Ce .
(iii) Given that Y = C + S, determine the equilibrium level of savings. Plot
the savings function and the investment function on the same diagram.
Comment on the graph.
Solution
(i) (a) The equilibrium level of national income, Ye is given by;
1
Ye = (C0 + I0 )
1−b
1
= (50 + 100)
1 − 0.5
= K300

Page 138 of 336

 (b) The equilibrium level of consumption, Ce , is calculated as follows;
Ce = C0 + bYe =⇒ Ce = 50 + 0.5(300) = K200.

(ii) The consumption function C = 50 + 0.5Y , the expenditure function,

E = 50 + 0.5Y + 100 = 150 + 0.5Y and the equilibrium condition E = Y
are plotted with Y against E as shown below;

Figure 63: Equilibrium national income with consumption

Graphically, equilibrium national income Ye is illustrated in the above Fig-

ure 63 with equilibrium point occurring at the point of intersection of the
expenditure equation and the line Y = E. The point of intersection is at
Y = 300 = E. Graphically, the equilibrium level of consumption, Ce is at
the point of intersection of the consumption function and the vertical line
Ye = 100 or the line Y = E.
(iii) Since,
Ye = Ce + Se
=⇒ Se = Ye − Ce
But Ye = 300, and Ce = 200, then equilibrium level of savings is
Se = 300 − 200 = 100
The savings function when b = 0.5 and C0 = 50 is
S =Y −C
= Y − (C0 + bY )
= (1 − b)Y − C0
∴ S = 0.5Y − 50
Therefore, the graph of the investment expenditure I0 = 100 and the savings
function is given below;

Page 139 of 336

 Figure 64: Equilibrium national income with investment

Notice that at equilibrium national income, savings are equal to investment.

That is
Se = I
And so equilibrium national income occurs when savings are equal to in-
vestment.

12.5 The IS − LM Model

The IS−LM model, which stands for ”Investment savings” (IS) and ”Liquidity
money” (LM ) is a Keynesian macroeconomic model that shows how the market
for economic goods (IS) interacts with the loanable funds market (LM ) or
money market. It is represented as a graph in which the IS and LM curves
intersect to show the short-run equilibrium between interest rates and output.

12.5.1 The IS Model

This model is such that planned and actual expenditures are equal. That is

Ep = C + I + G
= E(Y, r, G, T )
= C(Y − T ) + I p (r) + G

Where,

– E p is planned expenditure

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 – C is consumption
– I is investment
– G is government expenditure
– Y is income
– r is the real interest rate and
– T is taxes (net of transfers)
With assumption that planned goods expenditure and planned Investment are
autonomous with fixed values of G∗ and I ∗ , respectively. Hence,

Y = C + I ∗ + G∗

The withdraws in our model include taxation T . This means that the income
that households have to spend on consumer goods is no larger than Y , but
Y − T which is called disposal income, Yd . Hence,

C = C0 + bYd

where
Yd = Y − T
Practically, the tax with either be autonomous (T = T ∗ ) for some lump sum
T ∗ or be a proportion of national income

T = tY

for some proportion t or a combination of both

T = tY + T ∗

Example 12.5.2 Given that

G = 20,
I = 35,
C = 0.9Yd + 70,
T = 0.2Y + 25.

Calculate the equilibrium level of National income

Solution
Since

Y =C +I +G
G = 20, I = 35
C = 0.9Yd + 70, where Yd = (Y − T )
T = 0.2Y + 25

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Therefore,

Yd = [Y − (0.2Y + 25)]
= Y − 0.2Y − 25
= (1 − 0.2)Y − 25
∴ Yd = 0.8Y − 25

And C becomes,
C = 0.9(0.8Y − 25) + 70
Hence,

Y = 0.9(0.8Y − 25) + 70 + 35 + 20
= 0.72Y − 22.5 + 70 + 35 + 20
0.28Y = 102.5
∴ Y = 366

Investment I can be taken to be constant. It is more realistic to assume that

planned investment depends on the rate of interest r. As the interest rate rises,
so investment falls and we have a relationship

I = cr + d

where c < 0 and d > 0. Thus, for

C = 0.8Y + 100

and
I = −20r + 1000
From the equation
Y =C +I
we have

Y = (0.8Y + 100) + (−20r + 1000)

= 0.8Y − 20r + 1100
=⇒ 0.2Y + 20r = 1100. (53)

Equation (53) relates Y and r and is called the IS− Schedule. This model
investigates the money market. The money market is said to be in equilibrium
when the supply of money M s matches the demand for money M d , that is

Ms = Md

There are many ways of measuring the money supply. Money supply is simply
thought of notes and coins in circulation together with money held in bank

Page 142 of 336

deposits. The level of M s , is controlled by the central bank and taken to be
autonomous, so
M s = M s∗
for some fixed M s∗ . Money demand, M d comes from transactions, precautions
and speculations. Transactual demand is daily exchange of goods and ser-
vices, and Precautionary demand is used to fund emergencies requiring un-
foreseen expenditure. Both are proportional to national income. Consequently,
we have;
L1 = k1 Y
where L1 is the aggregate transactional-precautionary demand and is some con-
stant k1 > 0. Speculative demand is used as a reserve fund in case individuals
or firms decide to invest in alternative assets such government bonds.

L2 = k2 r + k3

where L2 is Speculative demand, k2 < 0 and k3 > 0 are constants. The total M d ,
is the sum of the transaction-precautionary demand and speculative demand,
that is,

M d = L1 + L2
= k1 Y + k2 r + k3

If the money market is in equilibrium, then

Ms = Md

That is
M s∗ = k1 Y + k2 r + k3
The equation, relation, relating national income, Y and interest rate, r is called
the LM −Schedule. If we assume that equilibrium exists in both the commodity
and money markets, then the IS and LM provide a system of two equations in
two unknowns, Y and r.

12.5.3 The LM Model

This model shows combinations of real output and interest rate such that the
money market is in equilibrium for a given price level, that is;

M s /P = L(i, Y )

where,

– M s /P is money supplied for a given price level.

– i is the national interest rate

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 – Y is the income
– L(i, Y ) is money demanded at the national rate of i and national income
Y.

Note 12.5.4 – Suppose Y1 > Y0 , this raises money demand, L(i, Y )

– As M s /P is fixed, M s < M d and L needs to fall.

12.5.5 The Short-Run IS − LM Equilibrium

As r = i we can plot the IS and LM conditions in (i = r, Y ) space as we have

two conditions in two unknowns. At equilibrium,

– Algebraically: M s = M d and Y = E p ,
– Graphically: The IS curve intersects with the LM curve at (Y ∗ , r∗ ) as
shown in the figure below;

Figure 65:

Example 12.5.6 Determine the equilibrium income and rate given the follow-
ing information about the commodity market

C = 0.8Y + 100
I = −20r + 1000

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and the money market;

M s = 2375
L1 = 0.1Y
L2 = −25r + 2000

What effect would a decrease in the money supply have on the equilibrium levels
of Y and r?

Solution
The IS−Schedule-commodity market in equilibrium is Equation (53) that is

0.2Y + 20r = 1100 (Y = C + I)

for the money market M s = 2, 375 and the total demand for money (sum of
transaction precautionary L1 and Speculative L2 ) is

M d = L1 + L2
= 0.1Y − 25r + 2000.

The money market equilibrium is when

Ms = Md

That is

2375 = 0.1Y − 25r + 2000

0.1Y − 25r = 375 (54)

Multiplying Equation (54) through by 2, we get;

0.2Y − 50r = 750 (55)

Solving the following systems of equations

(
0.2Y + 20r = 1100
−
0.2Y − 50r = 750

We get
70r = 350 =⇒ r = 5.
And so

0.2Y + 20(5) = 1100

=⇒ 0.2Y = 1000
=⇒ Y = 5, 000.

Equilibrium level of Y and r are therefore, 5000 and 5 respectively. Graphically;

Page 145 of 336

 Figure 66:

Example 12.5.7 Consider an IS − LM model;

C = 200 + 0.25YD
I = 150 + 0.25Y − 1000i
G = 250
T = 200

M d /P = 2Y − 8000i
M s /P = 1600

(i) Derive the IS and LM relations

(ii) Use the IS and LM relations from (i) above to solve for the equilibrium
levels of output Y and interest rate i
(iii) Use your answers from (ii) above to find values for consumption C and
investment I in this equilibrium.

Solution

(i) (a) The IS relation is found using the identity;

Y =C +I +G
Y = 200 + 0.25YD + 150 + 0.25Y − 1000i + 250
Y = 200 + 0.25(Y − T ) + 150 + 0.25Y − 1000i + 250
Y = 200 + 0.25Y − 0.25(T = 200) + 150 + 0.25Y − 1000i + 250
0.5Y = 550 − 1000i
=⇒ Y = 1100 − 2000i

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 Is the required IS relation.
(b) The LM relation is found by first equating Money supply to Money
demand. That is;

M s /P = M d /P
8000i = 2Y − 1600
Y
i= − 0.2
4000
Is the required LM relation.
(ii) We first substitute the expression for the LM relation into the IS relation
to obtain the value of Y as follows;
 
Y
Y = 1100 − 2000 − 0.2
4000
Y = 1100 − 0.5Y + 400
1.5Y = 1500
=⇒ Y = 1000

Therefore, we substitute Y = 1000 into the LM relation to find the corre-

sponding value of i. That is;
Y 1000
i= − 0.2 = − 0.2 = 0.05 = 5%
4000 4000

(iii) We know that consumption is given as;

C = 200 + 0.25YD
C = 200 + 0.25(Y − T )

Now substituting the values for Y = 1000 and T = 200 to get;

C = 200 + 0.25(1000 − 200) = 400

and Investment is given by

I = 150 + 0.25Y − 1000i = 150 + 0.25(1000) − 1000(0.05) = 350

Page 147 of 336

13 Non-linear Functions and Applications
13.1 Non-linear Functions
In Section 6.4, we already looked at quadratic equations and how to obtain solutions
of quadratic equation. And in Chapter 9.1 we learnt how to sketch any quadratic
equation. And so in the section, we will only focus on the applications of Quadratic
functions in economics.

13.1.1 Non-linear Supply and Demand Functions

Example 13.1.2 The supply and demand functions for a particular market are given
by the equations

Ps = Q2 + 6Q + 9 and Pd = Q2 − 10Q + 25

(i) Sketch the graph of each function over the interval Q = 0 to Q = 5.

(ii) Find the equilibrium price and quantity graphically and algebraically.

Solution

(i) Here we first make a table of values;

Q Ps = Q2 + 6Q + 9 Pd = Q2 − 10Q + 25
0 9 25
1 16 16
2 25 9
3 36 4
4 49 1
5 65 0

Note from the table of values that the vertical and horizontal intercepts of the de-
mand function are P = 25 (when Q = 0) and Q = 5 (when P = 0) respectively.
The vertical intercept of the supply function is P = 9 (when Q = 0).

Page 148 of 336

 Figure 67: Market equilibrium with non-linear demand and supply functions

(ii) From the graph, market equilibrium is at the point of intersection of the two
functions, estimated at Q = 1, P = 16. This solution may be found algebraically.
Market equilibrium exists when Pd = Ps and Qd = Qs . In this case, it is easiest
to equate the prices, so at equilibrium,

Ps = P d
Q + 6Q + 9 = Q2 − 10Q + 25
2

Q2 + 6Q − Q2 + 10Q = 25 − 9
16Q = 16
Q = 1.

When Q = 1, the value of P = 16. That is the market equilibrium quantity and
price is 1 and 16 respectively.

13.1.3 Non-linear Total Revenue for a Profit-maximising Monopolist

Total revenue functions are frequently represented by maximum type quadratics which
pass through the origin.

Example 13.1.4 The demand function for a monopolist is given by the equation

P = 50 − 2Q

(i) Write down the equation of the total revenue function.

(ii) Graph the total revenue function for 0 < Q < 30.

(iii) Estimate the value of Q at which total revenue is a maximum and estimate the
value of maximum total revenue.

Page 149 of 336

Solution
(i) Since P = 50 − 2Q, and T R = P × Q, then
T R = (50 − 2Q)Q = 50Q − 2Q2 .

(ii) Let us first get the Q−intercepts, we set T R = 0, and solve the total revenue
equation for Q−values, we get;
50Q − 2Q2 = 0
Q(50 − 2Q) = 0
Q=0 or 50 − 2Q = 0 =⇒ Q = 25.
Therefore, Q−intercepts are (0, 0) and (25, 0). The T R−intercept is also at
(0, 0). The vertex of the graph of T R-function is
     
b b 50 50
− ,TR − = − ,TR −
2a 2a 2(−2) 2(−2)
= (12.5, T R(12.5))
= (12.5, 312.5).

Figure 68: Non-linear total revenue function

(iii) From the vertex (12.5, T R = 312.5), the maximum Total revenue is T R = 312.5.
And the value of Q that maximizes the total revenue is Q = 12.5.

13.1.5 Total Revenue and Total Cost: Break-even Points

Example 13.1.6 The demand function for a good is given as
Q = 65 − 5P
Fixed costs are K30 and each unit produced costs an additional K2.

Page 150 of 336

 (i) Write down the equations for total revenue and total costs in terms of Q.

(ii) Find the break-even point(s) algebraically.

(iii) Graph total revenue and total costs on the same diagram, hence, estimate the
break-even point(s).
Solution
(i) Since, T R = P ×Q. If P is written in terms of Q, then T R will also be expressed
in terms of Q. That is

Q = 65 − 5P
5P = 65 − Q
=⇒ P = 13 − 0.2Q

Therefore,

TR = PQ
= (13 − 0.2Q)Q
∴ T R = 13Q − 0.2Q2 .

And the total cost is

TC = FC + V C
T C = 30 + 2Q

As required.

(ii) The break-even points occur when

TR = TC

Therefore, equating the two equations;

13Q − 0.2Q2 = 30 + 2Q
0.2Q2 − 11Q + 30 = 0

Solving this quadratic equation we get Q = 2.91 or Q = 52.1.

(iii) To sketch both T R and T C functions, consider the T R function first. Since

T R = 13Q − 0.2Q2

Then the Q−intercepts are (set T R = 0)

13Q − 0.2Q2 = 0
(13 − 0.2Q)Q = 0
=⇒ Q = 0 or 0.2Q = 13 =⇒ Q = 65.

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 Therefore, the Q−intercepts are (0, 0) and (65, 0), also the T R−intercept is at
(0, 0). Next we obtain the vertex (turning point) of the T R−function. Since
     
b b 13 13
− ,TR − = − ,TR −
2a 2a 2(−0.2) 2(−0.2)
= (32.5, T R(32.5))
= (32.5, 211.25).

Therefore, the turning point is at (32.5, 211.25), this means that the maximum
total revenue is T R = 211.25 and Q = 32.5 maximizes the total revenue. Now
considering the total cost function, T C. Since

T C = 30 + 2Q

is a linear function, the T C−intercept is (set Q = 0) T C = 30 and slope

(gradient)
∆T C
= 2.
∆Q
Therefore, the graph for both T R and T C is;

Figure 69: Total revenue and total cost: break-even points

13.2 Cubic Functions

A cubic function is expressed by a cubic equation which has the general form

ax3 + bx2 + cx + d = 0

where a, b, c and d are constants.

There is, unfortunately, no easy general formula for solving a cubic equation, but
approximate solutions may be found graphically by plotting the graph and finding
the points of intersection with the axes.

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13.2.1 Plotting Cubic Functions
Example 13.2.2 Plot the graphs of

(i) y = x3 and

(ii) y = −x3

On the same diagram. From the graph estimate the turning points and the roots of
the cubic equation. Compare the graphs of (i) and (ii).

Solution
The table of values for both functions is;

x y = x3 y = −x3
−3 −27 27
−2 −8 8
−1 −1 1
0 0 0
1 1 −1
2 8 −8
3 27 −27

Plotting these values we get;

Figure 70: Graphs of cubics

From the graphs above, we see that the two graphs have only one root at x = 0, and
have no turning points. Graph of y = x3 may be viewed as a reflection of graph
y = −x3 in the x−axis or y−axis.

In Example 13.2.2 each graph had no turning point and only one root. However, the
graphs of more general cubic equations will have

Page 153 of 336

 (i) No turning points or two turning points

(ii) Either one root or three roots

Example 13.2.3 Plot the graphs of the following:

(i) y = 0.5x3 − 5x2 + 8.5x + 27

(ii) y = −0.5x3 − 5x2 + 8.5x + 27

From the graphs estimate,

(a) The roots.

(b) The turning points.

Compare the graphs of (i) and (ii).

Solution

(i) We first make a table of values for the cubic function

y = 0.5x3 − 5x2 + 8.5x + 27

x y
−12 −1659
−8 −617
−4 −119
0 27
4 13
8 31
2 273
Plotting these values, we get;

Page 154 of 336

 Figure 71:

From the Figure 71, the cubic function has only one root, at x = −1.56 approx-
imately. And has two turning points at x = 1.0, y = 31 and at x = 5.5, y = 5.6.

(ii) Making the table of values for the cubic function

y = −0.5x3 − 5x2 + 8.5x + 27

x y
−12 69
−8 −105
−4 −55
0 27
4 −51
8 −481
2 −1455
Plotting the values, we get;

Page 155 of 336

 Figure 72:

From Figure 72, we can see that the cubic function has three roots, at
x = −11, x = −1.7 and x = 2.8 approximately. And has two turning points at
x = −7, y = −107 and at x = 0.8, y = 30.

Remark 13.2.4 Cubic equations are continuous curves, which may have, One root
or three roots and no turning point or two turning points.

Note 13.2.5 From an economic perspective, the first quadrant where x > 0, y > 0
for every graph is of interest.

Example 13.2.6 A firm’s total cost function is given by the equation, T C = Q3 .

The demand function for the good is P = 90 − Q.

(i) Write down the equations for total revenue and profit. Calculate the break-even
points.

(ii) Graph the total revenue and total cost functions on the same diagram for
0 ≤ Q ≤ 12, showing the break-even points.

(iii) Estimate the total revenue and total costs at break-even.

(iv) From the graph estimate the values of Q within which the firm makes

(a) a profit,
(b) a loss.

(v) From the graph estimate the maximum profit and the level of output for which
profit is maximized.

Solution

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(i) Since the total revenue function is

TR = PQ

Then
T R = (90 − Q)Q = 90Q − Q2 .
And profit, π is
π = T R − T C = 90Q − Q2 − Q3 .
The break-even points occur when T R = T C, therefore, solve

90Q − Q2 = Q3
0 = Q3 + Q2 − 90Q
0 = Q(Q2 + Q − 90)

Therefore, Q = 0 and solving the quadratic equation Q2 + Q − 90 = 0 gives

solutions Q = 9 and Q = −10.

(ii) To graph T R and T C, we calculate a table of values for the range 0 ≤ Q ≤ 12.

Q TR TC
0 0 0
3 261 27
6 504 216
9 729 729
12 936 1728

Plotting these points on the same axis, we have;

Figure 73: Quadratic T R and cubic T C functions

Page 157 of 336

(iii) From the graph break-even is at Q = 0 and Q = 9. At Q = 0, T R = T C = 0
and at Q = 9, T R = T C = 729.

(iv) The firm makes a profit when the T R curve is greater than the T C curve, that
is between Q = 0 and Q = 9. When Q is greater than 9 the firm makes a loss.

(v) Maximum profit occurs at the point where the vertical distance between T R and
T C is greatest. From the graph, this estimate is at Q = 5.15. Substituting
Q = 5.15 into the profit function to calculate profit, we have;

π = 90(5.15) − (5.15)2 − (5.15)3 = 300.4.

13.3 Exponential Functions

13.4 Introduction
So far we have only encountered functions of the form f (x) = xn , where n ∈ Z+ . For
example the quadratic function f (x) = x2 .

We now look at functions of the form g(x) = ax , where a ∈ R, a > 0, a 6= 1 is

the base and x is an exponent or index or power is called an exponential function.

Recall that if n is any positive integer then

an = a
|×a×
{z· · · × a}
n−times

For example

23 = 2 × 2 × 2 = 8
(−4)2 = −4 × (−4) = 16
−42 = −(4 × 4) = −16.

13.4.1 Properties of Exponents

(1) If a and b are any positive numbers and m and n are any real numbers, then
the following properties hold true.

(i) bn × bm = bn+m

(ii) (bn )m = bnm

(iii) (ab)n = an bn
 n
a an
(iv) = n
b b

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 bn
(v) bn ÷ bm = = bn−m .
bm
(2) If b > 0 but b 6= 1, and if m and n are real numbers, then bn = bm if and only
if n = m.

Example 13.4.2 Solve the following exponential equations.

1
(i) 2x = 32 (ii) 23x = (iii) 4x = 32
64
 x−4
2x 2x−1 1 1
(iv) (8 )(4 ) = 16 (v) =
5 125
Solution:
To solve for x, we need to make sure that we have the same bases so that we can apply
Property 13.4.1 (2) above.

(i) Since

2x = 32
⇒ 2x = 25
⇒ x = 5.

(ii) Similarly
1
23x =
64
⇒ 2 = 64−1
3x

⇒ 23x = 2−6
⇒ 3x = −6
⇒ x = −2.

(iii) The exponential equation 4x = 32 is the same as;

(22 )x = 32
⇒ (2)2x = 25
⇒ 2x = 5
5
⇒x= .
2

Page 159 of 336

(iv) The equation (82x )(42x−1 ) = 16 can be written in base 2 as follows;

(23 )2x × (22 )2x−1 = 16

⇒ 26x × 22(2x−1) = 16
⇒ 26x+4x−2 = 24
⇒ 210x−2 = 24
⇒ 10x − 2 = 4
⇒ 10x = 6
3
⇒x= .
5
 x−4
1 1
(v) Here = , can be written as;
5 125

(5−1 )x−4 = (125)−1

⇒ 5−x+4 = 5−3
⇒ 54−x = 5−3
⇒ 4 − x = −3
⇒ −x = −7
⇒ x = 7.

13.5 Exponential Functions

Definition 13.5.1 (Exponential Functions) Let b > 0 and b 6= 1 then the func-
tion f defined by
f (x) = bx
where x is any real number is called an exponential function with base b.

13.5.2 Exponential Graphs

Consider the graphs of two exponential functions in the following examples;

Example 13.5.3 Graph the following exponential functions on the same xy−plane:
 x
x 1
(i) f (x) = 2 (ii) f (x) =
2
Solution:

(i) For the function f (x) = 2x , the table of values is

x −2 −1 0 1 2 3
f (x) 0.25 0.5 1 2 4 8

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  x
1
(ii) And the table of values for f (x) = is;
2
x −3 −2 −1 0 1 2
f (x) 8 4 2 1 0.5 0.25
And so graph of (i) and (ii) is

Figure 74:

Note 13.5.4 The following properties of the graph of the exponential function
f (x) = 2x .
(i) The y-intercept is (0, 1).
(ii) The graph passes through (1, 2).
(iii) As x decreases without bound (that is, as x → −∞), f (x) → 0.
(iv) The graph is a smooth, continuous increasing curve.
 x
1
And for the graph of the function f (x) = , we note the following properties;
2
(i) The y-intercept is (0, 1).
 
1
(ii) The graph passes through 1, .
2
(iii) As x-increases without bound, (that is, as x → ∞), f (x) → 0.
(iv) The graph is smooth, continuous decreasing curve.

Page 161 of 336

13.5.5 Properties of f (x) = bx
For positive real numbers b 6= 1, the exponential function defined by f (x) = bx has
the following properties;

(i) The functions f is a one-to-one function it has the set of real numbers as its
domain and the set of positive real numbers as its range.

(ii) The graph of f is smooth, continuous curve with a y-intercept of (0, 1) and the
graph passes through (1, b).

(iii) If b > 1, f is an increasing function and the graph of f is asymptotic to the

negative x-axis. [As x → ∞, f (x) → ∞, and as x → −∞, f (x) → 0]
See figure 75 below.

Figure 75: f (x) = bx , b > 1

When the index is positive, the curves are increasing as ,x increases, provided
b > 1; these are called growth curves.

(iv) If 0 < b < 1, f is a decreasing function and the graph of f is asymptotic to the
positive x-axis. [As x → −∞, f (x) → ∞, and as x → ∞, f (x) → 0]
See Figure 76 below:

Page 162 of 336

 Figure 76: f (x) = bx , 0 < b < 1

When the index is negative, the curves are decreasing as x increases, provided
b > 1; these are called decay curves.

13.5.6 Translations of Exponential Graphs

(i) The graph of f (x) = bx + c is the graph of f (x) = bx moved upwards c units, in
the y-axis.
(ii) The graph of f (x) = bx − c is the graph of f (x) = bx moved downwards c units
in the y-axis.
(iii) The graph of f (x) = bx+c is the graph of f (x) = bx moved c units to the left in
the x-axis.
(iv) The graph of f (x) = bx−c is the graph of f (x) = bx moved c units to the right
in the x-axis.
(v) The graph of f (x) = −bx is the graph of f (x) = bx reflected across the x-axis.
Example 13.5.7 Sketch the following exponential functions
 x
3
(i) f (x) = +3 (ii) f (x) = 2x+3 − 2 (iii) f (x) = −2x
4
Solution:

3
(i) Since the base is less than 1, we know that the graph of f is a decreasing
4
function. Thus, the graph is given by;

Page 163 of 336

 Figure 77:

(ii) Since the base 2 is greater than 1. Then, f (x) = 2x+3 − 2 has an increasing
graph. Thus,

Figure 78:

Page 164 of 336

(iii) To sketch f (x) = −2x , we first sketch f (x) = 2x , which is an increasing function
and then reflect it across the x-axis.

Figure 79:

13.5.8 Application of Exponential Functions

Interest is defined as the cost of borrowing money as in the case of interest charged on
a loan balance. Conversely, interest can also be the rate paid for money on deposit as
in the case of a certificate of deposit. Interest can be calculated in two ways, simple
or compound interest.

13.5.9 Simple Interest

Simple interest is calculated on the principal (P ), or original, amount of a loan by
principal we mean the original sum of money borrowed in a loan or put into an in-
vestment.

The simple interest is given by

I = P rt

Page 165 of 336

where;

P = principal value (initial investment)

r = rate of interest (this is usually in decimals)
t = time.

13.5.10 Compound Interest

Compound interest is calculated on the principal amount and also on the accumulated
interest of previous periods, and can this, be regarded as ”interest on interest”. The
compound interest is given by
A = P (1 + r)t

P = principal value (initial investment)

r = rate of interest per annnum
t = time in years
A = the amount which accumulates in the account after t years.

Example 13.5.11 Find the total amount accumulated into a bank account if an ini-
tial sum of K1, 000 is invested for 2 years at a rate of 5% per annum.

Solution:
Here, the principal value is P = K1000, rate of interest r = 0.05 and time t = 2
years. Thus,

A = P (1 + r)t
= 1000(1 + 0.05)2
= K1102.5.

Example 13.5.12 What rate of interest is needed for an investment of K1000 to

yield K2000 in two years if interest is compounded annually?

Solution:
Here we are given the principal value to be K1000, the compound interest K2000 and
time 2 years. Thus,

A = P (1 + r)t
⇒ 2000 = 1000(1 + r)2
⇒ 2 = (1 + r)2
√
⇒1+r = 2
√
⇒r = 2−1
⇒ r = 0.41 or 41%.

Page 166 of 336

In the case where the interest is compounded more than once in a year, we use the
following formula;  nt
r
A=P 1+
n
where n is the number of compounding periods in a year.
Example 13.5.13 (i) The amount of K7, 00 is invested for 5 years at 6% per an-
num compounded semi annually, produces;

Solution:
 nt
r
A=P 1+
n
 2×5
0.06
A = 700 1 +
2
= 700(1 + 0.03)10
= K940.74.

(ii) The amount of K7, 00 is invested for 5 years at 6% per annum compounded
quarterly. Calculate the cumulative amount (A).

Solution:
Here
 nt
r
A=P 1+
n
 4×5
0.06
= 700 1 +
4
20
= 700(1.015)
= K942.8.

13.5.14 Natural Exponential Function

Definition 13.5.15 The letter e represents the number that
 n
1
1+
n
approaches as n increases without bound. That is
 n
1
e = lim 1 + ≈ 2.72 (2 dp).
n→∞ n
The approximate value of e can be obtained by evaluating
 n
1
1+
n

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for large values of n, as shown below
 n
1
n 1+ n
1 2
10 2.59374246
100 2.704813829
1, 000 2.716923932
100, 000 2.718268237
1, 000, 000 2.718280469

The value of e accurate to eight decimal places is e ≈ 2.71828183. And the exponential
function with e as the base is known as the natural exponential function.

Definition 13.5.16 (Natural Exponential Function) For all real numbers x, the
function defined by
f (x) = ex
is called the natural exponential function.

The graph of f (x) = ex is the same as that of f (x) = bx for b > 1 since e > 1. That
is ;
x f (x) = ex
−2 0.1
−1 0.4
0 1
1 2.7

Figure 80:

Page 168 of 336

We can now derive the formula for interest compounded continuously and indefinitely.
Since;  nt
r
A=P 1+ (56)
n
Then as n gets larger Equation (??) becomes;
 nt
r
A = lim P 1 +
n→∞ n
 nt
r
= P lim 1 +
n→∞ n
 rt× nr
r
= P lim 1 +
n→∞ n
   n rt
1 r
= P lim 1 + n (57)
n→∞
r

n
Let m = , then Equation (??) becomes;
r
  m rt
1
A = P lim 1 +
n→∞ m
| {z }
e
rt
A = Pe .

Note 13.5.17 The formula for compound interest for n compounding per year is
given by  nt
r
A=P 1+
n
And that of continuous compounding is given by

A = P ert

Example 13.5.18 What amount will an account have after 2 years if K5, 000 is
invested at an annual rate of 8%

(i) Compounded daily

(ii) Compounded continuously

Solution:
Given that the principal value P = K5, 000, rate per year r = 0.08 in t = 2 year.
Then

Page 169 of 336

 (i) Since there are 365 days in a year, then n = 365. Thus, the compound interest
is;
 nt
r
A=P 1+
n
 365×2
0.08
A = 5000 1 +
365
∴ A ≈ K5, 865.45.

(ii) When compounded continuously, we have;

A = P ert
= 5000 × e0.08×2
= 5000 × e0.16
∴ A ≈ K5, 867.55.

13.6 The Laws of Growth

Exponential functions to base e describe growth and decay in a wide range of systems,
as mentioned above. There are three main laws of growth: unlimited, limited and
logistic growth. Each of these is now described.

13.6.1 Unlimited Growth

Unlimited growth is modelled by the equation y = aert , where a and r are constants.

Example 13.6.2 The population of a village was 753 in 1980. If the population
grows according to the equation

P = 753e0.03t.

where P is the number of persons in the population at time t.

(i) Graph the population equation for t = 0 (in 1980) to t = 30 (in 2010). From
the graph, estimate the population (a) in 1990 and (b) in 2000.

(ii) Confirm your answers algebraically.

(iii) In what year will the population reach 1750 persons?

Solution

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(i) We first make a table of values, since we know the nature of the graph of an
exponential function, for the values from 0 ≤ t ≤ 30.

t P = 753e0.03t
0 753
5 874.9
10 1016.4
15 1180.9
20 1372.1
25 1594.1
30 1852.1

Plotting the values, we get;

Figure 81:

From the Figure 80, we make the following estimations;

(a) In 1990 (t = 10) the population is 1016 persons.

(b) In 2000 (t = 20) the population is 1372 persons.

(ii) The values in (a) and (b) can be confirmed algebraically as follows. In 1990,
t = 10 we substitute t = 10 into the equation;

P = 753e0.03t
=⇒ P = 753e0.03(10)
= 1016.44
≈ 1016 persons

Similarly, in 2000 at t = 20, substituting t = 20, we get;

P = 753e0.03(20)
= 1372.05
≈ 1372 persons

Page 171 of 336

(iii) From the graph, draw a horizontal line across from population = 1750. When
this line cuts the graph, draw a vertical line down to the horizontal axis. This
line cuts the horizontal axis at t = 28.1. The year is 1980 + 28.1 = 2008.1, or
during 2008.
Example 13.6.3 Cholera is an intestinal disease caused by a cholera bacterium that
multiplies exponentially by cell division as given approximately by
Qt = Qo e1.366t .
If we start with 10 bacteria, how many bacteria will be present in;
(i) 0.6 hours (ii) 3.5 hours;
Solution:
Given that Q0 = 10, then;
(i) In 0.6 hours, we will have;
Q0.6 = 10e1.366(0.6) ≈ 23 bacteria left.

(ii) In 3.5 hours, we will have;

Q3.5 = 10e1.366(3.5) = 1279 bacteria left.

13.6.4 Limited Growth

Limited growth is modelled by the equation
y(t) = M (1 − e−rt )
constants.
Example 13.6.5 A consumption function is modelled by the equation
C = 500(1 − e−0.3Y )
Graph the consumption function over the interval 0 < Y < 20. Use the graph to
describe how consumption changes as income increases.

Solution
Consider the table of vales of Y below from 0 to 20
Y C = 500(1 − e−0.3Y )
0 0
4 349
8 455
12 486
16 496
20 499
Plotting the values we get;
The shape of the graph indicates that as income Y increases, consumption increases
at a decreasing rate towards an upper limit of C = 500.

Page 172 of 336

 Figure 82: Consumption with limited growth

13.6.6 Logistic Growth

Logistic growth is modelled by the equation
M
y(t) =
1 + ae−rM t
where M , a and r are constants. Logistic growth is modelled in Figure below;

Figure 83: Logistic growth

Page 173 of 336

13.7 Logarithmic Functions
Every exponential function of the form f (x) = bx is a one-to-one function and there-
fore, has an inverse function. That is by interchanging the variables, we obtain;

f (x) = bx
y = bx
⇒ x = by

And so none of the previous methods learnt so far can be used to solve the equation
x = by for the exponent y. Thus, we now look at the definition of logarithms.

Definition 13.7.1 (Logarithm and Logarithmic Function) If x > 0 and b is a

positive constant (b 6= 1). then

y = logb x if and only if by = x.

The notation logb x is read as ”the logarithm (or log) of x base b”. The function
defined by f (x) = logb x is called a logarithmic function with base b.

Remark 13.7.2 The function f (x) = logb x is the inverse of an exponential function
g(x) = bx .

13.7.3 Changing from Logarithmic to Exponential Form and Vice Versa

The exponential form of the logarithmic function;

y = logb x is x = by .

And the logarithmic form of the exponential function;

x = by is y = logb x.

It is important to remember that the function f (x) = logb x is the inverse of the
function g(x) = bx . Thus, the composition of logarithmic and exponential functions
holds true. That is,

Let g(x) = bx and f (x) = logb x for all x > 0, b > 0 and b 6= 1, then

(g ◦ f )(x) = g(f (x)) = bf (x) = blogb x = x.

And
(f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x)) = logb g(x) = logb bx = x.

Example 13.7.4 .

(i) Write each equation in its exponential form

(a) 3 = log2 8 (b) 2 = log10 (x + 5) (c) loge x = 4 (d) logb b3 = 3

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 (ii) Express each exponential form in its logarithmic form.
 −3
3 2 5 1
(a) 5 = 125 (b) 10 = 100 (c) 4 = 32
2 (d) = 125
5
Solution:

(i) Changing from logarithm form to exponential form, we use the definition that,
y = logb x if and only if by = x. Thus,

(a) 3 = log2 8 ⇐⇒ 23 = 8.
(b) 2 = log10 (x + 5) ⇐⇒ 102 = x + 5.
(c) loge x = 4 ⇐⇒ e4 = x.
(d) logb b3 = 3 ⇐⇒ b3 = b3 .

(ii) Changing from exponential form to logarithmic form, we use the definition that
by = x if and only if y = logb x. Thus,

(a) 53 = 125 ⇐⇒ 3 = log5 125.

(b) 102 = 100 ⇐⇒ 2 = log10 100.
5
(c) 4 2 = 32 ⇐⇒ 52 = log4 32.
 −3
1
(d) = 125 ⇐⇒ −3 = log 1 125.
5 5

Note 13.7.5 If the base of a logarithm is 10, it is usually omitted because this is
called a common base. Thus,
log10 x ≡ log x.

Example 13.7.6 Evaluate the following logarithmic expressions.

(i) log4 64 (ii) log9 3 (iii) log9 9 (iv) log5 5

(v) log 1000 (vi) log2 23

Solution:

(i) Let m = log4 64, then in exponential form we have;

4m = 64
⇒ 4m = 43
⇒m=3

∴ log4 64 = 3.
Since we have the same bases.

Page 175 of 336

(ii) Let x = log9 3, so that

3 = 9x
⇒ (32 )x = 3
⇒ 32x = 31
⇒ 2x = 1
1
⇒x=
2
1
∴ log9 3 = .
2
(iii) Let m = log9 9

⇔ 9m = 91
⇒m=1

∴ log9 9 = 1.

(iv) Let p = log5 5

⇔ 5p = 51
⇒p=1

∴ log5 5 = 1.

(v) Let x = log 1000

⇔ 10x = 1000
⇒ 10x = 103
⇒x=3

∴ log 1000 = 3

(vi) Let x = log2 23

⇔ 2x = 23
⇒x=3

∴ log2 23 = 3.

Page 176 of 336

 13.7.7 Properties of Logarithms
If b > 0 and b 6= 1, then
(i) logb b = 1; since b = b1
(ii) logb 1 = 0; since 1 = b0
(iii) logb bx = x; since bx = bx
(iv) blogb x = x; since f (x) = logb x and g(x) = bx are inverses of each other. Thus,
g(f (x)) = x.

Example 13.7.8 Using the proceeding properties, evaluate each of the following log-
arithms.
(i) log8 1 (ii) log5 5 (iii) log2 (24 ) (iv) 3log3 7
Solution:

(i) By property (ii), we have;

log8 1 = 0
(ii) By property (i), we have;
log5 5 = 1
(iii) By property (iii), we have;
log2 24 = 4
(iv) By property (iv), we obtain;
3log3 7 = 7.
14

13.7.9 Special Properties of Logarithms

(i) For any positive numbers b 6= 1, r, and s,

logb (r · s) = logb r + logb s

Proof:
Let logb r = x and logb s = y, then by definition of logarithms, it follows that
bx = r and by = s respectively. Thus,
r · s = bx × by = bx+y (58)
14

(i) The function defined by f (x) = log10 x is called the common logarithmic function and is
written as f (x) = log x.
(ii) The function defined by f (x) = loge x is called the natural logarithmic function and is written
as f (x) = ln x.

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 in exponential form. And so in logarithmic form, Equation (56) becomes;
logb r · s = x + y. (59)
But x = logb r and y = logb s. Thus, Equation (57) becomes;
logb r · s = logb r + logb s
as required.
(ii) For any positive numbers b 6= 1, r and s, we have;
 
r
logb = logb r − logb s
s
Proof:
Let x = logb r and y = logb s, then by definition of logarithms, we have bx = r
and by = s respectively. Dividing through x by y we have;
r bx
= y = bx−y
s b
which is in exponential form. Thus, changing to logarithmic form, we have;
 
r
logb = x − y. (60)
s
But x = logb r and y = logb s. Thus, Equation (58) becomes,
 
r
logb = logb r − logb s
s
as required.
(iii) If r and b are positive numbers, where b 6= 1 and if x is any real number, then
logb rx = x logb r
Proof:
Let logb rx = z, then by definition of logarithm, it follows that
r x = bz
z
⇒ r = bx . (61)
Equation (59) is in exponential form. And so converting Equation (59) into
logarithmic form we obtain;
z
logb r = (62)
x
Multiplying Equation (60) throgh by x we get;
x logb r = z (63)
But z = logb rz . Thus, Equation (61) becomes
logb rz = x logb r
As required.

Page 178 of 336

Example 13.7.10 Given that log2 5 = 2.3219 and log2 3 = 1.5850. Evaluate log2 15
Solution:
Since

log2 15 = log2 3 × 5
= log2 3 + log2 5
= 1.5850 + 2.3219
= 3.9069
q
x
Example 13.7.11 Express logb yz
in terms of x, y and z.

Solution:
Since
r   12
x x
logb = logb
yz yz
 
1 x
= logb
2 yz
 
1
= logb x − logb yz
2
 
1
= logb x − (logb y + logb z)
2
 
1
= logb x − logb y − logb z
2
1 1 1
= logb x − logb y − logb z.
2 2 2
Example 13.7.12 Express 2 logb x + 3 logb y − 4 logb z as one logarithm.

Solution:
Here

2 logb x + 3 logb y − 4 logb z = logb x2 + logb y 3 − logb z 4

= logb x2 y 3 − logb z 4
 2 3
xy
= logb .
z4

13.7.13 Change of Base Property

Let a, b and x be any positive real numbers such that a 6= 1 and b 6= 1. Then

logb x
loga x =
logb a

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Proof:
Let loga x = m if and only if
am = x (64)
Then taking logb on both sides of Equation (62) we get;

logb am = logb x
⇒ m logb a = logb x
logb x
⇒m= (65)
logb a

But m = loga x. Thus, Equation (63) becomes;

logb x
loga x =
logb a
as required.

Example 13.7.14 Evaluate log3 41.

Solution:
logb x
Since loga x = then
logb a
log 41
log3 41 = .
log 3

Proposition 13.7.15
1
loga x =
logx a
Proof;
Let b = x, then the equation
logb x
loga x =
logb a
can be written as
logx x 1
loga x = = .
logx a logx a
Hence,
1
loga x = .
logx a

13.7.16 Domain of Logarithmic Functions

Definition 13.7.17 The functions f (x) = logb x has its domain the set of positive
real numbers. That is
Domain: = {x ∈ R|x > 0}.

Example 13.7.18 Find the domain of each of the following logarithmic functions.

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 (i) f (x) = log6 (x − 1)

(ii) f (x) = log2 |x + 2|

 
x
(iii) f (x) = log2
8−x
Solution:

(i) Solving (x − 3) > 0 for x we get x > 3. Thus, domain of f is

Domain: = {x ∈ R|x > 3}.

(ii) The solution set of |x + 2| > 0 consists of all real numbers x except x = −2.
Thus, the domain of f consists of all real numbers x 6= −2. In interval notation,



Domain: = − ∞, −2 ∪ − 2, ∞ .

x
(iii) Solving > 0 yields the set of all real numbers x between 0 and 8. Thus,
8−x
domain of f in interval notation is (0, 8).

13.7.19 Graphs of Logarithmic Functions

Since the function f (x) = logb x is the inverse function of g(x) = bx , then the graph
of f (x) = logb x is a reflection of the graph g(x) = bx across the line y = x.

Recall the graph of g(x) = 2x with table of values below;

x −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
1 1 1
g(x) = 2x 1 2 4 8
8 4 2
Then, the table of values for f (x) = log2 x using g values as our x values since f is
an inverse of g, we get;
1 1 1
x 1 2 4 8
8 4 2
f (x) = log2 x −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3

Thus, sketching the two functions on the same axis we get;

Example 13.7.20 Graph the following logarithmic functions

(i) f (x) = log3 x (ii) f (x) = log 2 x

3

Solution:

Page 181 of 336

 Figure 84:

(i) Method 1:
To graph f (x) = log3 x, we consider the equivalent exponential equation x = 3y .
Since this equation is solved for x, we choose values of y and calculate the
corresponding values of x as shown in the table of values below.
1 1
x = 3y 9 3
1 3 9
y −2 −1 0 1 2

Method 2:
Since the function f (x) = log3 x is the inverse of g(x) = 3x . Then finding the
inverse of g(x) = 3x . Let y = 3x . Then

log3 y = log3 3x
= x log3 3
| {z }
1
⇒ x = log3 y

Interchanging x and y we get;

g −1 (x) = f (x) = log3 x.

Thus, we first sketch the function g(x) = 3x and reflect it across the line y = x
to get the required graph of f (x) = log3 x.

Page 182 of 336

 Figure 85:

(ii) To sketch the graph of f (x) = log 2 x. We first sketch the exponential function;
3

 x
2
g(x) =
3

and the reflect it across the line y = x, to get the graph of f (x) = log 2 x as
3
follows;

Page 183 of 336

 Figure 86:

13.7.21 Natural Logarithm (Base e)

Like earlier stated, the function defined by f (x) = loge x is called the natural loga-
rithmic function. It is customarily written written as f (x) = ln x.
That is
f (x) = loge x = ln x.
The notation ln x is commonly used in place of loge x.

Note 13.7.22 All properties of logarithms stated before apply to natural logarithms.
That is;

(i) loge 1 = ln(1) = 0

(ii) loge e = ln(e) = 1

(iii) e ln(x) = x

(iv) ln rs = ln(r) − ln(s)

(v) ln rx = x ln(r)

(vi) ln(rs) = ln(r) + ln(s).

Page 184 of 336

 Figure 87:

Example 13.7.23 Show that the functions y = ln x and y = ex are inverses of each
other.

Solution:
Let f (x) = ln x and g(x) = ex . If f and g are inverses of each other, then
(f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x)) = x. (66)
Similarly
(g ◦ f )(x) = g(f (x)) = x (67)
Consider (64), since
(f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x))
= f (ex )
= ln ex
= x.
Similarly from (65), since
(g ◦ f )(x) = g(f (x))
= g(ln x)
= eln x
= x.

Page 185 of 336

Hence, f and g are inverses of each other.

13.7.24 Solving Exponential and Logarithmic Equations

If x > 0, b > 0 and b 6= 1, then logb x = logb y if and only if x = y.
Example 13.7.25 Solve the following exponential equations
(i) 3x = 5 (ii) ex+1 = 5 (iii) 23x−2 = 32x+1 (iv) 22x + 3(2x ) − 4 = 0
Solution:

(i) Here

3x = 5
⇒ log 3x = log 5
⇒ x log 3 = log 5
log 5
⇒x= .
log 3

(ii) Here

ex+3 = 5
⇒ ln ex+3 = ln (5)
⇒ (x + 3) |{z}
ln e = ln(5)
1
⇒ x + 3 = ln(5)
⇒ x = ln(5) − 3.

(iii) Here

23x−2 = 32x+1
⇒ log 23x−2 = log 32x+1
⇒ (3x − 2) log 2 = (2x + 1) log 3
⇒ 3x log 2 − 2 log 2 = 2x log 3 + log 3
⇒ 3x log 2 − 2x log 3 = log 3 + 2 log 2
⇒ x(3 log 2 − 2 log 3) = log 3 + 2 log 2
log 3 + 2 log 2
⇒x= .
3 log 2 − 2 log 3

(iv) Here

22x + 3(2x ) − 4 = 0
⇒ (2x )2 + 3(2x ) − 4 = 0 (68)

Page 186 of 336

 Let t = 2x . Then Equation (66) becomes

t2 + 3t − 4 = 4
⇒ (t + 4)(t − 1) = 0
⇒ t = −4 or t = 1.

When t = −4, we have no solution since 2x 6= −4 for all values of x ∈ R. Thus,

we discard t = −4. Now when t = 1, we have

2x = 1
⇒ 2x = 20
⇒ x = 0.

Therefore, the solution set is {0}.

Example 13.7.26 Solve the following logarithmic equations

(i) log x + log (x − 15) = 2

(ii) ln(x + 2) = ln(x + 10) − ln 3

(iii) log2 (x + 2) + log2 (2x − 1) = log2 x

(iv) log3 x − 4 logx 3 + 3 = 0

Solution:

(i) To solve this, since

log(ab) = log a + log b
Then

log x + log (x − 15) = 2

⇒ log x(x − 15) = 2
⇒ x(x − 15) = 102
⇒ x2 − 15x − 100 = 0
⇒ (x − 20)(x + 5) = 0
⇒ x = 20 or x = −5.

But we know that the values of x ∈ R+ . Thus, we only need x = 20, since
x = −5 < 0 is discarded. Therefore, the solution set is {20}.

Page 187 of 336

(ii) Here, ln(x + 2) = ln(x + 10) − ln 3
x + 10

⇒ ln(x + 2) = ln
3

x+10
⇒ eln(x+2) = eln 3
x + 10

⇒x+2=
3
⇒ 3x + 6 = x + 10
⇒ 2x = 4
⇒x=2
Therefore, solution set is {2}.
(iii) Here, log2 (x + 2) + log2 (2x − 1) = log2 x
⇒ log2 (x + 2)(2x − 1) = log2 x
⇒ (x + 2)(2x − 1) = x
⇒ 2x2 + 2x − 2 = 0
⇒ x2 + x − 1 = 0.
Let D = b2 − 4ac, then
D = 12 − 4(1)(−1)
⇒ D = 5.
Therefore;
√
−b ± D
x=
2a√
−1 ± 5
=
2√ √
−1 − 5 −1 + 5
⇒x= or x = .
2 2
 √ √ 
−1 − 5 −1 + 5
Thus, solution set is , .
2 2
(iv) To solve; log3 x − 4 logx 3 + 3 = 0. Since
1
logx 3 =
log3 x
by the change of bases property, then the equation becomes
 
1
log3 x − 4 +3=0
log3 x
4
⇒ log3 x − +3=0 (69)
log3 x

Page 188 of 336

 Let t = log3 x. Then Equation (67) becomes;
⇒ t2 − 4 + 3t = 0
⇒ t2 + 3t − 4 = 0
⇒ (t + 4)(t − 1) = 0
⇒ t = −4 or t = 1.
When t = −4, we have;
log3 x = −4
⇒ x = 3−4
1
⇒x= .
81
When t = 1, we have;
log3 x = 1
⇒ x = 31
⇒ x = 3.
 
1
Hence, the solution set is ,3 .
81
Example 13.7.27 With the definition of a log function, part (iii) of Worked Example
13.6.2 can now be solved algebraically. Given
P = 753e0.03t
find t when the population P = 1750.

Solution
Substitute P = 1750 into the equation for population and solve for t. We get;
1750 = 753e0.03t
1750
= e0.03t
753
e0.03t = 2.324
0.03t = loge (2.324)
0.03t = ln(2.324)
0.03t = 0.8433
0.8433
=⇒ t = = 28.11
0.03
So the year in which the population reaches 1750 persons is
1980 + 28.11 = 2008.11
or during the year 2008.

Page 189 of 336

Example 13.7.28 How long will it take K500 to double if it is invested at 8% com-
pounded quarterly?

Solution:
Here we are given r = 0.08, P = K500, A = K1000, n = 4, but t is unknown. Thus,
using the formula below;  nt
r
A=P 1+ ,
n
we have;
 4t
0.08
1000 = 500 1 +
4
4t
⇒ 2 = (1.02)
⇒ log 2 = log(1.02)4t
⇒ log 2 = 4t log(1.02)
log 2 ln(2)
⇒t= or t = .
4 log(1.02) 4 ln(1.02)

Example 13.7.29 Scientists estimate that the maximum carrying capacity of a lake
is 6000 and that the number of fish increase according to the equation
6000
P (t) =
1 + 29e−0.4t
where t is given in years and P (t) is the fish population at time t.

(i) Find the fish population in the lake at t = 0, t = 4, t = 10.

(ii) Graph the equation for 0 < t < 12.

(iii) From the graph estimate the time taken for the fish population to reach 1000, 3000, 4000.
Confirm your answers algebraically.

Solution: To be done in Class!!!

13.8 Hyperbolic Functions of The Form a/(bx + c)

In this section we only consider hyperbolic functions called rectangular hyperbolic
functions of the form y = 1/x. A function which is given by the equation y = a/(bx+c)
is called a hyperbolic function. The simplest rectangular hyperbolic function is
y = 1/x. The graph of y = 1/x consists of two seperate parts as shown below;

13.8.1 Functions of the form y = a/(bx + c)

Functions of the form y = a/(bx + c) have a similar shape to y = 1/x, except that
division by zero no longer occurs at x = 0, but at bx + c = 0 or x = −c/b.

Page 190 of 336

 Figure 88: Graph of y = 1/x

Example 13.8.2 Sketch the functions

1
(i) y =
x − 0.23
1
(ii) y = +3
x
Solution

(i) Step 1: Calculate the value of x that gives rise to division by zero. This will
determine the vertical asymptote. Division by zero occurs when the denominator
is zero
x − 0.23 = 0 =⇒ x = 0.23
Step 2: Calculate the points of intersection with the y−axis, using the fact that
x = 0 on the y−axis:
1 1
y= =⇒ = −4.35.
x − 0.23 0 − 0.23
Step 3: To get some idea of the curvature as the graph approaches the vertical
asymptote, calculate the coordinates of some points to its left and right:
x 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
y -4.35 -0.13 -33.33 14.29 5.88
Plotting this information, we get;

Page 191 of 336

 Figure 89:

1
(ii) The equation of the vertically translated function is y = + 3. The graph is
x
sketched by translating y = 1/x vertically up the y−axis by 3 units. The point
of intersection with the x−axis is easily found by solving for x when y = 0.

Figure 90:

13.8.3 Equations and Applications

Functions of the form a/(bx + c) model average cost, supply, demand and other
functions which grow or decay at increasing rates. The solutions of equations will
involve manipulating fractions.

Page 192 of 336

Example 13.8.4 The demand function for a good is given by the equation
Q + 1 = 200/P and the supply function is a linear function P = 5 + 0.5Q.

(i) Write the demand function in the form P = f (Q).

(ii) Sketch the supply and demand functions on the same diagram for −1 < Q < 20.
From the graph estimate the equilibrium point. Confirm your answer alge-
braically.

Solution

(i) Since
200
Q+1=
P
=⇒ P (Q + 1) = 200
200
=⇒ P = .
Q+1

(ii) To sketch the graph, follow these steps:

Step 1: General Shape; the demand function is a hyperbolic function; it has
a vertical asymptote at the value of Q which results in division by zero, that is
at Q = −1.
Step 2: Intersection with the axis; the graph cuts the P −axis at Q = 0,
therefore
200 200
P = = = 200.
0+1 1
The horizontal axis is an asymptote. You can show that the graph never cuts
the horizontal axis as follows. Since P = 0 at every point on the horizontal axis
(Q−axis), substitute P = 0 into the equation of the demand curve and find the
value of Q at which the graph crosses the Q−axis, therefore,
200
0= =⇒ 0(Q + 1) = 200.
Q+1
However, there is no value of Q + 1 which can be multiplied by 0 and give an
answer of 200. Zero multiplied by anything is zero. So there is no solution, or
no point where the graph crosses the horizontal axis. The supply function is a
linear function with intercept 5 and slope 0.5. Thus,

Page 193 of 336

 Figure 91: Market equilibrium

Algebraically, equilibrium exists when Pd = Ps and Qd = Qs . Since each equa-

tion is in the form P = f (Q), it is easiest to equate prices:
200
= 5 + 0.5Q
Q+1
200 = (5 + 0.5Q)(Q + 1)
200 = 0.5Q2 + 5.5Q + 5
=⇒ 0 = 0.5Q2 + 5.5Q2 − 195

Solve this quadratic for Q. The solutions are Q = −26 and Q = 15. As the
negative quantity is not economically meaningful, substitute Q = 15 into either
original equation and solve for the corresponding equilibrium price. Therefore
market equilibrium is reached when Q = 15 and P = 12.5.

Page 194 of 336

14 Matrix Algebra
14.1 Introduction
Matrices arise naturally in many ways and have many applications in data analytics
for storing information, in engineering for solving systems of equations such as

3x − 4y = 5
−6x + 7y = 6

Can be written in the form as

    
3 −4 x 5
=
−6 7 y 6
 
3 −4
where is called a matrix of coefficients.
−6 7
Note 14.1.1 Square brackets can also be used to write a matrix, that is we can write
 
3 −4
−6 7

in place of  
3 −4
−6 7
Matrices are also used in the study of communication theory, network analysis for
electrical engineers etc. For example let us consider the marks scored by a first
year student in different subjects and in different terminal examinations. They are
exhibited in a tabular form as given below.

Biology English Maths Chemistry

Test 1 70 81 88 64
Test 2 68 71 93 70
Test 3 80 86 100 78

The above statement can also be re-recorded as follows

This representation gives the following information.

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 (i) The elements along the first, second and third rows represent the test marks of
the different subjects.

(ii) The elements along the first, second, third and fourth columns represent the
subject marks in different tests.
Matrices provide a kind of mathematical shorthand to help the study of problems
represented by the entries.
Definition 14.1.2 (Matrix) A matrix is a rectangular array or arrangement of
entries or elements displayed in rows and columns put within a square bracket or
parenthesis.The entries or elements of a matrix may be any kind of numbers (real or
complex), polynomials or other expressions.
Matrices are denoted by the capital letters like A, B, C, . . . or X, Y, Z, . . .
Example 14.1.3 Below are some examples of matrices.
   
1 4 1 −4 2
A = 2 5  , B = 6 9 4
3 6 3 −2 6

To identify an entry or an element of a matrix two suffixes of an element say [αij ]

are used. The first suffix i denotes the row and the second suffix j denotes the column
in which the element occurs. Thus, from the above example, the elements of matrix
A are;

α11 = 1; α12 = 4; α21 = 2; α22 = 5; α31 = 3; α32 = 6.

14.2 Order or Size of a Matrix

The order or size of a matrix is the number of rows and the number of columns that
are present in a matrix.
Example 14.2.1 Consider the matrices in Example 14.1.3. Here, matrix A has
order 3 × 2 and this reads as 3 − by − 2, and the order of matrix B is 3 × 3 (to be
read as 3 − by − 3).
In general, a matrix A of order m × n can be represented as;
 
α11 α12 · · · α1n
 α21 α22 · · · α2n 
A =  ..
 
.. ... .. 
 . . . 
αm1 αm2 · · · αmn

where, the horizontal arrangement are the ith rows and vertical arrangement are the
jth columns. In symbolic form, the elements in the ith row and jth column are
denoted by αij . Thus  
Am×n = αij m×n

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Example 14.2.2 Construct a 3 × 2 matrix whose entries are given by αij = i − 2j.

Solution
A general 3 × 2 matrix is
 
  α11 α12
A3×2 = αij = α21 α22 
α31 α32
where i = 1, 2, 3 (rows) and j = 1, 2 (columns) it is given that αij = i − 2j. Thus,
α11 = 1 − 2 = −1; α12 = 1 − 4 = −3
α21 = 2 − 2 = 0; α22 = 2 − 4 = −2
α31 = 3 − 2 = 1; α32 = 3 − 4 = −1
Therefore, the required 3 × 2 matrix is
 
−1 −3
A =  0 −2 .
1 −1

14.3 Types of Matrix

14.3.1 Row Matrix
A matrix having only one row is called a row matrix or a row vector.
Example 14.3.2 The following matrices below are called row matrices;
   
(i) A = αij 1×3 = 1 −7 4 is a row matrix of order 1 × 3.
   
(ii) B = βij 1×2 = 5 8 is a row matrix of order 1 × 2.
   
(iii) C = γij 1×1 = 100 is a row matrix of order 1 × 1

14.3.3 Column Matrix

A matrix having only one column is called a column matrix or a column vector.
Example 14.3.4 The following matrices below are called column matrices.
 
  1
(i) A = αij 3×1 = −7 is a column matrix of order 3 × 1.
4
 
  25
(ii) B = βij 2×1 = is a column matrix of order 2 × 1.
30
   
(iii) C = γij 1×1 = 68 is a column matrix of order 1 × 1
Note 14.3.5 Any matrix of order 1 × 1 can be treated as either a row or column
matrix.

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14.3.6 Square Matrix
A square matrix is a matrix in which the number of rows and the columns are equal.
A matrix of order n × n is also known as a square matrix of order n.

Example 14.3.7 The following are square matrices

 
  2 4
(i) A = αij 2×2 = is a square matrix of order 2
6 8
 
  1 2 3
(ii) B = βij 3×3 = 4 5 6 is a square matrix of order 3.
7 8 9

Note 14.3.8 In general, the number of elements in a square matrix of order n is

given by n2 and the number of elements in a matrix of order m × n is given by mn.

14.3.9 Diagonal Matrix

 
A square matrix A = αij n×n is said to be a diagonal matrix if αij = 0 when i 6= j.
That is in a diagonal matrix all the entries except the entries along the main diagonal
are zero.

Example 14.3.10 The matrix

 
  4 0 0
A = αij 3×3 = 0 5 0
0 0 6

is a diagonal matrix with non zero entries in the main diagonal.

14.3.11 Triangular Matrix

A square matrix in which all the entries above the main diagonal are zero is called
a lower triangular matrix. If all the entries below the main diagonal are zero; it is
called an upper triangular matrix.
 
3 2 7
Example 14.3.12 The matrix A = 0 5 3 is an upper triangular matrix and the
  0 0 1
2 0 0
matrix B = 4 1 0 is a lower triangular matrix.
8 −5 7

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14.3.13 Scalar Matrix
 
A square matrix A = αij n×n is said to be scalar matrix if
(
α; if i = j
αij =
0; if i 6= j.

That is a scalar matrix is a diagonal matrix in which all the entries along the main
diagonal are equal.

Example 14.3.14 The following are some of scalar matrices;

√ 
  5 √0 0
  5 0  
A = αij 2×2 = and B = βij 3×3 =  0 5 √0 
0 5
0 0 5

and are examples of scalar matrices.

14.3.15 Identity Matrix

 
A square matrix A = αij n×n is said to be the identity matrix if
(
1; if i = j
αij =
0; if i 6= j.

That is an identity matrix is a scalar matrix in which entries along the main diagonal
are equal to 1. We denote the identity matrix of order n as In .

Example 14.3.16 The following are examples of 2 × 2 and 3 × 3 identity matrices

respectively.  
  1 0 0
1 0
I2 = and I3 = 0 1 0
0 1
0 0 1

14.3.17 Zero Matrix or Null Matrix

 
A matrix A = αij m×n is said to be a zero matrix or null matrix denoted by O. That
is αij = 0 for all values of i, j.

Example 14.3.18 The following are some examples of zero matrices or null matrices
   
  0 0 0 0 0
A1×2 = 0 0 , B3×2 = 0 0 , C3×3 = 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0

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14.3.19 Equality of Matrices
   
Two matrices A = αij m×n and B = βij p×q are equal if the following are true;

(i) both the matrices A and B are of the same order or size

(ii) the corresponding entries in both the matrices A and B are equal.
   
That is matrices A = αij m×n and B = βij p×q are equal if m = p, n = q and
αij = βij for every i and j.
   
x y 4 3
Example 14.3.20 Let A = and B = , then find the values of x, y, z, w
z y 1 2
if A = B.

Solution
Since the two matrices are equal, their corresponding entries are also equal. That is
A = B implies    
x y 4 3
=
z w 1 5
⇒ x = 4, y = 3, z = 1, w = 5.

14.3.21 Transpose of a Matrix

The matrix obtained from the given matrix A by interchanging its rows into columns
and its columns into rows is called the transpose of matrix A and it is denoted by
AT .
 
4 −3
Example 14.3.22 Transpose the matrix A = 2 0 
1 5
Solution  
4 2 1
T
The transpose of the matrix A is given by A =
−3 0 5

Note 14.3.23 If a matrix A is of order m × n, then its transpose AT is of order

n × m.

Example 14.3.24 Find the transpose and order of each matrix below;
 
2 6 3  
(i) A2×3 = (ii) B1×3 = 7 3 2
1 0 6
   
1 −5 6 1 6 7
(iii) C3×3 = 8
 7 10 (iv) D3×3 = 6 2 −8
−1 0 9 7 −8 3
Solution

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  
2 1
(i) Here A is of order 2 × 3. Its transpose is AT = 6 0 with order 3 × 2.
3 6
 
7
T
(ii) For matrix B, this is a row matrix with order 1 × 3, its transpose is B = 3

2
called a column matrix with order 3 × 1.

(iii) For matrix C, the size of this matrix is 3 × 3, and its transpose is
 
1 8 −1
C T = −5 7 0 
6 10 9

with order 3 × 3.

(iv) The matrix D is a special matrix called a symmetric matrix with D = DT , since
its transpose is the same as the original matrix. That is
 
1 6 7
DT = 6 2 −8 .
7 −8 3

14.3.25 Multiplication of a Matrix by a Scalar

Let A be any matrix. Let k be any non-zero scalar. The matrix kA is obtained by
multiplying all the entries of matrix A by the non-zero scalar k. That is
   
A = αij m×n ⇒ kA = kαij m×n .

This is called a scalar multiplication of a matrix.

Note 14.3.26 If A is of order m × n then the matrix kA is also of the same order
m × n.
     
1 7 2 1 7 2 2 14 4
Example 14.3.27 If A = , then 2A = 2 =
−6 3 9 −6 3 9 −12 6 18

Exercise 14.3.28 (Class Exercise) Let

 
3 −2
(i) A = , find −3A.
0 4
 
2 + i −4i
(ii) B = , find 2iB.
−3 + 2i i

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14.4 Operations on Matrices
14.4.1 Addition and Subtraction
Two matrices A and B can be added or subtracted provided both the matrices are
of the same order and their sum or difference (A ± B) is obtained by adding or
subtracting the corresponding entries of both the matrices A and B. That is if;
   
A = αij m×n and B = βij m×n

then  
A + B = αij + βij m×n .
Similarly;
     
A − B = A + (−B) = αij m×n + − βij m×n = αij − βij m×n

Note 14.4.2 (i) The matrices A + B and A − B have the same order equal to the
order of A or B .

(ii) Subtraction is treated as negative addition.

(iii) Additive inverse of matrix A is −A. That is A + (−A) = (−A) + A = 0 zero

matrix.
   
7 2 4 −7
Example 14.4.3 If A = 8 6 and B = 3
   1  find
9 −6 −8 5

(i) A + B (ii) A − B

Solution:
       
7 2 4 −7 7+4 2−7 11 −5
(i) A + B = 8 6  +  3 1  = 8 + 3 6 + 1  = 11 7 
9 −6 −8 5 9 − 8 −6 + 5 1 −1
       
7 2 −4 7 7−4 2+7 3 9
(ii) A − B = A + (−B) = 8 6  + −3 −1 = 8 − 3 6 − 1  =  5 5 
9 −6 8 −5 9 + 8 −6 − 5 17 −11
   
Note 14.4.4 If A = αij m×n is a matrix, then the matrix −A = −αij m×n is called
a negative matrix of A.

14.4.5 Matrix Multiplication

Definition 14.4.6 Two matrices A and B are said to be conformable for multiplica-
tion if the number of columns of the first matrix A is equal to the number of rows of
the second matrix B.

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The product 0 AB 0 is acquired by multiplying every row of matrix A with the corre-
sponding elements of every column of matrix B element-wise and add the results.

This procedure is known as row-by-column multiplication rule. Let A be a matrix of

order m × n and B be a matrix of order n × p, then the product matrix AB is of
order m × p. The following examples describe the method of obtaining the product
matrix AB.
Example 14.4.7 Work out the following;
 
  4 −7
(i) Let A = 3 −4 and B = , find AB.
−2 5
   
1 0 4 −3
(ii) Let A = and B = , find AB
0 1 6 7
 
  4 4
3 −4 6
(iii) If A = and B = 0 2 , find AB.
1 2 3
1 −1
 
4  
(iv) If A = and B = 6 7 , then find AB if possible.
−3
Solution

(i) Here A is of order (1 × 2) and B is of order (2 × 2) so we expect the result to

have (1 × 2) order.
 
  4 −7
AB = 3 −4
−2 5
 
= (3 × 4) + (−4 × −2) (3 × −7) + (−4 × 5)
 
= 12 + 8 −12 + (−20)
 
∴ AB = 20 −41
with the order 1 × 2 as required.
(ii) Here A of order 2 and B is of order 2 as well since they are both square matrices.
Thus, the product AB will have order 2.
  
1 0 4 −3
AB =
0 1 6 7
 
4 + 0 −3 + 0
=
0+6 0+7
 
4 −3
∴ AB =
6 7
Now here we notice that AB = B, this is because the matrix A is an identity
matrix. That is A = I2 .

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(iii) The matrix A is of order 2 × 3 and B is of order 3 × 2, thus the two matrices
are conformable and the product has order 2 × 2.
 
  4 4
3 −4 6 
AB = 0 2
1 2 3
1 −1
 
12 + 0 + 6 12 + (−8) + (−6)
=
4+0+3 4 + 4 + (−3)
 
18 −2
∴ AB =
7 5

(iv) Here matrix A has order 2 × 1 and matrix B has order 1 × 2. Thus, the product
result has order 2 × 2.
 
4  
AB = 6 7
−3
 
4×6 4×7
=
−3 × 6 −3 × 7
 
24 28
∴ AB =
−18 −21

Remark 14.4.8 Note all matrices can be multiplied. In general, a matrix of order
m × n can be multiplied by a matrix of order n × p resulting in a product of order
m × p.

14.5 Algebraic Properties of Matrices

The following properties hold on matrices;
(i) Matrix Addition is Commutative: If A and B are any matrices of the same
order, then
A + B = B + A.
(ii) Matrix Addition is Associative: If A, B and C are any matrices of the same
order, then
A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C.
(iii) Additive Identity: Let A be any matrix, then
A + 0 = 0 + A.
Here the zero matrix is called the identity matrix under addition.
(iv) Additive Inverse: Let A be any matrix, then
A + (−A) = 0 = (−A) + A
Here, the negative matrix −A of matrix A is called the additive inverse of matrix
A.

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 (v) In general, matrix multiplication is not commutative, that is

AB 6= BA

for all matrices A, B.

(vi) Matrix Multiplication is associative, that is

A(BC) = (AB)C.

(vii) Matrix Multiplication is distributive over addition, that is

(a) A(B + C) = AB + AC
(b) (A + B)C = AC + BC for all matrices A, B, C

(viii) For any matrix A

AI = IA = A
where I is the identity matrix.
     
1 8 1 3 −4 6
Example 14.5.1 A = ,B= and C = Prove that
4 3 7 4 3 −5
(i) AB 6= BA (ii) A(B + C) = AB + AC

(iii) A(BC) = (AB)C (iv) AI = IA = A

Solution

(i)
      
1 8 1 3 1 + 56 3 + 32 57 35
AB = = = (70)
4 3 7 4 4 + 21 12 + 12 25 24
      
1 3 1 8 1 + 12 8 + 9 13 17
BA = = = (71)
7 4 4 3 7 + 16 56 + 12 23 68

From (68) and (69) we have AB 6= BA.


5 35
(ii) To prove A(BC) = (AB)C, from (i) we have AB = . Thus
25 24
  
5 35 −4 6
(AB)C =
25 24 3 −5
 
−228 + 105 342 − 175
=
−100 + 72 150 − 120
 
−123 167
∴ (AB)C = (72)
−28 30

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 Conversely:
We first find BC; that is
  
1 3 −4 6
BC =
7 4 3 −5
 
−4 + 9 6 − 15
=
−28 + 12 42 − 20
 
5 −9
⇒ BC =
−16 22

and so
  
1 8 5 −9
A(BC) =
4 3 −16 22
 
5 − 128 −9 + 176
=
20 − 48 −36 + 66
 
−123 167
∴ A(BC) = (73)
−28 30

From (70) and (71) we have (AB)C = A(BC).

(iii) We prove that A(B + C) = AB + AC.

Since
   
1 3 −4 6
B+C = +
7 4 3 −5
 
1−4 3+6
=
7+3 4−5
 
−3 9
=
10 −1

Therefore,
  
1 8 −3 9
A(B + C) =
4 3 10 −1
 
−3 + 80 9 − 8
=
−12 + 30 36 − 3
 
77 1
A(B + C) = (74)
18 33

Conversely:

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57 35
We first find AB from (i) we have AB = . And
25 24
  
1 8 −4 6
AC =
4 3 3 −5
 
−4 + 24 6 − 40
=
−16 + 9 24 − 15
 
20 −34
=
−7 9
Therefore,
   
57 35 20 −34
AB + AC = +
25 24 −7 9
 
77 1
= (75)
18 33
From Equations (72) and Equation (73) we have;
A(B + C) = AB + AC
 
1 0
(iv) Since order A is 2, we take I2 = . Thus,
0 1
      
1 8 1 0 1+0 0+8 1 8
AI2 = = = =A (76)
4 3 0 1 4+0 0+3 4 3
      
1 0 1 8 1+0 8+0 1 8
I2 A = = = =A (77)
0 1 4 3 0+4 0+3 4 3
Therefore, from Equation (74) and (75) we have AI = A = IA as required.

14.6 Determinants
14.6.1 Introduction
 
Every square matrix A = αij n×n is associated with a single unique number called
the determinant, and is denoted by det(A) or |A|.
Note 14.6.2 The determinant of a matrix is not a matrix, but simply a number
associated with a given square matrix.

14.6.3 Notation for Determinant

 
Let A = αij n×n be an n × n matrix, then its determinant is denoted by
 
α11 α12 · · · α1n α11 α12 · · · α1n
α21 α22 · · · α2n  α21 α22
 · · · α2n 
det(A) = .. or det  .. ..  .

.. . . .. .. ...
. . . .  . . . 
αn1 αn2 · · · αnn αn1 αn2 · · · αnn

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14.6.4 Determinant of a 2 × 2 Matrix
 
α11 α12
If A = , then its determinant is given by
α21 α22

α11 α12
det(A) = = α11 α22 − α21 α12 .
α21 α22

Example 14.6.5 Find the determinant of the matrix

   
7 4 2 6
(i) A = (ii) B =
3 1 1 3
Solution
Here;
7 4
(i) det(A) = = (7 × 1) − (3 × 4) = 7 − 12 = −5
3 1

2 6
(ii) det(B) = = (2 × 3) − (1 × 6) = 6 − 6 = 0
1 3

Definition 14.6.6 (Singular Matrix) A square matrix A is said to be a singular

matrix if det(A) = 0.

For example the matrix B in Example 14.6.5 (ii) is called a Singular matrix since
det(B) = 0.

Definition 14.6.7 (Non-singular Matrix) A square matrix A is said to be a non-

singular matrix, if det(A) 6= 0.

For example, the matrix A in Example 14.6.5 (i) is called a non-singular matrix, since
det(A) = −5 6= 0.

14.6.8 Determinant of a 3 × 3 Matrix

To evaluate the determinant of order 3 matrix, we define minors and cofactors.
 
(1) Minors: Let det(A) = αij be a determinant of matrix A of order n, then
minor of an arbitrary element αij is the determinant obtained by deleting the
ith row and jth column in which the element αij stands. The minor of αij is
denoted by Mij .

(2) Cofactors: The cofactors is a signed minor. The cofactor of αij is denoted by
Aij and is defined by
Aij = (−1)i+j Mij .

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Example 14.6.9 Find the minors and cofactors of α11 , α12 , α13 of a third order de-
terminant
α11 α12 α13
det = α21 α22 α23 .
α31 α32 α33
Solution

(i) Minor of α11 is

α22 α23
M11 = = α22 α33 − α32 α23 .
α32 α33
Cofactors of α11 ;

α22 α23
A11 = (−1)1+1 M11 = = α22 α33 − α32 α23 .
α32 α33

(ii) Minor of α12 ;

α21 α23
M12 = = α21 α33 − α31 α23 .
α31 α33
Cofactor of α12 is;

α21 α23
A12 = (−1)1+2 M12 = = −(α21 α33 − α23 α31 ).
α31 α33

(iii) Minor of α13 is

α21 α22
M13 = = α21 α32 − α31 α22 .
α31 α32
Cofactor of α13 is;

α21 α22
A13 = (−1)1+3 M13 = = α21 α32 − α31 α22 .
α31 α32

Example 14.6.10 Find the matrix of all cofactors in the matrix

 
2 −1 3
A = 0 6 −4
1 −2 7

and denote it by C.

Solution

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  
6 −4 0 −4 0 6
+ −2 7 − +
 1 7 1 −2 

 
 
 −1 3 2 3 2 −1 
 − −2 7
C= + − 
 1 7 1 −2 

 
 
 −1 3 2 3 2 −1 
+ − +
6 −4 0 −4 0 6
 
34 −4 −6
∴C= 1 11 3 
−14 8 12
15
 
The determinant of a 3 × 3 matrix A = αij of order 3 is obtained as follows;

Let  
α11 α12 α13
A = α21 α22 α23 
α31 α32 α33
then
α22 α23 α α α α
det(A) = α11 − α12 21 23 + α13 21 22 (78)
α32 α33 α31 α33 α31 α32
If we compare the above Equation (76) we can clearly see that the determinant of A
can be found simply by using

Therefore,


|A| = α11 α22 α33 + α12 α23 α31 + α13 α21 α32 − α13 α22 α31 + α11 α23 α32 α22 + α12 α21 α33
Example 14.6.11 Find the determinant of
 
5 5 2
A = 1 2 −3
5 2 14
15
In a 3 × 3 matrix it is not necessaryto use theformula for cofactors. Just multiply minor by
+ − +
appropriate signs following the pattern. − + −.
+ − +

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Solution
The determinant of matrix A is;

2 −3 1 −3 1 2
det(A) = 5 −5 +2
2 14 5 14 5 2
   

= 5 28 − (−6) − 5 14 − (−15) + 2 2 − 10
= 5(34) − 5(29) + 2(−8)
= 25 − 16
∴ det(A) = 9.

We can also use the second method which is

   
det(A) = 140 + (−75) + 4 − 20 + (−30) + 70
= 69 − 60
∴ det(A) = 9.

14.7 Inverse of a Square Matrix

14.7.1 The inverse of a 2 × 2 matrix
 
  α11 α12
Let A = αij 2×2 be defined by A = , then the inverse of matrix A denoted
α21 α22
by A−1 is given by  
−1 1 α22 −α12
A =
det(A) −α21 α11
where det(A) = α11 α22 − α21 α12 6= 0
16
 
a b
Theorem 14.7.2 If A = is any non-singular matrix, then
c d
 
−1 1 d −b
A =
det(A) −c a
16
Note that to find the inverse of any n × n matrix A, the matrix A need to be a non-singular
matrix so that determinant is not equal to zero.

Page 211 of 336

where det(A) = ad − bc 6= 0.

Proof
We know that if A−1 is the
 inverse
  A·A
of A, then −1
 = I, where I is the inverse
a b x y
matrix. Given that A = ; Let A−1 = be the inverse of A. Then we
c d w z
expect
    
a b x y 1 0
=
c d w z 0 1
   
ax + bw ay + bz 1 0
⇒ =
cx + dw cy + dz 0 1
( (
ax + bw = 1 ay + bz = 0
⇒
cx + dw = 0 cy + dz = 1
From the above systems of equations, we have
( (
(ax + bw = 1) × d (ay + bz = 0) × d
(cx + dw = 0) × b (cy + dz = 1) × b

⇒ adx + bdw = d (79)

cbx + bdw = 0 (80)

and

ady + bdz = 0 (81)

bcy + bdz = b (82)

Subtracting Equation (78) from Equation (77) we get

x(ad − cd) = d
d
⇒x=
ad − cb
Subtracting Equation (80) from Equation (79) we get

y(ad − bc) = −b
−b
⇒y=
ad − bc

Page 212 of 336

Solving for w, we substitute the value of x into; ax + bw = 1
ax + bw = 1
⇒ bw = 1 − ax
 
d
⇒ bw = 1 − a
ad − bc
ad − bc − ad
⇒ bw =
ad − bc
−c
⇒w=
ad − bc
Solving for z, we substitute the value of y into ady + bdz = o
⇒ bdz = −ady
⇒ bdz = −ady
 
−b
⇒ bz = −a
ad − bc
a
⇒z=
ad − bc
Now substituting the values of x, y, w and z back into
−b
 
d
 ad − cb ad − bc 
  
x y

−1
A = =
w z

 −c a 
ad − bc ad − bc

1 d −b
=
ad − bc −c a
 
1 d −b
= .
det(A) −c a
Hence proved.
 
2 5
Example 14.7.3 Find the inverse of the matrix A =
−3 7
Solution
We first find the determinant of A, that is;
2 5
det(A) = = (2 × 7) − (−3 × 5)
−3 7
= 14 − (−15)
= 29.
Therefore, the inverse is  
−1 1 7 −5
A = .
29 3 2

Page 213 of 336

14.7.4 The Inverse of a 3 × 3 Matrix
To find the inverse of a 3 × 3 matrix A, we have first to find the adjoint of a square
matrix A.

(1) Adjoint of a Square Matrix: To find the adjoint of a square matrix A denoted
by Adj(A) we have to;

(i) form the matrix C of all the cofactors of the matrix A.

(ii) find the transpose of the matrix C of cofactors, then Adj(A) = C T .

(2) Inverse of matrix A: After obtaining the Adjoint matrix, Adj(A) = C T , then

(i) find the determinant of matrix A, i.e det(A).

(ii) then finally, the inverse of matrix A will be given by
1
A−1 = · Adj(A).
det(A)
 
2 7 4
Example 14.7.5 Given that A = 3 1 6. Find
5 0 8

(i) det(A) or |A| (ii) The Adj(A)

(iii) A × Adj(A) (iv) Inverse of A i.e. A−1

Solution

(i) Here the determinant of matrix A is;

2 7 4
det(A) = 3 1 6
5 0 8
 
1 6 3 6 3 1
=2 −7 +4
0 8 5 8 5 0
= 2(8 − 0) − 7(24 − 30) + 4(0 − 5)
= 16 + 42 − 20
∴ det(A) = 38

Page 214 of 336

(ii) Let the matrix of cofactors be denoted by C, then
 
1 6 3 6 3 1
+ 0 8 − 5 8 +
5 0 
 
 
 
 7 4 2 4 2 −7 
C = − + − 
 0 8 5 8 5 0 

 
 
 7 4 2 4 2 7 
+ − +
1 6 3 6 3 1
 
8 6 −5
∴ C = −56 −4 35 

38 0 −19

Then, the adjoint of matrix A is Adj(A) = C T . Thus, transposing C we get

 
8 −56 38
Adj(A) = C T =  6 −4 0 
−5 35 −19

(iii)
  
2 7 4 8 −56 38
A × Adj(A) = 3 1 6  6 −4 0 
5 0 8 −5 35 −19
 
16 + 42 − 20 −11 − 28 + 140 76 + 0 − 76
=  24 + 6 − 30 −168 − 4 + 210 114 + 0 − 114
40 + 0 − 40 −280 + 0 + 280 190 + 0 − 152
 
38 0 0
=  0 38 0 
0 0 38
 
1 0 0
= 38 0 1 0
0 0 1

Thus, A × Adj(A) = |A| · I, where I denotes the identity matrix.

(iv) Since det(A) = 38, then the inverse of A is given by

1
A−1 = · Adj(A)
det(A)
 
8 −56 38
1 
= 6 −4 0 .
38
−5 35 −19

Page 215 of 336

14.8 Properties of Square Matrices
(1) The Adjoint Matrix Property: The product of a Square matrix A by its adjoint
(Adj(A)) matrix is equal to the determinant of matrix A times the identity
matrix I. That is
A × Adj(A) = |A| · I = det(A) · I.

(2) The Inverse Property: If A and B are two square matrices of the same order,
such that AB = BA = I, then the matrix B is the inverse of matrix A and
matrix A is the inverse of matrix B. Let B = A−1 . Then

A · A−1 = A−1 A = I (83)

Note that, the matrix A has inverse if and if it is a non-singular matrix. That is
determinant |A| =
6 0. Now it follows from Equation (103), since

A × Adj(A) = det(A)I
A × Adj(A)
⇒I= (84)
det(A)
Then Equation (103) and Equation (82) follow that
A × Adj(A)
A · A−1 = (85)
det(A)

multiplying Equation (83) through out by A−1 we get

−1 −1 −1 1
A A A = A · A · Adj(A)
| {z } det(A)
I
1
⇒ IA−1 = I · · Adj(A)
det(A)

1
∴ A−1 = · Adj(A)
det(A)
provided det(A) 6= 0.
 
1 2 3
Example 14.8.1 (i) Find the inverse of the matrix A = 2 1 1 
3 1 −2

(ii) Hence, solve the system of equations

x + 2y + 3z = 6
2x + y + z = 5
3x + y − 2z = 1

Solution

Page 216 of 336

(i) The matrix of cofactors is
 
1 1 2 1 2 1
+ 1 −2 − 3 −2
+
3 1
 
 
 
 2 3 1 3 1 2
C= − 1 −2 + 3 − 
 −2 3 1
 
 
 2 3 1 3 1 2
+ − +
1 1 2 1 2 1
 
−3 7 −1
∴ C = 7 −11 5 

−1 5 −3

Therefore, the adjoint of A is

 
−3 7 −1
Adj(A) = C T =  7 −11 5 
−1 5 −3

We now find the determinant of A. That is

1 2 3
1 1 2 1 2 1
det(A) = 2 1 1 = 1 −2 +
1 −2 3 −2 3 1
3 1 −2
= 1(−2 − 1) − 2(−4 − 3) + 3(2 − 3)
∴ det(A) = 8.

Hence, the inverse of A is

1
A−1 = · Adj(A)
det(A)
 
−3 7 −1
1
=  7 −11 5  .
8
−1 5 −3

(ii) Writing the system of equations in matrix form we have

    
1 2 3 x 6
2 1 1  y  = 5 (86)
3 1 −2 z 1
     
1 2 3 x 6
Let A = 2 1 1 , X = y  and B = 5. Then Equation (84) simplifies
3 1 −2 z 1

Page 217 of 336

 to

AX =B
−1
⇒ A · AX = A−1 B
⇒ IX = A−1 B
⇒X = A−1 B

And so
    
x −3 7 −1 6
y  = 1  7 −11 5  5
8
z −1 5 −3 1
 
−18 + 35 − 1
1
=  42 − 55 + 5 
8
−6 + 25 − 3
 
16
1
= −8
8
16
   
x 2
⇒ y  = −1
z 2

Hence, x = 2, y = −1 and z = 2.

14.9 Crammer’s Rule

Crammer’s rule can also be used to solve systems of equations of the form

a1 x + b 1 y = c 1
a2 x + b 2 y = c 2
 
a1 b 1
by first writing the coefficient matrix A = and assume that the determinant
a2 b 2
of matrix A is not zero. That is
a1 b 1
D = det(A) = = a1 b2 − a2 b1 6= 0
a2 b 2

Then by using elimination method we have

[a1 x + b1 y = c1 ] × b2
[a2 x + b2 y = c2 ] × b1

a1 b2 x + b1 b2 y = b2 c1 (87)
a2 b1 x + b1 b2 y = b1 c2 (88)

Page 218 of 336

Subtracting Equation (86) from Equation (85) we get;

x(a1 b2 − a2 b1 ) = b2 c1 − b1 c2
c1 b1
b2 c 1 − b1 c 2 c2 b2
⇒x= =
a1 b 2 − a2 b 1 a1 b1
a2 b2
Dx
=
D
Similarly, it can be shown that
a1 b1
a2 c 2 − a2 c 1 a2 b2
y= =
a1 b 2 − a2 b 1 a1 b1
a2 b2
Dy
=
D
And so from the matrix representation of

a1 x + b 1 y = c 1
a2 x + b 2 y = c 2

That is     
a1 b 1 x c
= 1
a2 b 2 y c2
we have      
a1 b 1 c 1 b1 a c
D= , Dx = , Dy = 1 1
a2 b 2 c 2 b2 a2 c 2
as the solutions of any given system of equation.
Example 14.9.1 Solve the system of linear equation below

3x − 5y = −2
x + 2y = 4

Solution
Rewriting the equations in matrix form we have;
    
3 −5 x −2
=
1 2 y 4
 
3 −5
Here, let matrix of coefficients be A = , so that
1 2

3 −5 −2 −5 3 −2
D= , Dx = , Dy =
1 2 4 2 1 4

Page 219 of 336

So that

D = 6 − (−5) = 11, Dx = −4 − (−20) = 16 and Dy = 12 − (−2) = 14

Hence
Dx 16 Dy 14
x= = , and y= = .
D 11 D 11
Example 14.9.2 Solve the system of equations

x − y − z = −6
2x + y + z = 0
3x − 5y + 8z = 13

Solution
In matrix form we have
    
1 −1 −1 x −6
2 1 1  y  =  0 
3 −5 8 z 13

So
1 −1 −1
1 1 2 1 2 1
D= 2 1 1 =1 − (−1) + (−1)
−5 8 3 8 3 −5
3 −5 8
= 1(8 + 5) + 1(16 − 3) − 1(−10 − 3)
= 13 + 13 + 13
∴ D = 39

−6 0 13
1 1 0 1 0 1
Dx = 2 1 1 = −6 − (−1) + (−1)
−5 8 13 8 13 −5
3 −5 8
= −6(8 + 5) + 1(0 − 13) − 1(0 − 13)
= −78 − 13 + 13
∴ Dx = −78

1 2 3
2 1 2 1 2 0
Dy = −6 0 13 = 1 − (−6) + (−1)
13 8 3 8 3 13
−1 1 8
= 1(0 − 13) + 6(16 − 3) − 1(26 − 1)
= −13 + 78 − 26
∴ Dy = 39

Page 220 of 336

 1 −1 −6
−1 −6 1 −6 1 −1
Dz = 2 1 0 = −2 + −0
−5 13 3 13 3 −5
3 −5 13
= −2(−13 − 30) + 1(13 + 18) − 0
= 86 + 31
∴ Dz = 117

Dx −78 Dy 39 Dz 117
x= = ; y= = =1 and z= = =3
D 39 D 39 D 39
78
That is x = − = −2, y = 1, z = 3.
39

14.10 Reduced Row Echelon Form (RREF)

We can also use the reduced row echelon form to solve a system of linear equations.
We demonstrate this in the following example;

Example 14.10.1 Solve the following system of linear equations by the method of
reduced row echelon form

x − y − z = −6
2x + y + z = 0
3x − 5y + 8z = 13

Solution.
From the system of equations, we have the following matrix representation of the
equations;     
1 −1 −1 x −6
2 1 1  y  =  0 
3 −5 8 z 13
Let      
1 −1 −1 x −6
A = 2 1 1  , X = y  & B =  0 
3 −5 8 z 13
Then we can define an augmented matrix [A|B] as follows;
 
1 −1 −1 −6
[A|B] =  2 1 1 0 
3 −5 8 13

Making zeros in column 1 except the entry at row 1, column 1 (pivot entry), we
subtract row 1 multiplied by 2 from row 2, that is

R2 −→ R2 − 2R1

Page 221 of 336

We get;  
1 −1 −1 −6
 0 3 3 12 
3 −5 8 13
Subtracting row 1 multiplied by 3 from row 3, that is

R3 −→ R3 − 3R1

We get;  
1 −1 −1 −6
 0 3 3 12 
0 −2 11 31
Making zeros in column 2 except the entry at row 2 (pivot entry), we divide row 2 by
3, that is;
R2
R2 −→
3
We get;  
1 −1 −1 −6
 0 1 1 4 
0 −2 11 31
Adding row 2 to row 1, that is

R1 −→ R1 + R2

We get;  
1 0 0 −2
 0 1 1 4 
0 −2 11 31
Adding row 2 multiplied by 2 to row 3, that is

R3 −→ R3 + 2R2

We get;  
1 0 0 −2
 0 1 1 4 
0 0 13 39
Making zeros in column 3 except the entry at row 3, column 3 (pivot entry), we divide
row 3 by 13. That is
R3
R3 −→
13
We get  
1 0 0 −2
 0 1 1 4 
0 0 1 3

Page 222 of 336

Subtracting row 3 from row 2, that is

R2 −→ R2 − R3

We get a required row reduced echelon form of matrix A as;

 
1 0 0 −2
 0 1 0 1 
0 0 1 3

Hence, from the row reduced echelon form, we have x = −2, y = 1 and z = 3.

14.10.2 Applications of Matrix Arithmetic

Example 14.10.3 A distributor records the weekly sales of personal computers (PCs)
in three retail outlets in different parts of the country as shown in the table below. The
cost price of each model is:

Pentium (Basic) Pentium (Extra) Pentium (Latest)

Shop A 150 320 180
Shop B 170 420 190
Shop C 201 63 58

Table 1: Number of Computers Sold in Each Shop

Pentium (basic) K480, Pentium (extra) K600, Pentium (latest) K1020.

The retail price of each model in each of the three shops is given in the table be-
low; Use matrix multiplication to calculate

Pentium (Basic) Pentium (Extra) Pentium (Latest)

Shop A 560 750 1580
Shop B 520 690 1390
Shop C 590 720 1780

Table 2: Selling price of computers in each shop

(i) The total weekly cost of computers to each shop.

(ii) The total weekly revenue for each model for each shop.

(iii) The total weekly profit for each shop.

Which shop makes the greatest overall profit?

Solution

Page 223 of 336

(i) Let Q be the number of computers sold. Thus, Q may be written as a matrix,

P C → Basic Extra Latest

 
ShopA 150 320 180
Q = ShopB  170 420 190 
ShopC 201 63 58
And the cost of each type of computer can be written as a column matrix C:
 
480
C =  600 
1020

If this cost matrix C is premultiplied by the numbers sold matrix, Q, the product
will be a 3 × 1 matrix, in which the elements in each row gives the total cost of
computers to each shop:
Total Cost = Q · C
That is;     
150 320 180 480 447600
QC = 170 420 190  600  = 527400
201 63 58 1020 193440
Therefore, Cost to: Shop A = K447600, Shop B = K527400, and
Shop C = K193440.

(ii) Since
TR = P × Q
Here the quantity Q is given by matrix Q, and the prices, P are obtained from
the data in the price table . Since matrix multiplication, however, is carried out
by multiplying rows by columns; therefore in order to multiply quantity × price
for each PC, the prices matrix must be transposed before premultiplying by the
quantities matrix, Q. That is
 T  
560 750 1580 560 520 590
P = 520 690 1390 =  750 690 720 
590 720 1780 1580 1390 1780

Now
PC → Basic Extra Latest
  
ShopA 150 320 180 560 520 590
T R = QP = ShopB  190   750 690 720 
 
170 420
ShopC 201 63 58 1580 1390 1780
 
604400 N/A N/A
=  N/A 642300 N/A 
N/A N/A 267190

Page 224 of 336

 The total revenue for each shop is given by the elements on the main diagonal
of the product matrix. Total revenue for shops A, B and C are summarised in
a column matrix, T R;

 
ShopA = 604400
T R = ShopB = 642300 
ShopC = 267190

(iii) Profit is the difference between the total revenue and total cost. That is

π = TR − TC

Thus,
     
604400 447600 156800
π = 642300 − 527400 = 114900
267190 193440 73750
So shop A makes the highest profit.

Example 14.10.4 Given the supply and demand functions for two related goods, A
and B,
(
Qda = 30 − 8Pa + 2Pb
Good A :
Qsa = −15 + 7Pa
(
Qdb = 28 + 4Pa − 6Pb
Good B :
Qsb = 12 + 2Pb

(i) Write down the equilibrium condition for each good. Hence, deduce two equa-
tions in Pa and Pb .
(ii) Use Cramer’s rule to find the equilibrium prices and quantities for goods A and
B.
Solution
(i) The equilibrium condition for each good is that Qs = Qd .

For Good A;

−15 + 7Pa = 30 − 8Pa + 2Pb

15Pa − 2Pb = 45

For Good B;

12 + 2Pa = 28 + 4Pa − 6Pb

−4Pa + 8Pb = 16

Page 225 of 336

 Therefore, the simultaneous equations are;
(
15Pa − 2Pb = 45
−4Pa + 8Pb = 16

(ii) By the Cramer’s rule;

45 −2
∆Pa 16 8 (45)(8) − (16)(−2) 360 − (−32) 392
Pa = = = = = = 3.5.
∆ 15 −2 (15)(8) − (−4)(−2) 120 − 8 112
−4 8

15 45
∆Pb −4 16 (15)(16) − (−4)(45) 240 − (−180) 420
Pb = = = = = = 3.75.
∆ 15 −2 (15)(8) − (−4)(−2) 120 − 8 112
−4 8
Substituting these values of Pa and Pb into any of the original equations, solve
for Qa and Qb . Solution: Qa = 9.5 and Qb = 19.5.

14.10.5 General Expressions for Equilibrium in the Income-determination

Model
Cramer’s rule may be used to find general expressions for the equilibrium level of
income, consumption, investment, etc. in the income determination model.
Example 14.10.6 Given the general income-determination model (no government
sector):
Y =C +I (89)
C = C0 + bY (90)
where I = I0 , 0 < b < 1 (b, I0 and C0 are constants).
(i) Write Equations (87) and (88) in the form:
a1 Y + a2 C = a3
where a1 , a2 and a3 are constants.
(ii) Hence, use Cramer’s rule to express the equilibrium levels of income (Ye ) and
consumption (Ce ) in terms of the constants b, I0 and C0 .
Solution.
(i) Rearranging Equations (87) and (88) in the required form, variable terms on
LHS and constant terms on RHS, and substituting I0 for I:
Y − C = I0 (91)
−bY + C = C0 (92)

Page 226 of 336

 (ii) Solve equations (89) and (90) for Y and C by Cramer’s rule:

∆Y I0 + C0
Ye = =
∆ 1−b
∆C C0 + bI0
Ce = =
∆ 1−b
Since
1 −1
∆= = 1 − (−b)(−1) = 1 − b
−b 1
I0 −1
∆Y = = (I0 ) − (−C0 ) = I0 + C0
C0 1
1 I0
∆C = = C0 − (−b)(I0 ) = C0 + bI0 .
−b C0

Example 14.10.7 Given the following national income model:

Y = C + I0 + G0

C = C0 + b(Y − T ) and T = T0 + tY
where Y =income, C =consumption, T =taxation, C0 , b, t, I0 , G0 and T0 (autonomous
taxation) are constants and C0 > 0; 0 < b < 1, 0 < t < 1.

(i) Write this model as three equations in terms of the variables Y, C and T .

(ii) Use Cramer’s rule to derive expressions for the equilibrium level of income,
consumption and taxation.

Solution

(i) The variable terms containing Y, C and T are arranged on the LHS of each
equation, the constants on the RHS:

Y − C = I0 + G0
−bY + C + bT = C0
−tY + T = T0

(ii) Using Cramer’s rule, solve for Y, C, T :

Page 227 of 336

 Since;
1 −1 0
1 b −b b
∆ = −b 1 b = (1) − (−1) + (0)
0 1 −t 1
−t 0 1
= 1 + (−b − (−bt))
∆ = 1 − b + bt.

I0 + G0 −1 0
1 b C b
∆Y = C0 1 b = (I0 + G0 ) − (−1) 0 + (0)
0 1 T0 1
T0 0 1
= (I0 + G0 ) + (C0 − bT0 )

1 I0 + G0 0
C b −b b
∆C = −b C0 b = (1) 0 − (I0 + G0 ) +0
T0 1 −t 1
−t T0 1
= (C0 − bT0 ) − (I0 + G0 )(−b − (−bt))
= C0 − bT0 + b(I0 + G0 )(1 − t)

1 −1 I0 + G0
1 C0 −b C0 −b 1
∆T = −b 1 C0 = (1) − (−1) + (I0 + G0 )
0 T0 −t T0 −t 0
−t 0 T0
= T0 − bT0 + tC0 + (I0 + G0 )(0 − (−t))
= T0 (1 − b) + t(C0 + I0 + G0 ).
Therefore,
∆Y I0 + G0 + C0 − bT0
Y = = = equilibrium level of income
∆ I − b + bt

∆C C0 − bT0 + b(1 − t)(I0 + G0 )

C= = = equilibrium level of consumption
∆ 1 − b + bt

∆T T0 (1 − b) + t(C0 + I0 + G0 )
T = = = equilibrium level of taxation.
∆ 1 − b + bt

14.10.8 Input/output Analysis

Consider a three-sector economy, such as industry, agriculture and financial services.
The output from any sector, such as agriculture, may be required by:
• The other sectors
• The same sector

Page 228 of 336

 • External demands, such as sales, exports, etc.

For example, the output from all three sectors in this three-sector economy could be
distributed as follows: So the total output required from each sector must satisfy the

Input
Output From Agric Industry Service Other Demand Total Output
Agric → 150 225 125 100 600
Industry→ 210 250 140 300 900
Service→ 170 0 30 100 300

final demand (sales, exports, etc.), as well as the demands from other sectors which
require this as basic raw material or input. For example, the output from the agricul-
ture sector is required as raw material by agriculture itself (calves, foodstuffs, etc.);
industry requires agricultural output for processing; government and other agencies
provide financial and other services. Finally, consumers and other agencies want to
buy and export agricultural products.

Suppose the ’other demands’ from each sector change. How is the total output re-
quired recalculated? The answer is to use matrices. One other fundamental assump-
tion is needed before setting up our method, and that is: In input/output analysis,

Total input = Total output for each sector

With this assumption, the input/output table can be completed, the total input to
each sector is written in the last row. You will notice that the sum of individual
inputs do not add up to the total input. Therefore a further row is added to the table
to allow for other inputs.

Input
Output From Agric Industry Service Other Demand Total Output
Agric → 150 225 125 100 600
Industry→ 210 250 140 300 900
Service→ 170 0 30 100 300
Other Inputs 70 425 5
Total Inputs 600 900 300

Divide the input to each sector by the total input to calculate the fraction (or, if you
prefer, multiply the fraction by 100 and quote this as the percentage) of the total
input which comes from all sectors:

Page 229 of 336

 Input
Output From Agric Industry Service Other Demand Total Output
Agric → 150/600 225/900 125/300 100 600
Industry→ 210/600 250/900 140/300 300 900
Service→ 170/600 0/900 30/300 100 300
Total Inputs 600/600 900/900 300/300

The relationship between the total output from all three sectors to the input require-
ments from other sectors and final other demand may now be described by the matrix
equation:
150 225 125
 
600 900 300      
  600 100 600
 210 250 140

  900 + 300 = 900
 600 900 300 
  300 100 300
170 0 30
600 900 300
This equation may be stated in general as:

AX + d = X

where X is the column of total outputs, d is the column of final (other) demands from
outside the three sectors. The matrix A is called the matrix of technical coefficients:
each column of A gives the fraction of inputs to that sector which comes from each
of the three sectors. This equation may be used to solve for the total output (X)
required from each sector if the final demands (d) are changed:

d = X − AX = (I − A)X
(I − A)−1 d = (I − A)−1 (I − A)X
(I − A)−1 d = X

For the input/output model AX + d − X, the total output required from each sector
when final demands d are changed is given by the equation:

X = (I − A)−1 d

Example 14.10.9 Given the input/output table for the three-sector economy: If the

Input
Output From Agric Industry Service Other Demand Total Output
Agric → 150 225 125 100 600
Industry→ 210 250 140 300 900
Service→ 170 0 30 100 300

final demands from each sector are changed to 500 from agriculture, 550 from indus-
try, 300 from financial services, calculate the total output from each sector.

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Solution

• Step 1. Use the underlying assumption total input = total output to complete
the input/output table.

Input
Output From Agric Industry Service Other Demand Total Output
Agric → 150 225 125 100 600
Industry→ 210 250 140 300 900
Service→ 170 0 30 100 300
Other Inputs 70 425 5
Total Inputs 600 900 300

• Step 2. Calculate the matrix of technical coefficients. A, by dividing each

column of inputs by total input.

Input
Output From Agric Industry Service Other Demand Total Output
Agric → 150/600 225/900 125/300 100 600
Industry→ 210/600 250/900 140/300 300 900
Service→ 170/600 0/900 30/300 100 300
Total Inputs 600/600 900/900 300/300

• Step 3. Get the inverse of the matrix (I − A), since this inverse matrix is
required in the equation:
X = (I − A)−1 d
Then
 150 225 125

  600 900 300  
1 0 0 
 210

 0.75 −0.25 −0.42
250 140  = −0.35 0.72 −0.47
(I − A) = 0 1 0 − 
 600 900 300 
0 0 1   −0.28 0.00 0.90
170 0 30
600 900 300

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 We first get the determinant of (I − A), that is;
0.75 −0.25 −0.42
det(I − A) = −0.35 0.72 −0.47
−0.28 0.00 0.90
−0.25 −0.42 0.75 −0.42 0.75 −0.25
= (−0.28) − (0.00) + (0.90)
0.72 −0.47 −0.35 −0.47 −0.35 0.72
= (−0.28)(0.4199) + (0.90)(0.4525)
= −0.117572 + 0.40725
∴ det(I − A) = 0.289678.
Now we get the matrix of Co-factors C;
 
0.72 −0.47 −0.35 −0.47 −0.35 0.72
 + 0.00 − +
 0.90 −0.28 0.90 −0.28 0.00 
 
 
 0.25 −0.42 0.75 −0.42 0.75 −0.25 
C=  − 0.00 + − 
 0.90 −0.28 0.90 −0.28 0.00 
 
 
 −0.25 −0.42 0.75 −0.42 0.75 −0.25 
+ − +
0.72 −0.47 −0.35 −0.47 −0.35 0.72

 
0.648 0.4466 0.2016
=  0.225 0.5574 0.070 
0.4199 0.4995 0.4525
Transposing the matrix of Co-factors, C T , we get;
 
0.648 0.225 0.4199
T
C = 0.4466
 0.5574 0.4995
0.2016 0.070 0.4525
Therefore, the inverse (I − A)−1 is
 
0.648 0.225 0.4199
1
(I − A)−1 = 0.4466 0.5574 0.4995
0.289678
0.2016 0.070 0.4525

• Step 4. Finally, state the column of new external demands, d, and solve for
X. Since
X = (I − A)−1 d
Then,
      
Tagri 0.648 0.225 0.4199 500 1950.5
Tindu  = 1 0.4466 0.5574 0.4995 550 = 2346.5
0.289678
Tserv 0.2016 0.070 0.4525 300 949.5

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15 Arrangements, Permutations and Combinations
15.1 Arrangements
15.1.1 The Multiplication Principle
Suppose that there are n1 ways of performing a certain task and n2 ways of performing
another task, then the multiplication principle implies that there are n1 × n2 ways of
performing a combined two tasks.

Example 15.1.2 The chairs of the exam room are to be labelled with an upper case
English letter followed by a positive integer not exceeding 100. What is the largest
number of chairs that can be labeled differently?

Solution
The procedure of labelling a chair consists of two tasks, namely, assigning to the seat
one of the 26 uppercase English letters, and then assigning to it one of the 100 possible
integers. Thus, by the multiplication principle, we have

26 × 100 = 2600

differently ways that a chair can be labelled. Therefore, the largest number of chairs
that can be labelled differently is 2600.

Example 15.1.3 A certain restaurant at CBU offers a choice of three cereals and
four relishes. How many different meals are available in the restaurant?

Solution
Since there are three choices of cereals and four different kinds of relish, then by the
multiplication principle, there are 3 × 3 = 12 different meals available in the restau-
rant.

15.1.4 Factorial Notation

Let n be any natural number; then we define a factorial of any number n to be;

n! = n(n − 1)(n − 2) · · · (2)(1)

We also adopt the conversion that 0! = 1.

Example 15.1.5 Evaluate the following

(i) 1! (ii) 0! (iii) 6! (iv) n!

Solution

(i) 1! = 1 (ii) 0! = 1 (iii) 6! = (6)(5)(4)(3)(2)(1)

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(iv) n! = n(n − 1)(n − 2)!

Example 15.1.6 For each problem below;

9!
(i) Simplify .
2!7!
(ii) Write 40 × 39 × 38 × 37 in the factorial notation.
Solution

(i) Writing in full

9! 9×8×7×6×5×4×3×2×1
=
2!7! 2×1×7×6×5×4×3×2×1
9×8
=
2×1
= 36

(ii) Here 40 × 39 × 38 × 37 can be written as;

36 × 35 × · · · × 2 × 1
40 × 39 × 38 × 37 = 40 × 39 × 38 × 37 ×
36 × 35 × · · · × 2 × 1
40!
= .
36!

15.2 Permutations
Definition 15.2.1 Let n ∈ Z be the number of objects in a set. Then an arrangement
k ≤ n of these n objects in a given order is called a permutation of the object taking
k at a time.

Theorem 15.2.2 (Permutation) Suppose n, k ∈ Z such that 0 ≤ k ≤ n, then the

permutation is given by;
n n!
Pk =
(n − k)!

By Theorem 15.2.2, we see that if n ∈ Z+ , then

n n! n! n!
Pn = = = = n!
(n − n)! 0! 1
Thus, n Pn = n!
Note 15.2.3 (i) A permutation is just an ordered arrangement of distinct objects.

(ii) The number of objects to be permutated is denoted by n.

(iii) The number of positions to be occupied by the objects is denoted by k.

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Example 15.2.4 Find the permutation of letters A, B, C, D.
(i) Taking four at a time

(ii) Taking three at a time

(iii) Taking two at a time

Solution
(i) When k = 4, and since n = 4, then there are;
4
P4 = 4! = 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 24

Permutations. That is

ABCD ABDC ACBD ACDB ADBC ADCB

BACD BADC BCAD BCDA BDAC BDCA
CABD CADB CBAD CBDA CDAB CDBA
DABC DACB DBAC DBCA DCAB DCBA

(ii) When k = 3, we have;

4 4!
P3 = = 24 Permutations
(4 − 3)!

(iii) When k = 2, we have;

4 4! 4! 4 × 3 × 2×
P2 = = = = 12
(4 − 2)! 2! 2×1

Example 15.2.5 How many permutations are possible for the letters A,B,C,D and
F.
(i) Taking 6 at a time

(ii) Taking 3 at a time

Solution

(i) For n = 6 objects and k = 6, we have

6
P6 = 6! = 720 permutations

(ii) For n = 6 objects and k = 3, we have

6 6! 6! 6 × 5 × 4 × 3!
P3 = = = = 6 × 5 × 4 = 120 permutations
(6 − 3)! 3! 3!

Page 235 of 336

15.3 Combination
Definition 15.3.1 (Combinations) A combination is an arrangement of objects
without regards to order. That is in a combination, the order in which the objects are
arranged do not matter.

Theorem 15.3.2 (Combination) Suppose that n, k ∈ Z such that 0 ≤ k ≤ n, then

the combination of n objects in k ways is;

n n!
Ck =
k!(n − k)!

Note 15.3.3 In a combination order is NOT important where as in a permutation

order is important.

Example 15.3.4 Determine the number of combinations for the letters A,B,C and
D, taking 3 letters at a time.

Solution
For the letters A,B,C and D, we expect to have

4 4! 4 × 3!
C3 = = =4
3!(4 − 3)! 3! × 1!

Example 15.3.5 A committee of 3 representatives is to be selected from a class of 8

students. How many different composed committees can possibly be selected?

Solution
Here we have n = 8 and k = 3, thus

8 8!
C3 =
(8 − 3)!3!
8!
=
5! × 3!
8 × 7 × 6 × 5!
=
5! × 3!
8×7×6
=
3!
8×7×6
=
6
=8×7
= 56 committees.

Example 15.3.6 Five students have been selected to the student union.

(i) If a committee of 3 member is to be chosen from these 5 students, how many

differently composed committees are possible?

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 (ii) If the 3 members to be chosen are instead to become Chairperson, Secretary and
Treasurer, how many different line ups from the 5 students are possible?
Solution
(i) Here the 3 members chosen from these 5 students have no order. Therefore, we
can use combination ;

5 5! 5 × 4 × 3! 5 × 4 × 3! 5×4
C3 = = = = = 10.
(5 − 3)!3! (5 − 3)!3! 2! × 3! 2
Hence, we will have 10 different committees.
(ii) Since the 3 members to be chosen have occupy specific positions, that is Chair-
person, Secretary and Treasurer, then in this case order is important. Thus, we
use permutation i.e.

5 5! 5! 5 × 4 × 3 × 2!
p3 = = = = 60.
(5 − 3)! 2! 2!
Hence we will have 60 line ups.

15.4 The Binomial Expansion

15.4.1 Introduction
In certain situations in mathematics, it is necessary to write (x + y)n as the sum of
its terms. A binomial is just the sum or difference of two terms, and since (x + y) is a
binomial, then the process of writing (x+y)n as a sum of its terms is called expanding
the binomial. For small values of n, it is relatively easy to write the expansion by using
multiplication. For example for n = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 we have the following expansions of
(x + y)n as

(x + y)0 =1
(x + y)1 =x+y
(x + y)2 = x2 + 2xy + y 2
(x + y)3 = x3 + 3x2 y + 3xy 2 + y 3
(x + y)4 = x4 + 4x3 y + 6x2 y 2 + 4x3 + y 4
(x + y)5 = x5 + 5x4 y + 10x3 y 2 + 10x2 y 3 + 5xy 4 + y 5

We should continue to build on previous expansions and have a quite comprehensive

list of binomial expansions. Instead we will look at the Binomial Theorem that will
enables us to expand (x + y)n directly without multiplying.
Observation 15.4.2 From the previous expansions, we observe that for each
n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 the following statements are true:
(i) The first term is always xn . The exponent on x decreases by 1 for each successive
term.

Page 237 of 336

 (ii) The exponent on y increases by 1 for each successive term. The last term is y n .

(iii) In each expansion, there are n+1 term. Each coefficient

 of
 a term of a Binomial
n
expansion is called a binomial coefficient denoted by or n Ck .
k

15.5 The Formula for a Binomial Coefficient

In the expansion of (x + y)n , for a positive integer n, the coefficient of the term whose
variable part is xn−k y k is  
n n!
=
k k!(n − k)!
For example, the first term of the expansion of (x + y)n can be thought of as xn b0 .
In this case, we can calculate the coefficient of this term as
 
n n! n!
= = =1
0 0!(n − 0)! 1 · n!

Example 15.5.1 Evaluate each binomial coefficient

   
9 10
(i) (ii)
6 10
Solution

 
9 9! 9! 9 × 8 × 7 × 6!
(i) = = = = 84
6 6!(9 − 6)! 6!3! 6! × 3 × 2×
 
10 10! 10!
(ii) = = =1
10 10!(10 − 10)! 10!0!

15.5.2 Pascal’s Triangle

Consider the expansion of (x + y)n for values of n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 a pattern for the
coefficients of the terms can be written in a triangular array called Pascal’s Triangle
as shown below.
n=0: 1
n=1: 1 1
n=2: 1 2 1
n=3: 1 3 3 1
n=4: 1 4 6 4 1
n=5: 1 5 10 10 5 1

Pascal’s Triangle can be used to expand a binomial for small values of n.

Example 15.5.3 Use Pascal’s Triangle to find the expansion of

Page 238 of 336

 (i) (x + 2y)3 (ii) (2x − 5)5

Solution

(i) Here for n = 3, the coefficients from the Pascals Triangle are

1 3 3 1

Thus,

(x + 2y)3 = 1(x)3 + 3(x)2 (2y) + 3(x)(2y)2 + 1(2y)3

= x3 + 6x2 y + 6xy 2 + 8y 3

(ii) For n = 5, the coefficients from the Pascal’s Triangle are

1 5 10 10 5 1

Thus,

(2x − 5)5 = 1(2x)5 + 5(2x)3 (−5) + 10(2x)3 (−5)2 + 10(2x)2 (−5)3 + 5(2x)(−5)4 + 1(−5)5
= 32x5 − 400x4 + 2000x3 − 5000x2 + 6250x − 3125

Exercise 15.5.4 Expand (2x − 3y 2 )6 using Pascal’s triangle.

Now for large number of n, (a + b)n can be difficult to expand using Pascal’s Triangle.
Hence, we introduce the Binomial Theorem for positive integers.

Theorem 15.5.5 (Binomial Theorem) If n is any positive integer, then

n          
n
X n n−k k n n n n−1 n n−2 2 n n
(a + b) = a b = a + a b+ a b + ··· + b .
k 0 1 2 n
k=0

Example 15.5.6 Use the Binomial Theorem to expand the following.

√
(i) (x + 4)5 (ii) (x − 2)4 (iii) (2x2 + 3)3 (iv) ( x − 2y)5

Solution

(i) Using the Binomial Theorem we expand (x + 4)5

           
5 5 5 5 4 5 3 2 5 2 3 5 4 5
(x + 4) = x + x (4) + x (4) + x (4) + x(4) + (4)5
0 1 2 3 4 5

= x5 + 20x4 + 160x3 + 640x2 + 1280x + 1024.

Page 239 of 336

 (i) Using the Binomial Theorem we expand (x − 2)4
         
4 4 4 4 3 4 2 2 4 3 4
(x − 2) = x + x (−2) + x (−2) + x(−2) + (−2)4
0 1 2 3 4

= x4 − 8x3 + 24x2 − 32x + 16.

(iii) Using the Binomial Theorem we expand (2x2 + 3)4

         
4 4 2 4 4 2 3 4 2 2 4 2 3 4
(2x + 3) = (2x ) + (2x ) (3) + (2x) (3) + (2x )(3) + (3)4
0 1 2 3 4

= 16x8 + 16x6 + 216x4 + 216x2 + 18.

√
(iv) Using the Binomial Theorem we expand ( x − 2y)5

√ 5 √ 5 5 √ 4 5 √ 3 5 √ 2
       
5 2
( x − 2y) = ( x) + ( x) (−2y) + ( x) (−2y) + ( x) (−2y)3
0 1 2 3
5 √
   
4 5
+ ( x)(−2y) + (−2y)5
4 5

5 3 1
= x 3 − 10x2 y + 40x 2 − 80xy 3 + 80x 2 y 4 − 32y 5 .

15.5.7 The (k + 1)th Term of a Binomial Expansion

The (x + y)th term of the Binomial expansion of (x + y)n is given by
 
n n−k k
Tk+1 = a b
k

Example 15.5.8 Find the third term of the expansion (2x − y)3

Solution
Since we want the third term, then k + 1 = 3 ⇒ k = 2. Thus
 
3
T2+1 = T3 = (2x)3−2 (−y)2
2
= 3(2x)(y 2 )
∴ T3 = 6xy 2

Example 15.5.9 Find the fourth term in the expansion of (2x2 − 3y 2 )5 .

Page 240 of 336

Solution
Here, n = 5 and k + 1 = 4 ⇒ k = 3. Thus
 
5
T3+1 = T4 = (2x3 )5−3 (−3y 2 )3
3
= 10(2x3 )2 (−3y 2 )3
∴ T4 = −1080x6 y 6

15.5.10 The Term Independent of x In The Binomial Expansion

Example 15.5.11 Find the term independent of x in the binomial expansion of the
following.
 8  18
1 2
(i) x − (ii) 3x − 2
x x
Solution

(i) For (a + b)n , the (k + 1)th term is

 
n n−k k
Tk+1 = a b (93)
k
 8
1 1
Now for x − , n = 8, k =?, a = x and b = − . Using Equation (91) we
x x
have;
   k
8 8−k 1
Tk+1 = x −
k x
Now the term independent of x is found by setting 8 − k = k and solve for k.
That is 8 − k = 4 ⇒ k = 4. Thus, the independent term is at
   4
8 8−4 1
T4+1 = x −
4 x
1
= 70x4 · 4
x
= 70

 18
2 2
(ii) 3x − 2 . Here n = 18, a = 3x, b = − 2 , k =?. Now for the term
x x
independent of x we use the formula for the (k + 1)th term.
   k
18 18−k 2
Tk+1 = (3x) − 2
k x

Page 241 of 336

 at a constant term, the degree of the variable a and that of the variable b are
suppose to be equal. That is

18 − k = 2k
⇒ 3k = 18
⇒ k = 6.

Thus, the term independent of x is

   6
18 18−6 2
T6+1 = T7 = (3x) − 2
6 x
 
18
= (3)12 (2)6 .
6

15.5.12 The Binomial for any Index or Power n

Theorem 15.5.13 For any rational number n

n(n − 1) 2 n(n − 1)(n − 2) 3

(1 + x)n = 1 + nx + x + x + · · · + xn .
2! 3!
Provided |x| < 1.

Proof
From the Binomial theorem, we know that
       
n n n n n−1 1 n n−2 2 n n
(1 + x) = 1 + 1 x + 1 x + ··· + x .
1 1 2 n

But we know that    

n n
= = 1.
0 n
Thus, it follows that
n! n! n! n!
(1 + x)n = 1 + x+ x2 + x3 + · · · + xn
(n − 1)!1! (n − 2)!2! (n − 3)!3! (n − n)!n!

n(n − 1)! n(n − 1)(n − 2)! 2 n(n − 1)(n − 2)(n − 3)! 3

=1+ x+ x + x + · · · + xn
(n − 1)! (n − 2)!2! (n − 3)!3!

n(n − 1) 2 n(n − 1)(n − 2) 3

= 1 + nx + x + x + · · · + xn .
2! 3!
Hence proved.

Page 242 of 336

Example 15.5.14 Use the Binomial Expansion of (1 + x)n to expand (1 − 2x)3

Solution
We know that
n(n − 1) 2 n(n − 1)(n − 2) 3
(1 + x)n = 1 + nx + x + x + · · · + xn
2! 3!
1
Then since | − 2x| = 2|x| < 1 ⇒ |x| < < 1. Then
2
(1 − 2x)3 = [1 + (−2x)]3
(3)(2)(−2x)2 (3)(2)(1)(−2x)3
= 1 + 3(−2x) + +
2! 3!
= 1 − 6x + 12x2 − 8x3 .

Theorem 15.5.15 (The Binomial Theorem for any Rational Index (n)) Recall
by definition that
n n!
Ck = .
(n − k)!k!
But
n! n(n − 1)(n − 2) · · · (n − k + 1)(n − k)!
=
(n − k)!k! (n − k)!k!
n(n − 1)(n − 2) · · · (n − k + 1)
=
  k!
n
= .
k

Note 15.5.16 The form of n Ck has no meaning when n is either negative or a frac-
tion. Thus we use the notation
 
n n(n − 1) · · · (n − k + 1)
=
k k!
 
n n
unlike the symbol Ck , the symbol may be used when n is a negative number or
k
a fraction.

Example 15.5.17 Evaluate

1
 
−5
(i) (ii) −5
C2 (iii)  2 
 
2
2
Solution

Page 243 of 336

  
−5 −5 × −6 30
(i) = = =5
2 2! 2
−5
(ii) Here C2 has no meaning.
1 1 1 1
×− −
2
(iii)   = 2 2 = 4 = −1
2! 2 8
2

Thus, for any rational number n, we have

n(n − 1) 2 n(n − 1) · · · (n − k + 1)
(1 + x)n = 1 + nx + x + ··· + + ···
2! k!
(i) When n is any natural number, the expansion is finite and exact. This is not
generally the case when n is negative or fraction. In the latter case it is an
infinite series.
(ii) This expansion is valid only when |x| < 1.

Example 15.5.18 Find the Binomial expansion of the following and state the valid
interval of expansion.
1 √ 1 1
(i) (ii) 1 − 3x (iii) (iv) (1 − x) 3
1+x (1 + 4x)2
Solution
Using the result
n(n − 1) 2 n(n − 1)(n − 2) 3
(1 + x)n = 1 + nx + x + x + · · · + xn
2! 3!
we have
1
(i) = (1 + x)−1 . Here n = −1, it follows that
1+x
(−1)(−2) 2 (−1)(−2)(−3) 3
(1 + x)−1 = 1(−1)(x) + x + x + ···
2! 3!
= 1 − x + x2 − x3 + · · ·

Provided |x| < 1

√ 1
(ii) Here 1 − 3x = (1 − 3x) 2 , and so n = 12 . Thus, it follows that;
1 1
( − 1) ( 1 )( 1 − 1)( 12 − 2)
 
1 1
(1 − 3x) 2 = 1 + (−3x) + 2 2 (−3x)2 + 2 2 (−3x)3 + · · ·
2 2! 3!
3 9 81
= 1 − x − x2 − x3 + · · ·
2 8 6
1 1
Provided | − 3x| = 3|x| < 1 ⇒ |x| < 3
Thus, |x| < 3
is the interval in which the
expansion is valid.

Page 244 of 336

 1
(iii) Here (1 − x) 3 we have n = 13 . Thus from the result of (1 + x)n , we have
( 13 )( 31 − 1) ( 13 )( 31 − 1)( 13 − 2)
 
1 1 2
(1 − x) = 1 +
3 (−x) + (−x) + (−x)3 + · · ·
2 2! 3!
1 1 5
= 1 − x − x2 − x 3 + · · ·
3 9 81
Provided | − x| = |x| < 1 which is the interval in which the expansion is valid.
1
(iv) Here = (1 + 4x)−2 . Thus , n = −2, and so we have;
(1 + 4x)2
(−2)(−2 − 1) (−2)(−2 − 1)(−2 − 2)
(1 + 4x)−2 = 1(−2)(4x) + (4x)2 + (4x)3 + · · ·
2! 3!
= 1 − 8x + 48x2 − 256x3 + · · ·
And the expansion is valid for the interval
|4x| = 4|x| < 1
1
=⇒|x| < .
4
One can also use the result of Binomial expansion of (1 + x)n to expand (a + bx)n for
any constant a and b by simply taking out a as a factor.
Example 15.5.19 Find the four terms in the Binomial expansion of the following;
√ 1
(i) 4 + x (ii)
(2 + 3x)2
Solution
We know that
n(n − 1) 2 n(n − 1)(n − 2) 3
(1 + x)n = 1 + nx + x + x + ···
2! 3!
Then
(i)
 1 1
√ x 2 √
  
1 x 2
4 + x = (4 + x) = 4 1 +
2 = 4 1+
4 4
and so here n = 21 . Thus,
1   2
( 12 )( 12 − 1)( 12 − 2) x 3
   
x 2 1 x
2 1+ = 1+ + + ···
4 2 4 3! 4
 1 1 2 1 3 
=2 1+ x− x + x + ···
8 128 1024
1 1 2 1 3
=2+ x− x + x + ···
4 64 512
1 1
Valid interval x < 1 ⇒ |x| < 1.
4 4

Page 245 of 336

 1
(ii) Here
(2 + 3x)2
  −2
1 −2 3
= (2 + 3x) = 2 1 + x
(2 + 3x)2 2
 −2
−2 3
=2 1+ x
2
 −2
1 3
= 1+ x
4 2

and so using n = −2 and b = 32 x it follows from the result of (1 + x)n that

 −2     2  3 
1 3 1 3 (−2)(−3) 3 (−2)(−3)(−4) 3
1+ x = 1 + (−2) x + 3 x + + ···
4 2 4 2 2! 2 3! 2
 
1 27 2 108 3
= 1 − 3x + x − x + ···
4 4 8
1 3 27 27
= − x + x2 − x3 + · · ·
4 4 16 8
and the valid interval is.
3 3
x < 1 ⇒ |x| < 1
2 2
2
⇒ |x| < .
3

Page 246 of 336

16 Financial Mathematics
Suppose an individual borrows money from the bank. Individuals are concerned
with the total repayments on their borrowings and the total return received on their
savings. The amount received or repaid in the future is dependent on a number of
factors:
• Principal (P0 ); the amount borrowed (or invested) initially: present value.
• Interest rate (i); interest rate per year, computed as a percentage of the
principal, P0 .
• Time (t) period of time over which money is borrowed (lent or invested).
• Future Value; Pt ; value of the principal after a period of time t.
In this chapter, various methods are introduced for calculating the amount received or
repaid in the future. The methods are based on arithmetic and geometric sequences
and series.

16.1 Sequences and Series

16.1.1 Sequences
Stated formally, an infinite sequence, or more simply a sequence, is an unending
succession of numbers, called terms.
Example 16.1.2 The following are some of the examples of sequences of numbers;
(i) 0, 0, 0, 0, . . . (ii) 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, . . .
(iii) 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, . . . (iv) 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, . . .
1 1 1 1
(v) 1, , , , , . . . (vi) b−2 , b−1 , b0 , b1 , b2 , . . .
2 3 4 5
Definition 16.1.3 (Sequence) A sequence {an }∞
n=1 is a function whose domain
is a set of integers.
Specifically, we will regard the expression {an }∞
n=1 to be an alternative notation for
the function f (n) = an , n = 1, 2, 3, . . .
Example 16.1.4
an = n or {n}∞
n=1 or {n}
means 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, . . .
Example 16.1.5
 ∞  
1 1 1
an = or or
2n−1 2n−1 n=1 2n−1
1 1 1 1
means 1, , , , , ...
2 4 8 16
Page 247 of 336
Example 16.1.6
 ∞  
n+1 n n+1 n n
an = (−1) or (−1) or (−1)n+1
2n + 1 2n + 1 n=1 2n + 1

1 2 3 4
means , − , , − , ...
3 5 7 9

16.1.7 Finding Terms of Sequences

Example 16.1.8 Write the first five terms of the sequence

an = 5, for all integers n ≥ 1

Solution
We have
a1 = 5, a2 = 5, a3 = 5, a4 = 5, a5 = 5

Example 16.1.9 Write the first five terms of the sequence

an = n, for all integers n ≥ 1

Solution
We have
a1 = 1, a2 = 2, a3 = 3, a4 = 4, a5 = 5

Example 16.1.10 Write the first five terms of the sequence

√
an = n + 5, for all integers n ≥ −2

Solution
We have √ √ √ √ √
a−2 = 3, a−1 = 4, a0 = 5, a1 = 6, a2 = 7

Example 16.1.11 Write the first five terms of the sequence

7 + n2
an = , for all integers n ≥ 1
10 − n
Solution

7 + 12 8 7 + 22 11 7 + 32 16 7 + 42 23 7 + 52 32
a1 = = , a2 = = , a3 = = , a4 = = , a5 = =
10 − 1 9 10 − 2 8 10 − 3 7 10 − 4 6 10 − 5 5

Page 248 of 336

16.1.12 Finding Explicit Formulas for Sequences
Example 16.1.13 Find an explicit formula for the sequence of the form a1 , a2 , a3 , . . .
with the initial terms
1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1
Solution
We have
an = 1, for all integres n ≥ 1

Example 16.1.14 Find an explicit formula for the sequence of the form a1 , a2 , a3 , . . .
with the initial terms
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8
Solution
We have
an = n, for all integers n ≥ 1

Example 16.1.15 Find an explicit formula for the sequence of the form a1 , a2 , a3 , . . .
with the initial terms
3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10
Solution

an = n + 2, for all integers n ≥ 1

Example 16.1.16 Find an explicit formula for the sequence of the form a1 , a2 , a3 , . . .
with the initial terms √ √ √ √
3 3 3 3
4, 9, 16, 25
Solution
We have p
3
an = (n + 1)2 for all integers n ≥ 1

Example 16.1.17 Find an explicit formula for the sequence of the form a1 , a2 , a3 , . . .
with the initial terms √ √ √ √
3 3 3 3
− 4, 9, − 16, 25
Solution
We have p
an = (−1)n 3
(n + 1)2 for all integers n ≥ 1

Example 16.1.18 Find an explicit formula for the sequence of the form a1 , a2 , a3 , . . .
with the initial terms √ √ √ √
3 3 3 3
4, − 9, 16, − 25
Solution
We have p
an = (−1)n+1 3
(n + 1)2 for all integers n ≥ 1

Page 249 of 336

16.2 Arithmetic Sequences (Arithmetic Progression AP)
Definition 16.2.1 (Arithmetic Sequences)
A sequence that increases by a constant amount each time is called an arithmetic
sequence or constant amount by which it increases each time is known as a common
difference, usually denoted by d.

Example 16.2.2 Find the common difference in each of the arithmetic sequence
below;

(i) 2, 7, 11, 15, 19, . . . (ii) 17, 14, 11, 8, 5, . . . (iii) a, a + d, a + 2d, a + 3d, . . .

Solution

(i) Here, Since d = 7−3 = 4 then 4 is the common difference because we are adding
4 each time to get next term in the sequence.

(ii) Similarly, d = 14 − 17 = −3 an so the common difference is −4. That is to get

the rest term in the sequence, we need to add −3.

(iii) Here we add d each time since a + d − a = d. Thus the common difference is d.

16.2.3 A Recurrence form of Arithmetic Sequence

An explicit formula of the form ak+1 = ak + d for k ≥ 1 is called an arithmetic
sequence. Solving for d we get the general formula for finding the common difference.

d = ak+1 − ak

16.2.4 The nth term of an Arithmetic Sequence

Consider the table below
Position Term
1 a1
2 a1 + d
3 a1 + d + d = a+ 2d
4 a1 + 3d
5 a1 + 4d
. .
. .
. .
n a1 + (n − 1)d

Therefore, the nth term of an AP is given by

an = a1 + (n − 1)d

Page 250 of 336

Example 16.2.5 Find the formula for the general term of the arithmetic sequence
3, 5, 7, 9, 11, . . .

Solution
Here, the first term is a1 = 3 and common difference.

d =ak+1 − ak
=5 − 3
=2

Therefore, the general formula is

an =a1 + (n − 1)d
=3 + (n − 1)2
=3 + 2n − 2
⇒ an =2n + 1

Example 16.2.6 Find the 40th term of the arithmetic progression 1, 5, 9, 13, . . .

Solution
Here a1 = 1, and common difference

d = ak+1 − ak
=5−1
=4

∴ a1 + (n − 1)d
Now for n = 40, we have

a40 = 1 + (40 − 1)4

= 1 + (39)4
= 1 + 156
= 157.

Hence the 40th term in this given AP is 157.

Example 16.2.7 Find the first term and common difference of an Arithmetic pro-
gression whose fourth and ninth terms are 26 and 61 respectively.

Solution
We know the nth term is found by using the formula

an = a1 + (n − 1)d

Page 251 of 336

Thus, if n = 4, we have a4 = 26. Thus a1 + (4 − 1)d = 26

⇒ a1 + 3d = 26 (94)

Similarly, if n = a, we have a9 = 61 and so a1 + (9 − 1)d = 81

⇒ a1 + 8d = 81 (95)

Solving Equation (92) and Equation (93) simultaneously we get; a1 = 5 and d = 7.

16.2.8 Arithmetic Means

Let a and b be any two numbers. If numbers are inserted between two numbers a and
b to form an arithmetic sequence, the inserted numbers are called arithmetic means
between a and b.

Example 16.2.9 Insert two arithmetic means between 6 and 27.

Solution
Cosinder the following AP below:

a1 , a1 + d, a1 + 2d, a1 + 3d
|{z} | {z }
6 27

From the sequence above, we see that there will be 4 terms all together. Therefore,
n = 4, a1 = 6 and the formula an = a1 + (n − 1)d, we have to find the common
difference. That is since,

a4 = a1 + (n − 1)d
⇒ 27 = 6 + (4 − 1)d
⇒ 27 = 6 + 3d
⇒ 21 = 21
⇒ d = 7.

Thus, the two terms in the AP are;

a1 + d = 6 + 7
= 13
anda1 + 2d = 6 + 2(7)
= 20

Hence, a complete arithmetic sequence is 6, 13, 20, 27.

Page 252 of 336

16.2.10 The Sum of The First n terms of an Arithmetic Progression
Let Sn denote the sum of the nth terms of an arithmetic progression. Define Sn as;

Sn = a1 + (a1 + d) + (a1 + 2d) + · · · + [a1 + (n − 1)d] (96)

and also that

Sn = [a1 + (n − 1)d] + [a1 + (n − 2)d] + · · · + a1 (97)
Adding Equation (94) and (95) we get;

2Sn = [2a1 + (n − 1)d] × n

n
Sn = [2a1 + (n − 1)d] (98)
2
Equation (96) is called the sum of the first n terms of an arithmetic progression.
Equation (96) can be simplified further. Since
n
Sn = [2a1 + (n − 1)d]
2 
n
= a1 + a1 + (n − 1)d
2 | {z }
an

n
Sn = [a1 + an ]
n
Example 16.2.11 Find the sum of the first 40 terms of the arithmetic sequence
4, 10, 16, 20, . . .

Solution
Here the first term a1 = 4, common difference

d = ak+1 − ak
= 10 − 4
=6

Using n = 40, we have

 
40
S40 = 2(4) + (40 − 1)(6)
2
= 20(8 + 39 × 6)
= 20(8 + 234)
= 4840

Page 253 of 336

Example 16.2.12 Find
50
X
(3k + 4)
k=1

Solution

50
X
(3k + 4) = (3 + 4) + [3(2) + 4] + · · · + [3(50) + 4]
k=1
= 7 + 10 + · · · + 154

∴ a1 = 7, d = 10 − 7 = 3 and n = 50
Thus
50
S50 = [7 + 154]
2
= 25 × 161
= 4025.

16.3 Series
Definition 16.3.1 (Infinite Series) An infinite series is the sum of the sequence
{an } that can be written in the form

a1 + a2 + a3 + · · · + ak + · · ·

The numbers a1 , a2 , . . . , ak , . . . are called the terms of the series.

Definition 16.3.2 (Convergence or Divergence of a Series) Let {sn } be the se-

quence of partial sums of the series

a1 + a2 + a3 + · · · + ak + · · ·

If the sequence {sn } converges to a limit S, then the series is said to converge to S,
and S is called the sum of the series. We denote this by writing
∞
X
S= ak .
k=1

If the sequence of partial sums diverges, then the series is said to diverge. A divergent
series has no sum.

Page 254 of 336

16.4 The Geometric Sequence (0r Progression)
Consider the following table

n an = 5(2n )
1 a1 = 5(21 ) = 10
2 a2 = 5(22 ) = 20
3 a3 = 5(23 ) = 40
4 a4 = 5(24 ) = 80
. .
. .
. .

Listing the terms as a sequence, we get 10, 20, 40, 80, . . . The sequence aboe is called
the Geometric sequence. We call the term between succeeding term a common ratio
ak+1
r instead of common difference, and is obtained by r = , where k ∈ N. Here
ak
ak+1 is the next term in the sequence and ak is the first term of consideration. In the
Geometric sequence.

Definition 16.4.1 Geometric Sequence

A geometric sequence is a sequence of the form

a1 , a1 r2 , a1 r3 . . . , a1 rn−1
|{z} |{z} | {z }
fisrt term second term nth term

where the nth term is given by

an = a1 rn−1

Example 16.4.2 A geometric sequence has a first term of 2 and a common ratio 3.
Write down the first five terms of the sequence. Hence, find the 9th term.

Solution
Given the term a1 = 2 and the common ration r = 3, then to obtain the rest of the
terms in the sequence, we multiply the previous term by the common ratio to get the
next term. That is 2, 2 × 3, 2 × 32 , 2 × 33 . ⇒ 2, 6, 18, 54, 162 The 9th term is obtained
by setting n = a and substituting into the formula as follows;

a9 = 2(38 )
= 2 × 6661
= 13122

Example 16.4.3 The first three terms of a geometric sequence are 16, 8, and 4. Find
the 7th term of the sequence.

Solution
Since 16, 8, 4, . . . are the first three terms of a geometric sequence, then a1 = 16 and

Page 255 of 336

 ak+1 8 1
r= = = . Thus, the 7th term is an = a1 rn−1
ak 16 2
1 1 16
⇒ a7 = 16( )6 = 16( ) =
2 64 64
1
∴ a7 =
4

16.4.4 Geometric Means

If the numbers are inserted between two numbers a and b to form a geometric se-
quence, then the inserted numbers are called geometric means.

Example 16.4.5 Insert two geometric means between 2 and 16.

Solution
We know that when we insert two numbers we will have four terms in a geometric
sequence of the form a1 , a1 r, a1 r2 , a1 r3 .

⇒ a1 r, a1 r2 , 16
| {z }
required terms

From the least term, we have

a1 r3 = 16
⇒ 2r3 = 16
⇒ r3 = 8
√3
⇒ r = 8 = 2.

Thus, r = 2 is the common ratio. Hence the first geometric mean is a1 r = 2 × 2 = 4

and the second geometric mean is

a1 r2 = 2 × (22 )
=2×4
= 8.

Therefore, a complete geometric sequence is; 2, 4, 8, 16.

16.4.6 The Sum of the nth Terms of a Geometric Sequence

We know that the sum ofa geometric sequence is given by

Sn = a1 + a1 r + a1 r2 + · · · + a1 rn−1 (99)

Multiply through 97 by r we get

rSn = a1 r + a1 r2 + a1 r3 + · · · + arn (100)

Page 256 of 336

Subtracting equation 98 from equation 97 we get

Sn − rSn = a1 − a1 rn

Solving for Sn we get Sn (1 − r) = a1 (1 − rn )

a1 (1 − rn )
⇒ Sn = where r 6= 1
1−r
Hence
a1 (1 − rn )
Sn = , r 6= 1
1−r
and
a1 (rn − 1)
Sn = , r>1
r−1
is the formula for finding the sum of nterm of a geometric sequence.
Example 16.4.7 Find the sum of 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + 16 + 32 + 64 + 128

Solution
ak+1 2
Here, r = = , a1 = 1 and n = 8. Therefore,
ak 1
a1 (1 − rn )
Sn =
1−r
1(1 − 28 )
=
1−2
8
=2 −1
S8 = 256
P
16.4.8 Notation
Definition 16.4.9 n
X
ak = am + am+1 + · · · + an
k=m

16.4.10 Examples
4
X
(a) ak = a1 + a2 + a3 + a4
k=1

7
X
(b) bk = b3 + b 4 + b5 + b6 + b7
k=3

7
X
(c) bk = b−3 + b−2 + b−1 + b0 + b1 + b2 + b3 + b4 + b5 + b6 + b7
k=−3

Page 257 of 336

 5
X
(d) 2 = 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 = 10
k=1

4
X
(e) k = 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 = 10
k=1

7
X
k
− 1 2k 2 + 1 = −19 + 33 − 51 + 73 − 99 = −63


(f)
k=3

4
X 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 7
(g) k
= 2+ 3+ 4 = + + = .
k=2
2 2 2 2 4 8 16 16

Example 16.4.11 Write

2 3 4 5
+ + +
3 4 5 6
using summation notation.

Solution
We have
4 5 3
2 3 4 5 Xk+1 X k Xk+2
+ + + = = =
3 4 5 6 k=1 k + 2 k=2 k + 1 k=0 k + 3

Example 16.4.12 Write

34 + 44 + 54 + 64 + 74 + 84

using summation notation.

Solution
We have
8
X 6
X
34 + 44 + 54 + 64 + 74 + 84 = k4 = (k + 2)4
k=3 k=1

Example 16.4.13 Write

35 − 45 + 55 − 65 + 75 − 85

using summation notation.

Solution
We have
8
X 7
X 6
X
35 − 45 + 55 − 65 + 75 − 85 = (−1)k+1 k 5 = (−1)k (k + 1)5 = (−1)k+1 (k + 2)5
k=3 k=2 k=1

Page 258 of 336

Example 16.4.14 Write
50 65 82 101
+ + +
10 × 19 11 × 21 12 × 23 13 × 25
using summation notation.

Solution
We have
10
50 65 82 101 X k2 + 1
+ + + =
10 × 19 11 × 21 12 × 23 13 × 25 k=7 (k + 3) × (2k + 5)

16.4.15 The Sum to Infinite of a Geometric Series

Theorem 16.4.16 (The Geometric Series) A geometric series
∞
X
S∞ = ark−1 = a + ar + ar2 + · · · (a 6= 0)
k=1

converges if |r| < 1 and diverges if |r| ≥ 1. If the series converges, then the sum is

∞
X a
S∞ = ark−1 =
k=1
1−r

Proof
We distinguish two cases;
Case 1: Assume that r = 1. Then

sn = a + ar + ar2 + · · · + arn−1 = a
| + a + a{z+ · · · + a} = na −→ ±∞
n−times

when n −→ ∞

Case 2; Assume that r 6= 1. Then

sn = a + ar + ar2 + · · · + arn−1 (101)

and

rsn = ar + ar2 + ar3 + · · · + arn (102)

subtracting Equation (100) from Equation (99), we get;

a(1 − rn )
sn − rsn = a − arn =⇒ sn (1 − r) = a(1 − rn ) =⇒ sn = .
1−r

Page 259 of 336

Note that if −1 < r < 1, then lim arn = 0, therefore,
n→∞

a(1 − rn ) a(1 − 0) a
lim sn = lim = = .
n→∞ n→∞ 1−r 1−r 1−r
a
Thus, when |r| < 1 the geometric series is convergent and its sum is .
1−r
If r ≤ −1 or r > 1, the sequence {rn } is divergent and so, lim sn does not exist.
n→∞
Therefore, the geometric series diverges in those cases.

Example 16.4.17 Find the sum to infinity of the geometric series

1
16 + 8 + 4 + 2 + 1 + + ···
2

Solution
ak+1 1
Since the common ratio r = = < 1, then it converges. Using a1 = 16 we have
ak 2
a1 16 16
S∞ = = 1 = 1 = 32
1−r 1− 2 2

∞
X
Example 16.4.18 Evaluate 4(0.6)n−1
n=1

Solution
Since
∞
X
displaystyle 4(0.6)n−1 = 4(0.6)1−1 + 4(0.6)2−1 + 4(0.6)3−1 + · · ·
n=1
= 4(0.6)0 + 4(0.6)1 + 4(0.6)2 + · · ·
= 4 + 4(0.6) + 4(0.6)2 + · · ·

Here r = 0.6 < 1; converges and a1 = 4. Hence

a1 4 4
S∞ = = = = 10
1−r 1 − 0.6 0.4
∞
X
∴ 4(0.6)n−1 = 10
n=1
.

Example 16.4.19 Find the sum of the geometric series

∞  k−1
X 1
k=1
2

Page 260 of 336

Solution
We have a = 1, r = 1/2, and so
∞  k−1
X 1 1
= 1 = 2.
k=1
2 1− 2

Example 16.4.20 Find the sum of the geometric series

∞  k
X 3
k=1
8
Solution
Here we have,
∞  k ∞  k−1   3
X 3 X 3 3 3 3 3
= · = a= , r= = 8 3 = .
k=1
8 k=1
8 8 8 8 1− 8
5
Example 16.4.21 Find the sum of the geometric series
∞  k
X 7
k=5
11
Solution
Here we have,
∞  k X ∞  k+4 X ∞  5  k−1
X 7 7 7 7
= = ·
k=5
11 k=1
11 k=1
11 11
5
7
  5 
7 7 11
= a= , r= <1 = 7
11 11 1 − 11
16807
= .
58564
Example 16.4.22 Find the sum of the geometric series
∞

k 2 k−9
X  
−1
k=4
5
Solution
Here we have,
∞ ∞ ∞  −5

k 2 k−9 X
k+3 2 k−6 X
     k−1
4 2 k−1 2
X
−1 = −1 = (−1) · (−1)
k=4
5 k=1
5 k=1
5 5
∞  5  k−1    5 
X 5 2 5 2
= · − = a= , r=− <1
k=1
2 5 2 5
 5
5
2 15625
= 2 =
1+ 5 224

Page 261 of 336

16.4.23 Applications of Arithmetic and Geometric Series
Example 16.4.24 A manufacturer produces 1200 computers each week. After week
1, he increases production by:

Scheme I : 80 computers each week

Scheme II : 5%each week

(a) (i) Find the output in week 20 under each scheme.

(ii) Find the total output over the first 20 weeks under each scheme.

(b) Calculate for schemes I and II the week in which production first exceeds 8000.

Solution
Scheme I forms an arithmetic series: a = 1200 and d = 80.
Scheme II is a geometric series: a = 1200, r = 1.05. How is r = 1.05 calculated?
If output increases by 5%, then output in any one week is the output in the previous
week plus 5% of the output in the previous week, that is,
5
Qt+1 = Qt + Qt
 100 
5
= Qt 1 +
100
= Qt (1.05)
= Qt (r).

here Qt , is the output in week t and Qt+1 is the output in week t + 1.

16.5 Simple Interest, Compound Interest and Annual Per-

centage Rates

Page 262 of 336

17 Limits of a Function
Definition 17.0.1 Let L be a real number, and suppose that f (x) is defined on an
open interval containing ”a” but not necessarily at ”a” itself. We say that the limit
of f (x), as x approaches a, equals L, written as:

lim f (x) = L
x→a

x2 −25
Example 17.0.2 Consider the function f such that f (x) = x−5
for x 6= 5 Evaluate
the limit as x approaches 5.
We have that
x2 − 25 (x + 5)(x − 5)
lim = lim = lim (x + 5) = 10
x→a x−5 x→a x−5 x→a

17.1 Properties of Limits

i. If f (x) = C, a constant function, then, lim f (x) = lim C = C
x→a x→a

ii. lim xn = an , for any positive integer n.

x→a

iii. lim [f (x) ± g(x)] = lim f (x) ± lim g(x)

x→a x→a x→a

The limit of an expression can be taken term by term.

iv. lim Cf (x) = C lim f (x)
x→a x→a

The constant factor C may be placed inside or outside the limit.

v. lim f (x).g(x) = lim f (x).lim g(x)
x→a x→a x→a

The limit of a product is the product of the limits.

f (x) lim f (x)

vi. lim = x→a , if lim g(x) 6= 0
x→a g(x) lim g(x) x→a
x→a

The limit of the quotient is the quotient of the limits if the denominator is
different from zero.
p q
vii. lim n f (x) = n lim f (x)
x→a x→a

If n is even, we require that lim f (x) be positive.

x→a

Example 17.1.1 Use the properties of limits to evaluate the following:

i. lim 4
x→2
using the first property, the limit of a constant is a constant, hence
lim 4 = 4
x→2

Page 263 of 336

 ii. lim x3
x→2
Using property (ii), we have that; lim x3 = 23 = 8
x→2

iii. lim (x3 − 5)

x→3
From property (iii), we see that the limit of an expression can be taken term by
term and so;
lim (x3 − 5) = lim x3 − lim 5 = 33 − 5 = 22
x→ x→3 x→3

17.2 Further Examples

i. lim 3x2
x→1

x−2
ii. lim
x→3 x2 − 4
√
iii. lim x2 + 7
x→3

17.3 One Sided Limits

As the name implies, one sided limits will only look at one side of the point.

Definition 17.3.1 We write

lim f (x) = L
x→−

and say the left-hand of f (x) as x approaches a is equal to L if we can make

the values of f (x) arbitrary close to L by taking x to be sufficiently close to a and x
less than a.
Similarly we write
lim+ f (x) = L
x→a

and say the right-hand limit of f (x) as x approaches a is equal to L if we can

make the values of f (x) arbitrary close to L by taking x to be sufficiently close to a
and x greater than a.

17.4 Existence and Non-Existence of a Limit

Existence of a limit depends on whether f is defined for x near the number ”a”.
1
A good example is lim = ∞. We see that the function grows without bound
x→a x
(is undefined ) at the given limit, hence it does not exist (D.N.E). Furthermore, a
two-sided limit lim f (x) does NOT exist if:
x→a

i. either of the one-sided limits lim+ f (x) or lim− f (x) fails to exist.
x→a x→a

ii. lim− f (x) = L1 and lim+ f (x) = L2 , but L1 6= L2

x→a x→a

Page 264 of 336

Example 17.4.1 Does the limit lim f (x) exist given that:
x→2

i.
(
x + 1 if x < 2
f (x) =
x if x > 2

ii.
(
x2 if x < 2
f (x) =
−x + 6 if x > 2

Solutions

i. Since f (x) is a piece-wise function, we then investigate the two sides of the
limit. So
let x approach f (x) from the right, we have that

lim f (x) = lim+ (x + 1) = 3.

x→2+ x→2

Again, let x approach f (x) from the left, we have that

lim f (x) = lim+ x = 2.

x→2− x→2

Therefore f does not exist since 2 6= 3. Let x approach f (x) from the right, we
have that

lim f (x) = lim+ (x + 1) = 3

x→2+ x→2

Let x approach f (x) from the left, we have that

lim f (x) = lim+ x = 2

x→2− x→2

Therefore the limit as x approaches 2 of f (x) does not exist since 2 6= 3.

ii. Similarly, we investigate the two sides of the limit, i.e.

let x approach f (x) from the right, to have that

lim f (x) = lim+ − x + 6 = −2 + 6 = 4.

x→2+ x→2

Again, let x approach f (x) from the left, to get

lim− f (x) = lim+ x2 = 4.

x→2 x→2

Hence, we see that lim+ f (x) = lim− f (x), i.e. 4 = 4, and so the limit as x
x→2 x→2
approaches 2 of f (x) exists.

Page 265 of 336

17.5 Infinite Limits
Definition 17.5.1 If f (x) grows without bound in the positive direction as x gets
closer to the number a from either side, then we say that f (x) tends to infinity as x
approaches a, and we write:
lim+ f (x) = ∞.
x→a

Alternatively, if f (x) grows without bound in the negative direction as x gets closer to
the number a from either side, then we say that f (x) tends to infinity as x approaches
a, and we write:
lim− f (x) = −∞.
x→a

1
Example 17.5.2 Find the following limit lim
x→0 x2 +x
Solution
1 lim 1 1
x→0
lim 2 = 2 = =∞
x→0 x + x lim (x + x) 0
x→0

Note:
∞ is the symbol showing that the value of x grows without bound.

17.6 Limits at Infinity

Definition 17.6.1 If f (x) is defined for all values of x and if f (x) gets close to an
integer L as x increases without bound in the positive\negative direction, we say the
limit is evaluated at Infinity. Written as;

lim f (x) = L \ lim f (x) = L

x→∞ x→−∞

Note:
The following results hold for different cases
c
• lim = 0 for any positive number n and a constant c.
x→±∞ xn
• For any polynomial as x approaches ∞, then f (x) becomes unbounded. Hence
±∞ depending from which direction we approach x.

Example 17.6.2 Evaluate the following limits at infinity:

1
i. lim
x→∞ x
x2 + 1
ii. lim
x→∞ 2x2 + 5x + 1

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Solutions

1
i. lim =0
x→∞ x
x2 + 1 1 + x12 1
ii. lim = lim 5 1 =
x→∞ 2x2 + 5x + 1 x→∞ 2 + x + x2 2

17.7 Further Examples

Evaluate the following limits:

i. lim (2x2 + 3x + 5)
x→∞

ii. lim (x3 + x2 + 7)

x→−∞

2x3 + 5x2 + x + 15
iii. lim
x→−∞ x4 − 5

Page 267 of 336

18 Continuity
Informally, a function f with domain R is everywhere continuous if and only if (iff)
we can take a pencil and trace the graph of f between any two distinct points on the
graph without having to lift up our pencil.
We will define continuity at a point a (a ∈ R) and then continuity on intervals.

18.1 Continuity at a Point

Definition 18.1.1 A function f (x) is continuous at a point a (atx = a) iff:

1. f (a) is defined (real); that is, a ∈ Dom(f )

2. lim f (x) exists (is real), and

x→a

3. lim f (x) = f (a)

x→a

• f is discontinuous at x = a iff f is not continuous at x = a.

Example 18.1.2 Investigate the continuity of f at the points indicated:

i. f (x) = 3x2 + x − 1 at x = 1.

Solutions
We show that f satisfies the conditions of continuity at a point, i.e.

1. f (1) = 3(3)2 + 2 − 1 = 3, which is a real number.

2. lim f (x) = lim 3x2 + x − 1 = 3(3)2 + 2 − 1 = 3
x→1 x→a

3. lim f (x) = f (1), i.e. 3 = 3

x→1

Hence f (x) is continuous as it satisfies all three conditions.

√
ii. f (x) = x

Solutions
We show that the conditions of continuity are satisfied.
√
1. f (−1) = −1 = i, which is a complex number and not real.

• Since the first condition is not satisfied, we therefore conclude that f (x) is dis-
continuous at x = −1.

Page 268 of 336

18.2 Classifying Discontinuities
We classify discontinuities as removable, jump, or infinite.

i. Removable Discontinuities
These are discontinuities which could be removed by redefining f at just the
single number of discontinuity. We say that f has a removable discontinuity at
a point x = a iff:

1. lim f (x) exists (call this limit L), but

x→a

2. f is still discontinuous at a. (Then the graph of f (x) has a hole at the

point (a, L))

Example 18.2.1 Let g(x) = x+3, (x 6= 3). Classify the discontinuity at x = 3.

Solution
We see that;
lim = 6 (it is defined) but g is discontinuous at x = 3 as 3 is not in the do-
x→3
main of g. Hence we have a ’hole’ at the point (3, 6) and g has a removable
discontinuity which can be removed by redefining the function at x = 3.

ii. Jump Discontinuity

A function f has a jump discontinuity at a point x = a iff:

1. lim− f (x) exists, and (call this limit L1 )

x→a

2. lim+ f (x) exists, but (call this limit L2 )

x→a

3. lim− f (x) 6= lim+ f (x) (L1 6= L2 )

x→a x→a

• Therefore, lim f (x) does not exist (DNE).

x→a

(
x
|x| =1 if x > 0
Example 18.2.2 Let f (x) = = x−|x|
x x
= −1 if x < 0
Solution
We see that f has a jump discontinuity at x = 0 because:

i. lim− f (x) = −1 and

x→0

ii. lim+ f (x) = 1 but

x→0

iii. lim− f (x) 6= lim+ f (x) i.e. (−1 6= 1)

x→0 x→0

Therefore, lim f (x) does not exist and we cannot remove the discontinuity by
x→0
defining f (0).

Page 269 of 336

 iii. Infinite Discontinuity
A function f has an infinite discontinuity at x = a iff lim− f (x) of lim+ f (x)
x→0 x→0
is ±∞.
The functions described below have infinite discontinuities at x = 0.
1 1
i. f (x) = x
because lim =∞
x→0 x
1
ii. g(x) = x2
iii. h(x) = ln x

18.3 Continuity on Intervals

The concept of continuity can be extended to intervals, both open and closed.

i. Continuity on Open Intervals

A function f is continuous on the open interval (a, b) iff f is continuous at every
number (point) in (a, b). This extends to unbounded open intervals of the form
(a, ∞), (−∞, b) and (−∞, ∞). If f is defined only on one side of an end point
of the interval, we understand continuous at the endpoint to mean continuous
from the right or continuous from the left.

ii. Continuity on Closed Intervals

A function f is continuous on the closed interval [a, b] iff

1. f is defined on [a, b] where a < b

2. f is continuous on (a, b)
3. lim f (x) = f (a) and
x→a

4. lim f (x) = f (b)

x→b

√
Example 18.3.1 Let f (x) = 1 − x2 . Show that f is continuous on the closed
interval [−1, 1].

Solution
Using the properties of continuity on closed intervals, we have

√ √
1. f is defined on [−1, 1] since limx→−1 1 − x2 = limx→1 1 − x2 = 0.
2. f is continuous on (−1, 1) because f is continuous on both points x = 1
and x = −1.
3. lim f (x) = f (−1) i.e. 0 = 0, so f is continuous from the right at -1 and
x→−1

4. lim f (x) = f (1) i.e. 0 = 0, so f is continuous from the left at 1.

x→1
Hence f is continuous on the closed interval [−1, 1].

Page 270 of 336

Theorem 18.3.2 If f and g are continuous at 0 a0 and c is a constant, then the
following functions are also continuous at 0 a0 :

f
cf, f ± g, f.g, (if g(a) 6= 0)
g

Theorem 18.3.3

1. Any polynomial is continuous everywhere.

2. Any rational function is continuous wherever it is defined.

In general, the following is true:

Theorem 18.3.4 The following types of functions are continuous at every number
in their domains:polynomials, rational functions, root functions, trigonometric func-
tions.

Example 18.3.5 Where are each of the following functions discontinuous?

(
1
2 if x 6= 0
i. f (x) = x
1 if x = 0
Solution
The function (
1
x2
if x 6= 0
f (x) =
1 if x = 0
1
is discontinuous at x = 0, since lim− f (x) = lim− does not exist.
x→0 x→0 x2
(
x2 −x−2
x−2
if x 6= 2
ii. f (x) =
1 if x = 2
Solution
The function (
x2 −x−2
x−2
if x 6= 2
f (x) =
1 if x = 2
is discontinuous at x = 2, since
x2 − x − 2 (x − 2)(x + 1)
lim f (x) = lim = lim = lim (x + 1) = 3.
x→2 x→2 x−2 x→2 x−2 x→2
which is not equal to f (2) = 1

Page 271 of 336

19 Differentiation
The derivative is the central concept of differentiation. In this chapter we will learn
how to diffrentiate the standard functions which we will lead to the poowerful tech-
niques of the differentiation. These concepts will later be applied when we discuss
(i) rates of change, (ii) approximations, (iii) maxima and minima, etc., which are
applications of the derivative widely used in engineering sciences, social sciences and
in many other fields.

Definition 19.0.1 Assume that y = f (x) is a real valued function of x. Then y is

dependent on x, so that a small change in x will produce a corresponding change in
dy
y. It is denoted by and is given by ;
dx
dy f (x + h) − f (x)
= lim
dx h→0 h
The process of finding the derivative is called differentiation.
Other notations that are commonly used to denote the derivative are y 0 , f 0 (x)

19.1 Differentiation by Delta Method

The method of finding the derivative of a function from its definition is called the
delta method. The method can be refered to as ”differentiation from first principles”.
We will use this method here to find the derivative of some simple functions and
standard forms. Once the standard forms are derived those results will be used to
differentiate other functions.

Example 19.1.1 Find the derivatives of the following functions.

1 √
(i) y = x2 + 2 (ii) y= (iii) y= x
x
Solution

(i) Since,

dy f (x + h) − f (x)
= lim (103)
dx h→0 h
Then,

f (x) = x2 + 2 and f (x + h) = (x + h)2 + 2

Page 272 of 336

 Substituting these in (101)

dy [(x + h)2 + 2] − (x2 + 2)

= lim
dx h→0 h
x + 2xh + h2 + 2 − x2 − 2
2
= lim
h→0 h
h(2x + h)
= lim
h→0 h
= lim (2x + h)
h→0
=2x.

(ii) Since,
1 1
f (x) = lim and f (x + h) =
h→0 x x+h
Then,

dy f (x + h) − f (x) ( 1 − 1)
= lim = lim x+h x
dx h→0 h  h→0
 h 
x−x−h −h
= lim = lim
h→0 x(x + h)h h→0 x(x + h)h
 
−1 1
= lim =− 2
h→0 x(x + h) x

(iii) Since, √ √
f (x) = x and f (x + h) = x+h
Then
√ √
dy f (x + h) − f (x) x+h− x
= lim = lim
dx h→0 √ h h→0 h
√ √ √
( x + h − x)( x + h + x)
= lim √ √ (by rationalizing numerator)
h→0 h x+h+ x
√ √
( x + h)2 − ( x)2 x+h−x
= lim √ √ = lim √ √
h→0 h( x + h + x) h→0 h( x + h + x)
h 1
= lim √ √ = lim √ √
h→0 h( x + h + x) h→0 ( x + h + x)
1
= √ .
2 x

Exercise 19.1.2 Differentiate the following by delta method:

2 3x + 2
(i) y = 6x + 8 (ii) y = 3x3 + 7 (iii) y = x3 + (iv) y=
x2 x−1

Page 273 of 336

 1 x2 − 7 x
(v) y= √ (vi) y= (vii) y=√
2 x x3 + 9 x+1
Solution
4 5
(i) 6 (ii) 9x2 (iii) 3x2 − (iv) −
x3 (x − 1)2

x−3 −x4 + 21x2 + 18x x+2

(v) − (vi) (vii) 3
2 (x3 + 9)2 2(x + 1) 2

19.2 Standard Forms

d n
(i) Derivate of xn is given by (x ) = nxn−1
dx
d x
(ii) Derivative of ex is given by (e ) = ex
dx
d 1
(iii) Derivative of ln x is given by (ln x) =
dx x
d
(iv) Derivative of a constant c is given by (c) = 0
dx
(v) Derivative of the product of a constant c and a function is given by
d d
(cφ(x)) = c [φ(x)].
dx dx

19.3 Rules of differentiation

We shall now consider some important rules of differentiation that will enable us to
differntiate sums, differences, product and quotient of functions. Later on, we will
also learn how to differentiate functions that are functions of other functions.

19.3.1 Sum or Difference Rule

If f1 (x), f2 (x), f3 (x) . . . are different functions of x, then

d d d d
{f1 (x) ± f2 (x) ± f3 (x) ± . . . } = f1 (x) ± f2 (x) ± f3 (x) ± . . .
dx dx dx dx
Example 19.3.2 Differentiate the following functions with respect to x
1 √
(i) y = x8 (ii) y=√ (iii) y = 3x2 (iv) y = 2 x + 5 ln x + 7ex
x

Solution

Page 274 of 336

 d
(i) Let y = x8 . Then, = 8x7
dx
−1
(ii) Let y= √1 =x 2
x

dy 1 −1
= − x 2 −1
dx 2
1 −3
=− x 2
2

dy dy
(iii) y = 3x2 . Then, = 3 (x2 ) = 3 × 2x = 6x
dx dx
(iv) Since,
√
y = 2 x + 5 ln x + 7ex

dy d √ d d
= (2 x) + (5 ln x) + (7ex )
dx dx dx dx
d √ d d
=2 ( x) + 5 (ln x) + 7 (ex )
dx dx  dx
1 1 −1 1
=2 × x 2 + 5 + 7ex
2 x
−1 5
=x 2 + + 7ex
x

Page 275 of 336

Exercise 19.3.3 Differentiate the following with respect to the variable concerned.

5 10x3 − 5x2 + 2x + 15
(ii) y = x9 (ii) y = 2x3 (iii) y=√ (iv) y=
x x2
2
(x2 + 1)(3x + 2) √

3 1
(v) y = (2x − 1)(x + 2) (vi) y= √ (vii) y= x− √
3 x x
Solution
5 2 30
(i) 9x8 (ii) 6x2 (iii) − 3 (iv) 10 − 2
− 3
2x 2 x x
3
3 2 5x 2 1 1 1 x2 − 1
(v) 8x − 3x + 4 (vi) + x2 + 1 − 3 (vii)
2 2x 2 3x 2 x2

19.3.4 Product Rule

The product rule is used to differentiate the product of two or more functions. Con-
sider two functions ’u and ’v’ of x. Let f (x) = uv then,
d dv du
(uv) = u + v
dx dx dx

So this is the formula for the product rule.

19.3.5 Quotient Rule

Quotients of functions are differentiated using this rule.
u
Let u and v be two functions of x and let y = f (x) = . Then,
v
v du dv
− u dx
 
d u dx
=
dx v v2
Example 19.3.6 (1) Differentiate the following functions by using the product rule.

ln x
(i) y = (x2 + 2)(2x − 3) (ii) y=
x8
Solution
(ii)
d d d
{(x2 + 2)(2x − 3)} =(x2 + 2) + (2x − 3) (x2 + 2)
dx dx dx
=(x2 + 2)(2) + (2x − 3)(2x)
=2x2 + 4 + 4x2 − 6x
=6x2 − 6x + 4

Page 276 of 336

 (ii)
 
d ln x d
8
= (ln x · x−8 )
dx x dx
d d
= ln x (x−8 ) + x−8 (ln x)
dx dx 

1
= ln x(−8x−9 ) + x−8
x
−8 ln x 1
= 9
+ 9
x x
1 − 8 ln x
=
x9
(2) Differentiate the following using the quotient rule.

x+3
(i) y=
x+2
Solution
d d
(x + 3) − (x + 3) dx
 
d x+3 (x + 2) dx (x + 2)
=
dx x + 2 (x + 2)2
(x + 2)(1) − (x + 3)(1)
=
(x + 2)2
−1
=
(x + 2)2

Exercise 19.3.7 (1) Differentiate the following by using the product rule:
√
(i) y = (x2 + 3) x (ii) y = (x2 + 2) ln x (iii) y = ex (x2 + ln x)

(2) Differentiate the following by using the quotient rule:

x2 + 2 x−2 + 8 3x + ex
(i) y= (ii) y= √ (iii) y=
2x − 3 x 1 + ln x
Solution
(1)

5x2 + 3
 
2 x 1 2
(i) √ (ii) x + + 2x ln x (iii) e x + 2x + + ln x
2 x x x

(2)
3 7
2(x2 − 3x − 2) 5x 2 − 8x 2 x(1 + ln x)(3 + ex ) − 3x − ex
(i) (ii) − (iii)
(2x − 3)2 2x5 x(1 + ln x)2

Page 277 of 336

19.3.8 Function of a Function Rule
In this section we discuss the method of differentiating composite functions, or func-
tions of functions. For example, ln(2x + 5) is the log function of the function (2x + 5)
of x.If y = f (u), where u = g(x) theny is said to be a composite function or a function
of function x. Then,
dy dy du
= ·
dx du dx
Remark 19.3.9 (i) This important rule is also called the chain rule.

(ii) When y = x , the chain rule becomes,

dx dx du dx du dx du
= · ⇒= · ∴ =1÷
dx du dx du dx du dx

dy dx
In general,if y = f (x), ⇒ =1÷ .
dx dy

Example 19.3.10 Differentiate the following using chain rule:

√
(i) y = (2x + 5)3 (ii) y = 3x2 + 7 (iii) y = ln(x2 + 7) (iv) y = e5x+8

Solution

(ii)

Let y = (2x + 5)3 (Substitute u f or 2x + 5, i.e, u = 2x + 5)

T hen y = u3
dy du
= 3u2 , =2
du dx

dy dy du
= · = 3u2 · 2 = 6(2x + 5)2
dx du dx

This is the general method to find the derivative using the chain rule. But,
when the given function is too ’composite’, as in the case of ln{sin(ex )}, the
application of the rule becomes long and tedious. In such cases, we can use the
following short cut method.

Shortcut method
y = (2x + 5)3

Page 278 of 336

 The substitution, u = 2x + 5 was made to convert the function to the standard
form xn , the derivative of which is nxn−1
dy
y = u3 , = 3u2
du
dy
Replace the u in 3u2 by (2x + 5), = 3(2x + 5)2
du
du
Now, multiply the left hand side by and the right hand side by 2, since
dx
du
= 2 so that we get
dx
dy
= 3(2x + 5)2 × 2 = 6(2x + 5)2
dx

(ii)

d √ 2
   
d 2 1
3x + 7 = (3x + 7) 2
dx dx

1 d 1 1 −1
This is the standard form x 2 so that (x 2 ) = x 2 . Replace x on the right
dx 2
hand side by (3x2 + 7) and then multiply the right hand side by the derivative
of 3x2 + 7.

dy 1 −1 d
∴ = (3x2 + 7) 2 × (3x2 + 7)
dx 2 dx
1 −1
= (3x2 + 7) 2 × 6x
2
3x
=√
3x2 + 7

(iii)

d
[ln(x2 + 7)]
dx
d 1
This is of the standard form ln x, ln(x) =
dx x
Replace the x on both sides by (x2 + 7) and then multiply the hand side by the
derivative of (x2 + 7).

d 1
∴ [ln(x2 + 7)] = 2 × 2x
dx x +7
2x
= 2
x +7

Page 279 of 336

(iv)
 
d 5x+8 d
e = e5x+8 × (5x + 8) (∵ e5x+8 is of the f orm)
dx dx

e5x+8 × 5 = 5e5x+8

19.4 Logarithmic Differentiation

The method of logarithmic diffrentiation can be used to differentiate the following
kinds of functions:
f (x)g(x)h(x) . . .
(i) y =
u(x)v(x) . . .
(ii) y = {f (x)}u , where u is a function other than the constant function.

f (x)g(x)h(x) . . .
Case (i) y =
u(x)v(x) . . .

ln y = ln[f (x)] + ln[g(x)] + ln[h(x)] + . . . − ln[u(x)] − ln[v(x)] − . . .

Differentiate with respect to x,

1 dy 1 d 1 d 1 d 1 d 1 d
= [f (x)] + [g(x)] + [h(x)] + · · · − [u(x)] − [v(x)] − .
y dx f (x) dx g(x) dx h(x) dx u(x) dx v(x) dx

dy
Let the right hand side of the above be r(x).Then, = y · r(x)
dx

Remark 19.4.1 The method of logarithmic differentiation simplifies the pro-

cess of differentiation in such cases.

Case (ii) y = {f (x)}u , ln y = u ln[f (x)]. Differentiating with respect to x

1 dy 1 d d
=u · [f (x)] + ln{f (x)} (u)
y dx f (x) dx dx
 
dy u d du
∴ =y [f (x)] + ln[f (x)]
dx f (x) dx dx

Remark 19.4.2 Whenever the exponent of a function is a function other than

a constant, the formula nxn−1 cannot be applied to differentiate the function.

Page 280 of 336

Example 19.4.3 Differentiate the following functions.

(x + 2)2 (x − 3)
(i) √ (ii) xx (iii) (ln x)ln x
2x + 5(2x + 7)4

Solution

(i) Here

(x + 2)2 (x − 3)
y=√
2x + 5(2x + 7)4

(x + 2)2 (x − 3)
 
Taking the logarithms of both sides, ln y = ln √
2x + 5(2x + 7)4

1
ln y = 2 ln(x + 2) + ln(x − 3) − ln(2x + 5) − 4 ln(2x + 7)
2
Differentiating with respect to x,
1 dy 1 d 1 d 1 1 d
= 2x × × (x + 2) + × (x − 3) − × × (2x + 5)
y dx x + 2 dx x − 3 dx 2 2x + 5 dx
1 d
−4× × (2x + 7)
2x + 7 dx

1 dy 1 1 1 1 4
= + − × ×2− ×2
y dx x + 2 x − 3 2 2x + 5 2x + 7
 
dy 2 1 1 8
∴ =y + − −
dx x + 2 x − 3 2x + 5 2x + 7
(x + 2)2 (x − 3)
 
2 1 1 8
=√ + − −
2x + 5(2x + 7)4 x + 2 x − 3 2x + 5 2x + 7

(ii) Here

y = xx ⇒ ln y = x ln x

1 dy 1 dy
= x · + ln x ⇒ = xx (1 + ln x)
y dx x dx

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(iii) Here

y = (ln x)ln x ⇒ ln y = ln x · ln(ln x)

1 dy d d
= ln x × (ln(ln x)) + ln(ln x) × (ln x)
y dx dx dx
1 1 1
= ln x × × + ln(ln x) ×
ln x x x
dy (lnx)ln x
= [1 + ln(x)]
dx x

19.5 Implicit Differentiation

Up till now, we have been differentiating functions of the form y = f (x), where the
dependent variable y is expressed explicitly in terms of x , the independent vari-
able.Consider, for instance, y = 3x2 + 7. We call such functions explicit functions.
On the other hand, consider the function x2 y +tany −3 = 0. It is more of an equation
than a function. In this case, the relation of y to x is only implied in the function.
Such functions are called implicit functions.
To differentiate an implicit function, differentiate the whole equation term by term,
dy dy dy
collect the terms involving , and then solve the equation for , by making
dx dx dx
the subject of the equation.

dy
Example 19.5.1 (1) Find for the following:
dx
√ √
(i) x2 + y 2 + x + 4y + 1 = 0 (ii) 2 x+ y =9 (iii) x2 y 2 = (x + y)2 + 2y

Solution

(i)

x2 + y 2 + x + 4y + 1 = 0

dy 2 dy dy dy dy
(x ) + (y 2 ) + (x) + (4y) + (1) = 0
dx dx dx dx dx
dy dy dy
2x + 2y +1+4 = 0 ⇒ 2(y + 2) = −(1 + 2x)
dx dx dx
dy (1 + 2x)
∴ =−
dx 2(y + 2)

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 (ii)
√ √
2 x+ y =9

dy 1 dy 1 dy
(2x 2 ) + (y 2 ) = (9)
dx dx dx
1 −1 1 −1 dy 1 −1 dy −1
2· x 2 + y 2 · =0⇒ ·y 2 · = −x 2
2 2 dx 2 dx
√ r
dy 2 y y
∴ = − √ = −2 ·
dx x x

(iii)

x2 y 2 = (x + y)2 + 2y

 
2 dy 2 dy dy
x · 2y · + y · (2x) = 2(x + y) 1 + +2
dx dx dx
   
2 dy 2 dy dy
2 xy + y x = 2 x + y + (x + y) +
dx dx dx
dy 2
{x y − (x + y) − 1} = x + y − xy 2
dx
dy x + y − xy 2
∴ = 2
dx x y − (x + y) − 1

Exercise 19.5.2
√ √ √
(i) x2 + y 2 = 9 (ii) x y + y x = 2 xy

Solution
√ √
−x y(2 − 2 x − y)
(i) (ii) √ √ .
y x( x − 2 y − 2)

19.5.3 Applications To Be Discussed in Class!

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20 Integration
Learning outcomes
When you have completed this chapter you will be able to;
• Integrate standard expressions using standard forms
• Integrate functions of a linear form
• Define definite integrals
• Apply definite integrals to finding the area and volume under the curve y = f (x)
• Apply integration to obtain expressions for velocity and displacement.

20.1 Introduction to Integration

In differentiation, we learnt how to find the derivative of any given function in the
first semester. But given that a function is the derivative of another function, is it
possible to find this another function? This question is answered by defining the
process called ”integration”.

Integration can generally be defined as the reverse process of differentiation.

Example 20.1.1 In differentiation if f (x) = 2x2 , then f 0 (x) = 4x. Thus, the inte-
gral of 4x will be 2x2 , i.e. integration is the process of moving from f 0 (x) to f (x).
The process of integration is seeing
Z as the process of summation or adding parts
together and we use the symbol (an elongated ”S”) to denote or replace the words
”the integral of”. Hence, from above
Z
4x = 2x2

Recall: In differentiation, the differential coefficient dy/dx indicates that a function

of x, where dx indicates that it is with respect to 0 x0 . In integration, the variable of
integration is shown by adding d(the variable) after the function to be integrated.
Example 20.1.2 Consider the following examples
(i) Z
4x dx

This means that integration of 4x is with respect to x.

(ii) Z
2t dt.

This means that integration of 2t is with respect to t.

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Remark 20.1.3 Whenever, the process of integration is performed, we allow the
presence of a constant. That is a constant 0 C 0 is always added to the result.

Example 20.1.4 The integral

Z
4x dx = 2x2 + C

and Z
2t dt = t2 + C

where 0 C 0 is called the arbitrary constant of integration.

20.2 The General Solution of Integrals of the Form axn

The general solution of the integrals of the form axn , where a and n are constants is
given by

axn+1
Z
axn dx = + C, for n 6= −1 (104)
n+1

Example 20.2.1 Using the above rule (102). Find the following integrals.

(i)
3x4+1
Z
3
3x4 dx = + C = x5 + C
4+1 5
(ii)
2x−2+1 2x−1
Z Z
2 2
dx = 2x−2 dx = +C = +C =− +C
x2 −2 + 1 −1 x
(iii)
1 3
√ x 2 +1 2√ 3
Z Z
1 x2
x dx = x 2 dx = 1 +C = 3 +C = x + C.
2
+ 1 2
3

Each of these three results above can be checked by differentiation.

20.3 Rules of Integration

20.3.1 Integral of the Product of a Constant and a Function
If C is a constant, and f (x) is any function, then
Z Z
Cf (x) dx = C f (x) dx

For example;

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 (i) Z Z
4
3x dx = 3 x4 dx

(ii) Z Z
9 4 9
x dx = x4 dx.
10 10

20.3.2 Integrals of Sum or Difference (±) of Functions

Let f (x), g(x), h(x), . . . be functions, then
Z Z Z Z


f (x) ± g(x) ± h(x) ± · · · dx = f (x) dx ± g(x) dx ± h(x) dx ± · · ·

For example; Evaluate the following integrals

(i)
√
Z  
1 2
3
+ 3x2 + − 3 x + 7x dx
x x

Solution
√
Z  
1 2 2
+ 3x + − 3 x + 7x dx
x3 x

√
Z Z Z Z Z
1 2 1
= dx + 3 x dx + 2 dx − 3 x dx + 7 x dx
x3 x
Z Z Z Z Z
−3 2 1 1
= x dx + 3 x dx + 2 dx − 3 x 2 dx + 7 xdx
x
 1 +1 
x−3+1
 2+1 
x x2 x2
= +3 + 2 ln x − 3 1 +7 +C
−3 + 1 2+1 2
+1 2
−2
x 3 7
=− + x3 + 2 ln x − 2x 2 + x2 + C
2 2
1 √ 7
= − 2 + x3 + 2 ln x − 2 3 x + x2 + C
2x 2

(ii) √
x2 + 2x − 7 x
Z
dx
x

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 Solution
√ 1 
x2 + 2x − 7 x x2 2x
Z Z 
x2
dx = + −7 dx
x x x x
Z
1
= (x + 2 − 7x− 2 )dx
Z Z Z
1
= x dx + 2 dx − 7x− 2 dx
Z Z Z
1
= x dx + 2 1 · dx − 7 x− 2 dx
1
x2 7x− 2 +1
= + 2x − 1 +C
2 −2 + 1
1
x2 7x 2
= + 2x − 1 + C
2 2
1 2 √
= x + 2x − 14 x + C.
2

20.3.3 The Integral of a Constant k

Let k be any constant. Then the integral of k is given by
Z
k dx = kx + C.

For example; Evaluate the following integrals

(i) Z
8dx = 8x + C

(ii) Z
5dt = 5t + C

(iii) Z
70dπ = 70π + C

20.4 Definite Integrals and their Applications

Integrals containing an arbitrary constant C in their results are called indefinite
integrals. For example, all the integrals we have so far looked at in the previous
sections are example of indefinite integrals.

Definition 20.4.1 (Definite Integral) The integrals in which limits are applied are
called definite integrals.

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If an expression is written as [x]ba , then 0 b0 is called the upper limit and 0 a0 is called
the lower limit. The operation of applying the limits is defined as

[x]ba = (b) − (a).

For example, the increase in the value of the integral x2 as x increases from a = 1 to
b = 3 is written as Z b=3
x2 dx
a=1
applying the limits, we have
Z 3  3 3  3   3 
2 x (3) (1)
x dx = +C = +C − +C
1 3 1 3 3
 
1
= (9 + C) − +C
3
2
=8 .
3
Observation 20.4.2 When limits are applied to the result after integration, the con-
stant 0 C 0 always cancels. Thus, it needs not to be shown with definite integrals.

Example 20.4.3 Evaluate the following integrals

(i) Z 2
3x2 dx
1

(ii) Z 3
(4 − x2 )dx
−2

Solution

(i)
Z 2 Z 2
2
3x dx = 3 x2 dx
1 1
 3 2
x
=3
3
 3 1 3
2 1
=3 −
3 3
 
7
=3
3
= 7.

Page 288 of 336

 (ii)
3 3
x3
Z 
2
(4 − x )dx = 4x −
−2 3 −2
33 (−2)3
   
= 4(3) − − 4(−2) −
3 3
   
27 8
= 12 − − −8+
3 3
 
16
=3− −
3
25
= .
3

20.5 Standard Results

Below are some of the standard integrals analogous to the various standard results of
differentiation;
(1)
xn+1
Z
xn dx = + C, (n 6= −1)
n+1
(2) Z
1
dx = ln |x| + C
x
(3) Z
dx = x + C

(4) Z
ex dx = ex + C

20.6 The Fundamental Theorem of Integral Calculus

Theorem 20.6.1 (Fundamental Theorem of Integral Calculus) Suppose that
F is a real-valued function that is differentiable on an interval [a, b], of the real line,
and suppose f is continuous on (a, b). Then
Z b b
f (x)dx = F (b) − F (a) = F (x) .
a a

For example, if you want to integrate f (x) = x2 over [0, 1], the Fundamental Theorem
says that it’s only necessary of find a function F (x) on [0, 1] with derivative, x2 ; say
x3
F (x) =
3
Page 289 of 336
then
Z 1 Z 1
2 1
x dx = f (x)dx = F (1) − F (0) = .
0 0 3

20.7 Application of Definite Integrals

20.7.1 Area
The definite integral, Z b
f (x)dx
a
or Z b
y dx
a

where, y is a function of x gives the area enclosed by the curve y = f (x), the x-axis
and the ordinates x = a and x = b as shown in the figure below

Figure 92:

Therefore, area of the region A, is

Z b
Area(A) = f (x) dx.
a

Similarly, the area bounded by the curve x = f (y), the y-axis and the ordinates
y = c and y = d is given by Z d
f (y) dy
c
Z d
x dy
c

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 Where, x is a function of y, as shown in the figure below

Figure 93:

Thus, the area of the region B is given by

Z d
Area(B) = f (y)dy
c

Note 20.7.2 The integral (area) Z c

ydx
a
is positive if the area lies above the x-axis, and negative below it, as shown below

Figure 94:

Therefore, it is always advisable to sketch the curve before start solving to see where
the required area lies. When the area lies below the x-axis, consider its absolute value.
Thus, the total area of Figure 93 is
Totat Area = P + |Q|

Page 291 of 336

That is Z c Z b Z c
ydx = ydx + ydx.
a a b

Example 20.7.3 (a) Find the area bounded by the curve y 2 = 8x, the x-axis and
the line x = 2.
Solution
The function y 2 = 8x is a parabola symmetric with respect to the x-axis and
opening to the right,

Figure 95:

Therefore, the area of the region R is

Z b Z 2 √
Area (R) = y dx = 8x dx
a 0

√ Z 2√ √ Z 2 1
= 8 x dx = 8 x 2 dx
0 0
√ x 32 2 16
 
= 8 3 = square units.
2 0 3

(b) Find the area bounded by the curve y = 4x2 and

(i) The x-axis and the ordinates at x = 2 and x = 3

(ii) The y-axis and the abscissa y = 2 and y = 4

Solution
The function y = 4x2 is also a parabola with its vertex at the origin, symmetrical
to the y-axis and opening upwards.

(i) The sketch of y = 4x2 , is given by

Page 292 of 336

 Figure 96:

Z 3 Z 3 Z 3
2
Area (A) = y dx = 4x dx = 4 x2 dx
2 2 2
 3 3
4x 4 76
= 33 − 23 =
 
= square units.
3 2 3 3

(ii) In the y-axis, with abscissa y = 2 and y = 4, we have the figure of y = 4x2
as

Figure 97:

= 4x2 , solving for x in terms of y, we get

Therefore, since yp
x = 4 =⇒ x = ± y4 ; taking the positive square root only, we have
2 y

Page 293 of 336

 √
py y
x= 4
= 2
. Thus,
d 4
r Z 4√
y
Z Z
y
Area (A) = x dy = dy = dy
c 2 4 2 2
 4
1 4 1
Z
1 2 3 1 3 3
= y 2 dy = × y 2 = 4 2 − 2 2
2 2 2 3 2 3
1 √ 3 √ 3
1 √ √ 1 √
= 4 − 2 = ( 64 − 8) = (8 − 2 2)
3 3 3
2 √
= (4 − 2) square units.
3

Page 294 of 336

20.7.4 Tutorial Questions
(1) Evaluate the following indefinite integrals.

(i) Z 
1 5 √ 
2 3 − 79
+ 8x + − 3 x + 10x dx
x5 x
(ii)
√
Z  
2 1 10 7
5x + 2 − 6 x − x dx
7
x 17
(iii) Z
(7x3 + 5)(x2 − 2) dx

(iv) √

t3 + 3t2 − 9 t
Z
dt
t2
(v) Use the Binomial Theorem to expand f (θ) = (θ + 3)4 . Further, use the
expansion to evaluate the integral of
Z
f (θ)dθ

(vi)
√
(3q 3 + q 2 q)
Z
√ dq
q q
(vii) Z Z
k dt + (t + 3)3 dt

Where k is a constant.

(2) Use either the Fundamental Theorem of Integral Calculus or any method to
evaluate the following definite integrals

(i) Z 4  
θ+3
√ dθ
1 θ
(ii) Z 1  
1 3
+ dx
0 x − 1 2x − 1
(iii)
5
x2 + 1
Z
dx
1 7

Page 295 of 336

 (iv)
Z π/2
sin x dx
0

(v)
π/4
cos2 x
Z
dx
0 1 − sin2 x
(vi)
Z π/2

sin x + cos x dx
0

(vii)
7
λ2 + 2λeλ + 3
Z
dλ
3 λ
(viii) Z 4
πr2 dr
0
where, π is a constant.

Page 296 of 336

21 Techniques of Integration
Learning outcomes
When you have completed this chapter you will be able to;

• Integrate trigonometric functions

• Integrate by substitution method

• Integrate by parts

• State and apply the Fundamental Theorem of Integral Calculus (FTIC)

• Determine the average value of any given function.

21.1 Integration by Substitution

So far, we have been integrating functions by the direct application of the standard
results. But not all functions can be integrated this way. In such cases, we try to
reduce the function to one of the standard results by suitable substitution.

21.1.1 Illustration of Integration by Substitution

Given that Z
f (x)dx = F (x)

we are going to see how we can find

Z
f (ax + b)dx.

Make the substitution u = ax + b. Then by taking the differential of both sides, we

have;
du 1
= a =⇒ dx = du.
dx a
Hence,
Z Z Z
1 1
f (ax + b)dx = f (u) du = f (u)du
a a
1
= F (u) + C, but u = ax + b, thus,
Z a Z
1
f (ax + b)dx = F (ax + b) + C, where, f (x)dx = F (x).
a

Page 297 of 336

21.1.2 Examples
Example 21.1.3 Determine the following integrals

(i) Z
(3x + 8)9 dx

(ii) Z
1
dx
5x + 2
(iii) Z
e−5x+7 dx

(iv)
√
Z
5x + 3 dx

Solution

(i)
Z
(3x + 8)9 dx.

Let u = 3x + 8. Then,
du du
= 3 =⇒ dx = .
dx 3
Therefore,
Z Z Z
9 du 1
9
(3x + 8) dx = u × = u9 du
3 3
 10 
1 u
= + C.
3 10

But, u = 3x + 8. Thus,
Z
1
(3x + 8)9 dx = (3x + 8)10 + C.
30

(ii) Z
1
dx
5x + 2
Let u = 5x + 2. Then,
du du
= 5 =⇒ dx = .
dx 5

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 Thus,
Z Z Z
1 1 du 1 1 1
dx = × = du = ln u + C.
5x + 2 u 5 5 u 5
But u = 5x + 2. Therefore,
Z
1 1
dx = ln(5x + 2) + C.
5x + 2 5

(iii) Z
e−5x+7 dx

Let u = −5x + 7. Then,

du du
= −5 =⇒ dx = −
dx 5
so that
Z Z Z
−5x+7 udu 1 1
e dx = e ×− =− eu du = − eu + C.
5 5 5
Since, u = −5x + 7, then
Z
1
e−5x+7 dx = − e−5x+7 + C.
5

(iv)
√
Z
5x + 3 dx.

Let u = 5x + 3. Then,
du du
= 5 =⇒ dx = .
dx 5
Thus,
√ √ 1 √
Z Z Z Z
du 1 1
5x + 3 dx = u× = u du = u 2 du
5 5 5
 3
1 u2 2 p
= 3 +C = (5x + 3)3 + C
5 2 15

Since, u = 5x + 3.

Page 299 of 336

21.2 Integration by Parts
We use this method to integrate the product of two functions. If u and v are two
functions of a variable x, then the product rule of differentiation gives
d dv du
(uv) = u + v .
dx dx dx
Integrating both sides with respect to x, we get,
Z Z
dv du
uv = u dx + v dx.
dx dx
We can rearrange the above as,
Z Z
dv du
u dx = uv − v dx
dx dx

dv R
Now if we let u = f (x) and = s(x), so that v = s(x)dx. Then,
dx
Z Z Z
f (x)s(x) dx = f (x) s(x)dx − s(x)dx f 0 (x)dx
Z Z Z 
0
= f (x) s(x)dx − f (x) s(x)dx dx
Z Z
∴ f (x) × s(x)dx = F IS − DF IS dx

Is the simplified method for integration by parts, where ”FIS” stands for ’first function
times integral of the second’ and ”DFIS” stands for ’derivative of the first times the
integral of the second’.

Example 21.2.1 Integrate the following by the method of integration by parts

(i) Z
xex dx

(ii) Z
x2 e−x dx

(iii) Z
x2 ln x dx

Solution

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 (i) Z
xex dx
Taking x as the first function and ex as the second function of integrating by
parts, we have;
Z Z Z   Z  
x x d x
xe dx = x e dx − x e dx dx
dx
Z
= xe − 1 · ex dx = xex − ex + C.
x

(ii) Z
x2 e−x dx

Taking x2 as the first function and e−x as the second function, we have
Z Z Z Z  
2 −x 2 −x d 2 −x dx
x e dx = x e dx − (x ) × e dx
dx
Z
= x (−e ) − 2x(−e−x )dx
2 −x

Z
= −x e + 2 xe−x dx
2 −x

 Z Z Z  
2 −x −x −x
= −x e + 2 x e dx − 1 e dx dx
 Z 
2 −x −x −x
= −x e + 2 x(−e ) − −e dx

= −x2 e−x − 2xe−x + 2(−e−x ) + C

= −e−x (x2 + 2x + 2) + C.

(iii) Z
x2 ln x dx

Taking ln x as the first function and x2 as the second function, we get

Z Z
x ln x dx = ln x · x2 dx
2

x3 1 x3
Z
= ln x · − · dx
3 x 3
x3 ln x 1
Z
= − x2 dx
3 3
x3 ln x 1 x3
= − · +C
3 3 3
x3

1
= ln x − + C.
3 3

Page 301 of 336

21.2.2 Tutorial Questions
(1) Integrate the following functions using suitable substitutions (i.e. by the method
of substitution).

(i) Z
(x5 + 7)7 x4 dx

(ii) Z
2x(x2 + 3)8 dx

(iii) Z
3
x2 ex dx

(iv) Z
x
dx
x2 +2
(v)
ex
Z
dx
ex + 1
(2) Determine the following integrals using the method of integration by parts

(i) Z
xex dx

(ii) Z
(x + 2)e3x dx

(iii) Z
x2 e2x dx

(iv) Z
x2 ln(5x) dx.

Page 302 of 336

22 Application of Integration to Modelling in Eco-
nomics and Business
Learning outcomes
When you have completed this chapter you will be able to;

• Sketch the demand functions

• Calculate the consumer surplus using integration

• Sketch the supply functions

• Calculate the producer surplus using integration.

• Solve first order differential equations

• Apply first order differential equations in economic problems.

22.1 Consumer and Producer Surplus

In this section, we apply definite integrals to determine consumer surplus and pro-
ducer surplus for both linear and non-linear functions.

22.1.1 Consumer Surplus (CS)

Consumer Surplus is described as the difference between the expenditure a consumer
is willing to make on successive units of a good, from Q = 0 to Q = Q0 , and the
actual amount spent on Q0 units of the good at the market price of P0 per unit;



CS = revenue consumer was willing to pay at higher price − actual expenditure at P = P0


= the area enclosed between the demand function over the interval Q = 0 to Q = Q0 − P0 Q0

In general, Consumer Surplus at P = P0 (corresponding quantity Q0 ) is

Z Q=Q0
Area under the curve − Area of rectangle = (demand function)dQ − P0 Q0
Q=0

Example 22.1.2 Use integration to calculate the Consumer Surplus for

(a) the demand function P = 60 − 2Q, when the market price is P0 = 12

(b) the demand function P = 100/(Q + 2), when the market price is P0 = 20.

In each case graph the demand function and shade in the Consumer Surplus.

Page 303 of 336

 Solution

(a) The graph of the demand function P = 60 − 2Q is

Figure 98: Consumer Surplus

Substituting for P0 = 12 into the equation for the demand curve to find corre-
sponding value of Q0 , we get;

12 = 60 − 2Q
⇒ 2Q = 60 − 12
⇒ Q = 24.

Therefore, P0 Q0 = 12 × 24 = 288. To calculate CS, the shaded region area, we

use the formular
Z Q=Q0
Area under the curve − Area of rectangle = (demand function)dQ − P0 Q0
Q=0
ZQ=24
= (60 − 2Q) dQ − P0 Q0
Q=0
 Q=24
Q2

= 60Q − 2 − (12 × 24)
2 Q=0
= 60(24) − (24)2 − 60(0) − (0)2 − (288)
   

= 576

Therefore, Consumer Surplus is 576.

Page 304 of 336

 (b) The demand function P = 100/(Q + 2) is a hyperbolic demand function. Thus,

Figure 99: Consumer Surplus

Substituting for P0 = 20 into the equation for the demand function to find the
corresponding value of Q0 , we get;
100
20 =
Q+2
⇒ 20(Q + 2) = 100
⇒Q+2=5
⇒ Q = 3.

Therefore, P0 Q0 = 20 × 3 = 60. To calculate Consumer Surplus (shaded area),

we apply the formular
Z Q=Q0
Area under the curve − Area of rectangle = (demand function)dQ − P0 Q0
Q=0
ZQ=3  
100
= dQ − (20 × 3)
Q=0 Q+2
Q=3
= 100 ln(Q + 2) − (20 × 3)
Q=0
 
= 100 ln(3 + 2) − ln(0 + 2) − (20 × 3)
= 100[ln(5) − ln(2)] − 60
= (100 × 0.9163) − 60
= 31.6291

22.1.3 Producer Surplus (PS)

The Producer Surplus is defined as the difference between the revenue the producer
receives for Q0 units of a good when the market price is P0 per unit and the revenue

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that she/he was willing to accept for successive units of the good from Q = 0 to
Q = Q0 .
P S = (Actual revenue at price P = P0 ) − (Acceptable revenue at lower prices)
= P0 Q0 − (the area under the supply function over the interval Q = 0 to Q = Q0 )
In general, Producer Surplus at P = P0 (corresponding quantity Q0 ) is
Z Q=Q0
Area of rectangle − Area under the curve = P0 Q0 − (supply function)dQ
Q=0

Example 22.1.4 Sketch the supply function

(a) P = 20 + 4Q and
(b) P = Q2 + 6Q.
In each case, use integration to calculate the Producer Surplus at Q = 4. Shade the
Producer Surplus on each sketch.

Solution

(a) This is a linear supply function. Thus, the graph of P = 20 + 4Q is

Figure 100: Producer Surplus

Now at Q0 = 4, P0 = 36. To calculate the Producer Surplus; we have

Z Q=Q0
Area of rectangle − Area under the curve = P0 Q0 − (supply function)dQ
Q=0
Z Q=4
= (36 × 4) − (20 + 4Q) dQ
Q=0
Q=4
Q2

= 144 − 20Q + 4
2 Q=0
= 144 − 20(4) + 2(4) − 20(0) + 2(0)2
2




∴ P S = 32

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(b) Since the supply function is non-linear; i.e. P = Q2 +6Q is a quadratic function;
Then,

Figure 101: Producer Surplus

Here, P0 = 40, Q0 = 4; since

P0 = Q20 + 6Q0 = 42 + 6(4) = 40.

To calculate the Producer Surplus, we use the formula

Z Q=Q0
Area of rectangle − Area under the curve = P0 Q0 − (supply function)dQ
Q=0
Z Q=4
Q2 + 6Q dQ


= (40 × 4) −
Q=0
3
 Q=4
Q2

Q
= 160 − +6
3 2 Q=0
 3   3 
(4) 2 (0) 2
= 160 − + 3(4) − + 3(0)
3 3
= 160 − (21.33333 + 48 − 0)
∴ P S = 90.6667

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22.2 First-Order Differential Equations and Applications
A differential equation is an equation which contains derivatives, for example,
dy
= 10x (105)
dx
Equation (103) is called a first-order differential equation, since the highest derivative
is a first-order derivative.

22.2.1 General and Particular Solutions of Differential Equations

Unlike most equations encountered so far, a differential equation, such as Equation
(103), cannot be used to determine the value of y for a given value of x. (Try to
evaluate y when x = 2) To evaluate y, we need to deduce an equation that does
not contain derivatives from the differential equation. The equation deduced from
the differential equation is called the solution of the differential equation. So, to find
the solution of a differential equation, we integrate to reverse the differentiation. For
Equation (103), the solution is obtained by integrating both sides of the differential
equation w.r.t. x:
dy
= 10x
dx
dy = 10x dx
Z Z
d(y) = 10x dx
x2
y = 10 +C
2
⇒ y = 5x2 + C.

The equation y = 5x2 + C is called the general solution of the differential equation
(103).

The value of C may be calculated if one particular point or condition on the so-
lution curve is given. For example, suppose we were told that the solution must pass
through the point x = 1, y = 6. Then substitute the values given for x and y into
the general solution and solve for C:

y = 5x2 + C

When x = 1, y = 6, we have;

6 = 5(1)2 + C
⇒y=1
∴ y = 5x2 + 1.

This solution, which contains no arbitrary constant C, is called a particular solu-

tion.

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22.2.2 Solution of Differential Equations of the Form dy/dx = f (x)
The method used to solve the differential equation dy/dx = f (x) is outlined as follows:

(S1 ) Write the differential equation in the form dy/dx = RHS.

(S2 ) Integrate both sides w.r.t. x. This gives the general solution.

(S3 ) If conditions are given for x and y, substitute these values into the general
solution and solve for the arbitrary constant, C.

(S4 ) Substitute this value of C into the general solution to find the particular solu-
tion.

Example 22.2.3 (Solution of Differential Equation: dy/dx = f (x)) Find the gen-
eral and particular solutions for the differential equation
dy
− 6x + 2 = 0
dx
given that x = 3 when y = 0.

Solution
We work through the method as outlined above.

(S1 ) Write
dy dy
= RHS ⇒ = 6x − 2
dx dx
(S2 ) Integrate both sides w.r.t. x.
Z   Z
dy
dx = (6x − 2)dx
dx
x2
y = 6 − 2x + C
2
⇒ y = 3x2 − 2x + C

(S3 ) Given that x = 3 when y = 0, substitute these values into the general solution,

y = 3x2 − 2x + C ⇒ 0 = 3(3)2 − 2(3) ⇒ C = −21

(S4 ) The particular solution is y = 3x2 − 2x − 21.

Page 309 of 336

22.2.4 Application of Differential Equations in Economics and Business
The marginal function is defined as the derivative of the total function. The
equation for a marginal function may be written as a differential equation, which
may then be solved to obtain the equation of the total function.

Example 22.2.5 (Finding Total Cost from Marginal Cost (MC)) The marginal
cost for a product is given by the equation M C = 10/Q.

(i) Write down the differential equation for total cost in terms of Q.

(ii) Find the equation of the total cost function if total costs are 500 when Q = 10.

Solution

(i) The Marginal Cost M C = 10/Q may be written as

d(T C) 10
MC = =
dQ Q

(ii) This differential equation is solved to obtain the equation for the total cost.

d(T C) 10
MC = =
dQ Q
Z Z
d(T C)
TC = dQ = (M C)dQ
dQ
Z
10
= dQ
Q
∴ T C = 10 ln(Q) + C

where the arbitrary constant C is fixed cost. The general solution gives the gen-
eral form of the total cost function.

The condition that T C = 500 when Q = 10 is given. Substitute these con-

ditions into the general solution to evaluate C;

500 = 10 ln(Q) + C ⇒ 500 − 23.0259 = C ⇒ C = 476.974

Therefore,
T C = 10 ln(Q) + 476.9741
This is the particular solution. It is the equation of the total cost function which
satisfies a particular condition T C = 500 when Q = 10.

Page 310 of 336

22.2.6 Tutorial Questions
(1) In questions (i) to (vi) you should

(a) Sketch the demand function then shade the consumer surplus at the given
value of P or Q; and
(b) Calculate using integration the consumer surplus correct to two decimal
places.
(i)
P = 50 − 4Q at P = 10
(ii)
200
P = at Q = 9
Q+1
(iii)
P = 100 − Q2 at Q = 8
(iv)
100
P = at Q = 9
Q+1
(v)
Q = 30 − 0.5P at P=20
(vi)
200
Q= − 5 at P = 10
P
(2) In questions (i) to (iv) you should

(a) Sketch the supply function then shade the producer surplus at the given
value of P or Q; and
(b) Calculate using integration the producer surplus correct to two decimal
places.
(i)
P = 5 + 6Q at P = 29
(ii)
1
P = 10 − at Q = 4
Q+1
(iii)
Q = −8 + 2P at Q = 4
(iv)
P = Q2 + 4 at Q = 5

(3) Determine the general solution for the following differential equations:

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 (i)
dy
= 15
dx
(ii)
dy
− 10t + 1 = 0
dt
(iii)
dy
12 − 8x =4
dx
(iv)
dC
Q = 10Q2
dQ
(v)
P dP
− QP = 0
Q dQ
(4) Find the particular solution for each of the following differential equations:

(i)
dy
= 5x, given x = 2, when y = 4
dx
(ii)
dy
− 10t − 2 = 0, given y = 15, when t = 0
dt
(iii)
dy
12 − 8x = 4x, given y = 6, when x = 1
dx
(iv)
dC
Q = 10 − Q2 , given, C = 50, when Q = 1
dQ
(v)
P dP
− (Q + 5)P = 0, given P = 10, when Q = 0
Q dQ
(5) The marginal cost function for a good is given by the equation
M C = −Q2 + 80Q.

(i) Write down the differential equation which relates total cost to marginal
costs.
(ii) Find the equation of the total cost function if fixed costs are 500.
(iii) Calculate the cost of producing successive units from Q = 3 to Q = 12.

(6) The marginal propensity to consume is given by the equation M F C = e−0.8Y

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 (i) Write the differential equation which relates M P C and total consumption.
(ii) Solve for the consumption function if it is known that consumption is 25
at Y = 0.

(7) The marginal revenue function for a firm is given by the equation
M R = 120 − 2Q.

(i) Write down the differential equation relating marginal revenue and total
revenue.
(ii) Find the equation of the total revenue function if total revenue is zero
when Q = 0.

Page 313 of 336

23 Partial Fractions
Learning outcomes
When you have completed this chapter you will be able to;
• Resolve partial fractions with linear factors

• Resolve partial fractions with repeated linear factors

• Resolve partial fractions with quadratic factors

23.1 Introduction to Partial Fractions

A fraction of the form
f (x)
, g(x) 6= 0
g(x)
where, f (x) and g(x) are polynomials is called a rational function. We can add two
or more rational functions to form a single rational function. By algebraic addition,
1 3 (x + 1) + 3(x − 2) 4x − 5
+ = = 2 .
x−2 x+1 (x − 2)(x + 1) x −x−2
Now think in reverse way, the process of moving from
4x − 5
x2 −x−2
to
1 3
+
x−2 x+1
is called resolving into partial fractions. Partial fractions are widely used in Inte-
gration and Laplace transforms.

In order to resolve an algebraic expression in partial fractions;

(i) the denominator must factorise (in the above example, x2 − x − 2 factorises as
(x − 2)(x + 1)) and

(ii) the numerator must be at least one degree less than the denominator (in the
above example 4x − 5 is of degree 1 since the highest powered x term is x1 and
x2 − x − 2 is of degree 2).
When the degree of the numerator is equal to or higher than the degree of the de-
nominator, the numerator must be divided by the denominator until the remainder
is of less degree than the denominator.

There are basically three types of partial fraction, namely;

(i) Partial fractions with linear factors

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 (ii) Partial fractions with repeated linear factors and
(iii) Partial fractions with quadratic factors
We now discuss each type in depth, i.e. we discuss Partial fractions with linear
factors, partial fractions with reapeated linear factors and partial fractions
with quadratic factors.

23.1.1 Partial Fractions with Linear Factors

Example 23.1.2 Resolve
11 − 3x
x2 + 2x − 3
into partial fractions.

Solution
The denominator factorises as (x − 1)(x + 3) and the numerator is of less degree than
the denominator. Thus,
11 − 3x
2
x + 2x − 3
may be resolved into partial fractions.
Let
11 − 3x 11 − 3x A B
≡ ≡ +
x2 + 2x − 3 (x − 1)(x + 3) (x − 1) (x + 3)
where, A and B are constants to be determined, i.e.
11 − 3x A(x + 3) + B(x − 1)
≡
(x − 1)(x + 3) (x − 1)(x + 3)
by algebraic addition. Since the denominators are the same on each side of the identity
then the numerators are equal to each other. Thus,
11 − 3x ≡ A(x + 3) + B(x − 1).
To determine constants A and B, values of x are chosen to make the term in A or
B equal to zero.

So when x = 1, then
11 − 3(1) ≡ A(1 + 3) + B(0)
=⇒ 8 = 4A
=⇒ A = 2.
When x = −3, then
11 − 3(−3) ≡A(0) + B(−3 − 1)
=⇒ 20 = −4B
=⇒ B = −5

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Thus,
11 − 3x 2 −5 2 5
≡ + = − .
x2 + 2x − 3 (x − 1) (x + 3) (x − 1) (x + 3)
Check !!!
2 5 2(x + 3) − 5(x − 1) 11 − 3x
− = = 2 .
(x − 1) (x + 3) (x − 1)(x + 3) x + 2x − 3

Example 23.1.3 Convert

2x2 − 9x − 35
(x + 1)(x − 2)(x + 3)
into the sum of three partial fractions.

Solution
Let
2x2 − 9x − 35 A B C
≡ + +
(x + 1)(x − 2)(x + 3) (x + 1) (x − 2) (x + 3)

A(x − 2)(x + 3) + B(x + 1)(x + 3) + C(x + 1)(x − 2)

≡
(x + 1)(x − 2)(x + 3)
by algebraic addition. Now equating the numerator gives;

2x2 − 9x − 35 ≡ A(x − 2)(x + 3) + B(x + 1)(x + 3) + C(x + 1)(x − 2).

Let x = −1, then

2(−1)2 − 9(−1) − 35 ≡ A(−3)(2) + B(0)(2) + C(0)(−3)

=⇒ −24 = −6A
=⇒ A = 4.

Let x = 2, then

2(2)2 − 9(2) − 35 ≡ A(0)(5) + B(3)(5) + C(3)(0)

=⇒ −45 = 15B
=⇒ B = −3.

Let x = −3. Then

2(−3)2 − 9(−3) − 35 ≡ A(−5)(0) + B(−2)(0) + C(−2)(−5)

=⇒ 10 = 10C
=⇒ C = 1.

Thus,
2x2 − 9x − 35 4 3 1
≡ − + .
(x + 1)(x − 2)(x + 3) (x + 1) (x − 2) (x + 3)

Page 316 of 336

Example 23.1.4 Resolve
x2 + 1
x2 − 3x + 2
into partial fractions

Solution
Here, the denominator is of the same degree as the numerator. Thus, dividing out
gives;

x2 + 1 3x − 1
∴ 2
≡1+ 2
x − 3x + 2 x − 3x + 2
3x − 1
≡1+
(x − 1)(x − 2)

Let
3x − 1 A B A(x − 2) + B(x − 1)
≡ + ≡
(x − 1)(x − 2) (x − 1) (x − 2) (x − 1)(x − 2)
equating numerators gives

3x − 1 ≡ A(x − 2) + B(x − 1).

Let x = 1. Then,
2 = −A =⇒ A = −2.
Let x = 2. Then,
B = 5.
Hence,
3x − 1 −2 5
≡ + .
(x − 1)(x − 2) (x − 1) (x − 2)
Therefore,
x2 + 1 2 5
2
≡1− +
x − 3x + 2 (x − 1) (x − 2)

Page 317 of 336

23.1.5 Partial Fractions with Repeated Linear Factors
Example 23.1.6 Resolve
2x + 3
f (x) =
(x − 2)2
into partial fractions

Solution
The denominator contains a repeated linear factor, (x − 2)2 .

Let
2x + 3 A B A(x − 2) + B
≡ + ≡ .
(x − 2)2 (x − 2) (x − 2)2 (x − 2)2
Equating the numerators gives;

2x + 3 ≡ A(x − 2) + B.

Let x = 2. Then,
7 = A(0) + B =⇒ B = 7.
And

2x + 3 ≡ A(x − 2) + B
≡ Ax − 2A + B

Since an identity is true for all values of the unknown, the coefficients of similar terms
may be equated.

Hence, equating the coefficients of x gives:

A = 2.

Hence,
2x + 3 2 7
2
≡ +
(x − 2) (x − 2) (x − 2)2

Example 23.1.7 Express

5x2 − 2x − 19
h(x) =
(x + 3)(x − 1)2

as the sum of three partial fractions.

Solution
Here the denominator is a combination of a linear factor and a repeated linear factor.

Page 318 of 336

Let
5x2 − 2x − 19 A B C
2
≡ + +
(x + 3)(x − 1) (x + 3) (x − 1) (x − 1)2
A(x − 1)2 + B(x + 3)(x − 1) + C(x + 3)
≡
(x + 3)(x − 1)2

by algebraic addition. Equating the numerators, we get;

5x2 − 2x − 19 ≡ A(x − 1)2 + B(x + 3)(x − 1) + C(x + 3) (106)

Let x = −3. Then,

5(−3)2 − 2(−3) − 19 ≡ A(−4)2 + B(0)(−4) + C(0)

=⇒ 32 = 16A
=⇒ A = 2.

Let x = 1. Then,

5(1)2 − 2(1) − 19 ≡ A(0)2 + B(4)(0) + C(4)

=⇒ −16 = 4C
=⇒ C = −4.

Without expanding the right hand side of Equation (104), it can be seen that equating
the coefficients of x2 gives; 5 = A + B, since A = 2 =⇒ B = 3. Hence,

5x2 − 2x − 19 2 3 4
2
≡ + − .
(x + 3)(x − 1) (x + 3) (x − 1) (x − 1)2

23.1.8 Partial Fractions with Quadratic Factors

Example 23.1.9 Express

7x2 + 5x + 13
g(x) =
(x2 + 2)(x + 1)

into partial fractions.

Solution
The denominator is a combination of a quadratic factor, (x2 + 2) which does not
factorise without introducing imaginary surds terms, and a linear factor, (x + 1).

Let
7x2 + 5x + 13 Ax + B C (Ax + B)(x + 1) + C(x2 + 2)
≡ + ≡
(x2 + 2)(x + 1) (x2 + 2) (x + 1) (x2 + 2)(x + 1)

Page 319 of 336

Equating numerators gives;

7x2 + 5x + 13 ≡ (Ax + B)(x + 1) + C(x2 + 2) (107)

Let x = −1. Then

7(−1)2 + 5(−1) + 13 ≡ (Ax + B)(0) + C(1 + 2)

=⇒ 15 = 3C
=⇒ C = 5.

Identity (105) may be expanded as follows;

7x2 + 5x + 13 ≡ Ax2 + Ax + B + Cx2 + 2C.

Equating the coefficients of x2 term gives;

7=A+C

and since C = 5, =⇒ A = 2.

Equating the coefficients of x terms gives;

5=A+B

and since A = 2, =⇒ B = 3. Hence,

7x2 + 5x + 13 2x + 3 5
2
≡ 2 + .
(x + 2)(x + 1) (x + 2) (x + 1)
Example 23.1.10 Resolve
3 + 6x + 4x2 − 2x3
x2 (x2 + 3)
into partial fractions.

Solution
Terms such as x2 may be treated as (x + 0)2 , i.e. they are repeated linear factors.

Let
3 + 6x + 4x2 − 2x3 A B Cx + D
2 2
≡ + 2+ 2
x (x + 3) x x (x + 3)
Ax(x + 3) + B(x2 + 3) + (Cx + D)x2
2
≡
x2 (x2 + 3)
Equating the numerators gives;

3 + 6x + 4x2 − 23 ≡ Ax(x2 + 3) + B(x2 + 3) + (Cx + D)x2

≡ Ax3 + 3Ax + Bx2 + 3B + Cx3 + Dx2

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Let x = 0. Then 3 = 3B,
=⇒ B=1
Equating the coefficients of x3 terms gives;
−2 = A + C (108)
Equating the coefficients of x2 terms gives;
−2 = A + C4 = B + D (109)
Since B = 1,
=⇒ D=3
Equating the coefficients of x terms gives;
6 = 3A
=⇒ A=2
From equation 106, since A = 2,
=⇒ C = −4 .
Hence,
3 + 6x + 4x2 − 2x3 2 1 −4x + 3
2 2
≡ + 2+ 2 .
x (x + 3) x x x +3

23.1.11 Tutorial Questions

(1) Resolve the following partial fractions with linear factors
12 4(x − 4) x2 − 3x + 6 3(2x2 − 8x − 1)
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
x2 − 9 x2 − 2x − 3 x(x − 2)(x − 1) (x + 4)(x + 1)(2x − 1)
x2 + 9x + 8 x2 − x − 14 3x3 − 2x2 − 16x + 20
(v) (vi) (vii)
x2 + x − 6 x2 − 2x − 3 (x − 2)(x + 2)
(2) Resolve the following rational functions into partial fractions with repeated
linear factors
3x2 + 16x + 15 5x2 − 2x − 19 4x − 3 x2 + 7x + 3
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
(x + 3)3 (x + 3)(x − 1)2 (x + 1)2 x2 (x + 3)
5x2 − 30x + 44 18 + 21x − x2
(v) (vi)
(x − 2)3 (x − 5)(x + 2)2
(3) Resolve the following partial fractions with quadratic factors.
x2 − x − 13 15 + 5x + 5x2 − 4x3 x3 + 4x2 + 20x − 7
(i) (ii) (iii)
(x2 + 7)(x − 2) x2 (x2 + 5) (x − 1)2 (x2 + 8)
6x − 5 7x2 + 5x + 13 3 + 6x + 4x2 − 2x3
(iv) (v) (vi) .
(x − 4)(x2 + 3) (x2 + 2)(x + 1) x2 (x2 + 3)

Page 321 of 336

24 Application of Partial Fractions in Integration
Learning outcomes
When you have completed this chapter you will be able to;

• Integrate partial fractions with linear factors

• Integrate partial fractions with repeated linear factors

• Integrate partial fractions with quadratic factors

24.1 Integration by Partial Fractions

Certain functions have to be resolved into partial fractions before they can be inte-
grated, as demonstrated in the following worked problems.

24.1.1 Integration using Partial Fractions with Linear Factors

Example 24.1.2 Determine
11 − 3x
Z
dx
x2 + 2x − 3
Solution
In Example (23.1.2), we showed by partial fractions that
11 − 3x 2 5
≡ − .
x2+ 2x − 3 (x − 1) (x + 3)

Hence,
Z  
11 − 3x
Z
2 5
dx ≡ − dx
x2 + 2x − 3 (x − 1) (x + 3)
= 2 ln(x − 1) − 5 ln(x + 3) + C
(x − 1)2
 
Or = ln + C by the laws of logarithms.
(xx + 3)5

Example 24.1.3 Find

2x2 − 9x − 35
Z
dx
(x + 1)(x − 2)(x + 3)
Solution
It was shown in Example (23.1.3), that

2x2 − 9x − 35 4 3 1
≡ − + .
(x + 1)(x − 2)(x + 3) (x + 1) (x − 2) (x + 3)

Page 322 of 336

Hence,

2x2 − 9x − 35
Z   Z  
4 3 1
dx ≡ − + dx
(x + 1)(x − 2)(x + 3) (x + 1) (x − 2) (x + 3)
= 4 ln(x + 1) − 3 ln(x − 2) + ln(x + 3) + C
(x + 1)4 (x + 3)
 
Or = ln + C.
(x − 2)3

24.1.4 Integration using Partial Fractions with Repeated Linear Factors

Example 24.1.5 Determine Z
2x + 3
dx
(x − 2)2
Solution
It was shown in Example 23.1.6, that
2x + 3 2 7
2
≡ + .
(x − 2) (x − 2) (x − 2)2

Thus,
Z Z  
2x + 3 2 7
dx ≡ + dx
(x − 2)2 (x − 2) (x − 2)2
7
= 2 ln(x − 2) − + C.
(x − 2)

Example 24.1.6 Find

5x2 − 2x − 19
Z
dx
(x + 3)(x − 1)2
Solution
In Example 23.1.7, we had shown that

5x2 − 2x − 19 2 3 4
2
≡ + − .
(x + 3)(x − 1) (x + 3) (x − 1) (x − 1)2

Therefore,

5x2 − 2x − 19
Z   Z  
2 3 4
dx ≡ + − dx
(x + 3)(x − 1)2 (x + 3) (x − 1) (x − 1)2
4
= 2 ln(x + 3) + 3 ln(x − 1) + + C.
x−1

Page 323 of 336

24.1.7 Integration Using Partial Fractions With Quadratic Factors
Example 24.1.8 Evaluate

3 + 6x + 4x2 − 2x3
Z
dx.
x2 (x2 + 3)

Solution
It was shown in Example 23.1.10 that

3 + 6x + 4x2 − 2x3 2 1 −4x + 3

2 2
≡ + 2+ 2
x (x + 3) x x x +3

Thus,

3 + 6x + 4x2 − 2x3
Z  
3 − 4x
Z
2 1
dx ≡ + + dx
x2 (x2 + 3) x x2 (x2 + 3)
Z  
2 1 3 4x
= + + − dx.
x x2 (x2 + 3) (x2 + 3)

Now we know that

Z Z  
3 1 3 x
2
dx = 3 √ dx = √ tan−1 √ + C.
(x + 3) 2
x + ( 3)2 3 3

Also, Z
4x
dx
x2 +3
is determined by using algebraic substitution u = (x2 + 3).

Hence,
Z    
2 1 3 4x 1 3 −1 x
+ + − dx = 2 ln(x) − + √ tan √ − 2 ln(x2 + 3) + C
x x2 (x2 + 3) (x2 + 3) 2 3 3
2
√
  
x 1 −1 x
= ln − + 3 tan √ + C.
x2 + 3 x 3

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24.1.9 Tutorial Questions
(1) Evaluate the following integrals using partial fractions with linear factors

(i) Z
12
dx
(x2 − 9)
(ii)
4(x − 4)
Z
dx
(x2 − 2x − 3)
(iii)
3(2x2 − 8x − 1)
Z
dx
(x + 4)(x + 1)(2x − 1)
(iv)
(x2 + 9x + 8)
Z
dx
(x2 + x − 6)
(2) Determine the following definite integrals using partial fractions with linear
factors correct to 4 significant figures.

(i)
3
x3 − 2x2 − 4x − 4
Z  
dx
2 x2 + x − 2
(ii)
4
x2 − 3x + 6
Z  
dx
3 x(x − 2)(x − 1)
(iii)
6
x2 − x − 14
Z  
dx
4 x2 − 2x − 3
(3) Determine the following integrals using partial fractions with repeated linear
factors

(i) Z  
4x − 3
dx
(x + 1)2
(ii)
5x2 − 30x + 44
Z  
dx
(x − 2)3
(iii)
3x2 + 16x + 15
Z  
dx
(x + 3)3

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(4) In problem (i) and (ii), evaluate the definite integrals correct to 4 significant
figures

(i)
2
x2 + 7x + 3
Z  
dx
1 x2 (x + 3)
(ii)
7
18 + 21x − x2
Z  
dx
6 (x − 5)(x + 2)2
(5) Determine the following integrals using partial fractions with quadratic factors,
x2 − x − 13 6x − 5
Z Z Z
4
(i) 2
dx (ii) 2
dx (iii) dx.
(x + 7)(x − 2) (x − 4)(x + 3) (16 − x2 )

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25 Stationary Points or Turning Points
Learning outcomes
When you have completed this chapter you will be able to;
• Define stationary point (turning point)

• Know the procedure for finding and distinguishing stationary points

• Apply maximum and minimum points in economic problems

• Apply Lagrange Multiplier for optimization problems.

25.0.1 Introduction
Consider the two figures below;

Figure 102:

Figure 103:

In Fig. 101, the gradient (or rate of change) of the curve changes from positive
between O and P to negative between P and Q, and then positive again between Q
and R. At point P , the gradient is zero and, as x increases, the gradient of the curve
changes from positive just before P to negative just after. Such a point is called a
maximum point and appears as the ’crest of a wave’. At point Q, the gradient is
also zero and, as x increases, the gradient of the curve changes from negative just
before Q to positive just after. Such a point is called a minimum point, and appears

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as the ’bottom of a valley’. Points such as P and Q are given the general name of
turning points. It is possible to have a turning point, the gradient on either side of
which is the same. Such a point is given the special name of a point of inflexion,
and examples are shown in Fig. 102. Maximum and minimum points and points of
inflexion are given the general term of stationary points.
Definition 25.0.2 (Stationary Point) A point on the curve y = f (x) is called a
stationary point or a turning point if the gradient of the curve at that point is
zero. Therefore, P is a turning point if
dy
= 0.
dx P

25.0.3 Procedure for Finding and Distinguishing Stationary Points

dy
(i) Given y = f (x), determine (i.e. f 0 (x))
dx
dy
(ii) Let = 0 and solve for the values of x.
dx
(iii) Substitute the values of x into the original equation, y = f (x), to find the cor-
responding y-ordinate values. This establishes the coordinates of the stationary
points.
d2 y
(iv) Find and substitute into it the values of x found in (ii). If the result is;
dx2
(a) Positive;- the point is a minimum one,
(b) Negative;- the point is a maximum one,
(c) Zero;- the point is a point of inflexion.

Or

(v) Determine the sign of the gradient of the curve just before and just after the
stationary points. If the sign change for the gradient of the curve is;

(a) Positive to negative;- the point is a maximum one,

(b) Negative to positive;- the point is a minimum one,
(c) Positive to positive or negative to negative;- the point is a point of inflexion.

Example 25.0.4 Locate the turning point on the curve y = 3x2 − 6x and determine
its nature by examining the sign of the gradient on either side

Solution
Following the above procedure;
dy
(i) Since y = 3x2 − 6x, = 6x − 6
dx
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 dy
(ii) At a turning point, = 0, hence 6x − 6 = 0, from which x = 1.
dx
(iii) When x = 1, y = 3(1)2 − 6(1) = −3, hence the coordinates of the turning
point is (1, −3)

(iv) If x is slightly less than 1, say, x = 0.9, then

dy
= 6(0.9) − 6 = −0.6
dx
i.e. negative. If x is slightly greater than 1, say x = 1.1, then
dy
= 6(1.1) − 6 = 0.6
dx
i.e. positive. Since the gradient of the curve is negativeSjust before the turning
point and positive just after the turning point (i.e. − +). Thus, the point
(1, −3) is a minimum point.

Example 25.0.5 Find the maximum and minimum values of the curve y = x3 −3x+5
by;
(i) Examining the gradient on either side of the turning points, and

(ii) Determining the sign of the second derivative.

Solution
dy dy
Since y = x3 −3x+5, then = 3x2 −3. For a maximum or minimum value, = 0.
dx dx
Hence,

3x2 − 3 = 0
⇒ 3x2 = 3
⇒ x = ±1

When x = 1, y = (1)3 − 3(1) + 5 = 3 and when x = −1, y = (−1)3 − 3(−1) + 5 = 7.

Hence, (1, 3) and (−1, 7) are the co-ordinates of the turning points.
(a) Considering the point (1, 3); If x is slightly less than 1, say x = 0.9, then
dy
= 3(0.9)2 − 3
dx
which is negative. If x is slightly more than 1, say x = 1.1, then
dy
= 3(1.1)2 − 3
dx
which is positive. Since the gradient changes from negative to positive, the
point (1, 3) is a minimum point.

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 Considering the point (−1, 7); If x is slightly less than −1, say x = −1.1,
then
dy
= 3(−1.1)2 − 3
dx
which is positive. If x is slightly more than −1, say x = −0.9, then
dy
= 3(−0.9)2 − 3
dx
which is negative. Since, the gradient changes from positive to negative, the
point (−1, 7) is a maximum point.
dy 2 d2 y d2 y
(b) Since = 3x − 3, then = 6x. When x = 1, is positive, hence (1, 3)
dx dx2 dx2
is a minimum value.

d2 y
And when x = −1, 2 is negative, hence (−1, 7) is a maximum value.
dx
Therefore, the maximum value is 7, and the minimum value is 3.

25.1 Economic Applications of Maximum and Minimum Points

In Unit 03; Lecture Notes, the first derivatives of economic functions were called
marginal functions. Therefore, the optimum value of functions, such as revenue,
profit, cost, etc., will all occur when the corresponding marginal function (first deriva-
tive) is zero as will be shown in the following worked examples.

Example 25.1.1 (Maximum T R and a Sketch of the T R Function) The demand

function for a good is given as P = 50 − 2Q

(a) Write down expressions for the total revenue (T R) and marginal revenue (M R)
functions.

(b) Calculate the output at which T R is a maximum and confirm that marginal
revenue (M R) is zero at this point.

(c) Sketch the T R and M R functions.

Solution

(a)

T R = P × Q = (50 − 2Q)Q
= 50Q − 2Q2
d(T R)
∴ MR = = 50 − 4Q.
dQ

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(b) To find the output level at which T R is at a maximum, work through the
max/min. method for finding turning points as follows;

T R = 50Q − 2Q2
d(T R)
= 50 − 4Q
dQ
d2 (T R)
= −4
dQ2

d(T R)
To find the turning point(s), we set = 0, that is
dQ

50 − 4Q = 0
50
⇒Q= = 12.5
4 
at Q = 12.5; T R = 50 − 2(12.5) (12.5) = 312.5

In general, T R is maximised when

d(T R)
= MR = 0
dQ
and
d2 (T R) d(M R)
2
= = (M R)0 < 0.
dQ dQ
Since the second derivative is a negative constant, therefore, T R has a maximum
value. Hence,
T R = 312.5, at Q = 12.5.
To check if M R = 0 at Q = 12.5; since

M R = 50 − 4Q = 50 − 4(12.5) = 0.

Therefore, M R is zero at at this point Q = 12.5.

(c) Sketching the total revenue (T R) function; Since T R is a quadratic function, we

find the points of intersection with the saxes. i.e, when T R = 0, Q = 25 and
when Q = 0, T R = 0, therefore, the points of intersection with the horizontal
axis are (0, 0) and (25, 0).

The turning point for the total revenue function was calculated in part (b).
at
T R = 312.5 and Q = 12.5.
The marginal revenue M R function is a linear function, therefore, two points
are required to sketch its graph as shown below

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 Figure 104: T R is at a maximum when M R = 0

Figure 105: T R is at a maximum when M R = 0

Example 25.1.2 (Break-Even, Profit, Loss and Graphs) The demand function
for a good is given by the equation P = 50 − 2Q, while total cost is given by
T C = 160 + 2Q.
(a) write down the equation for
(i) total revenue (T R)
(ii) profit (π)
(b) (i) Sketch the total cost (T C) and total revenue (T R) functions on the same
graph diagram.
(ii) From the graph estimate, in terms of Q, when the firm breaks even, makes
a profit and makes a loss.
Confirm these answers algebraically.

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 (c) Determine the maximum profit and the value of Q at which profit is a maximum.
Sketch the profit function.

(d) Compare the levels of output at which profit and total revenue are maximised.

Solution

(a) (i)
T R = P Q = (50 − 2Q)Q = 50Q − 2Q2
(ii)

π = T R − T C = 50Q − 2Q2 − (160 + 2Q)

= −2Q2 + 48Q − 160
= −2(Q2 − 24Q + 80)

(b) (i) Sketching the total cost function; T C = 160 + 2Q, is a linear function;
thus, two points are required to sketch its graph. eg, at Q = 0, T C =
160 + 2(0) = 160, and taking any other Q value, say Q = 20, then
T C = 160 + 2(20) = 200 and so the graph is shown in the Figure 105
below;

Sketching the total revenue function, we have the curve shown in the Figure
105 below;

Figure 106: Total revenue and total cost functions

Page 333 of 336

 (ii) From the graph, break-even occurs when T C = T R, at Q = 4 and Q = 20.
The break-even points are calculated algebraically as follows;

TC = TR
160 + 2Q = 50Q − 2Q2
2Q2 − 48Q + 160 = 0
Q2 − 24Q + 80 = 0
(Q − 4)(Q − 20) = 0

Hence, the break-even quantities are Q = 4 and Q = 20. As shown in

Figure 105, losses are incurred below break-even point Q = 4 (where T C >
T R) and above break-even point Q = 20 (where T C > T R). Profits are
incurred between the two break-even points since T C < T R in this interval.

(c) Maximum profits are calculated by finding the turning point(s) for the profit
function.

Profit; π = −2Q2 + 48Q − 160

dπ
= −4Q + 48
dQ
d2 π
= −4
dQ2
dπ
Finding turning point(s), set = 0; i.e.
dQ

−4Q + 48 = 0
48
⇒Q= = 12
4
and so at Q = 12, the value of π is

π = −2(12)2 + 48(12) − 160

= 128

Therefore, since the second derivative is a negative constant, then the profits π
are a maximum
π = 128 at Q = 12.
The profit function has only one turning point and this is a maximum.

Sketching the profit function; To sketch the profit function, we find

(1) the points of intersection with the axes and

(2) turning points

So

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 (1) The graph cuts the Q−axis when π = 0;

π=0
−2(Q2 − 24Q + 80) = 0
Q2 − 24Q + 80 = 0
(Q − 4)(Q − 20) = 0

Therefore, Q = 4 & Q = 20. These values of Q where π = 0 are also

the break-even points.
(2) We have just shown that profit ha s a maximum value of 128 when Q = 12.
This provides another point for sketching the profit function.

Figure 107: Profit function

(d) Maximum profit of 128 occurs when Q = 12.

Maximum total revenue of 312.5 occurs when Q = 12.5.

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25.1.3 Summary
The use of first and second derivatives to locate and determine the nature of turning
points is summarised in the figure below, where y 0 and y 00 mean the first and second
derivatives respectively.

Figure 108: Summary of Turning Points

(1) Step 1; Find y 0 and y 00

(2) Step 2; Solve y 0 = 0 to get the x-coordinate of the turning point(s), (x0 ).
Step 2a; For each (x0 ) find the y-coordinate.

(3) Step 3; Evaluate y 00 at each (x0 ). If y 00 < 0, then the point at (x0 ) is a
maximum. If y 00 > 0, then the point at (x0 ) is a minimum.

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26 Partial Derivatives
Learning outcomes
When you have completed this chapter you will be able to;

• Define partial derivative and familiarise yourself with the notations

• Find the first partial derivatives of a function of two real variables

• Apply partial differentiation to Optimization problems using Lagrange Multi-

plier

26.0.1 Introduction
We have learnt that differentiation is the rate of change of one variable with respect to
another. In first year, first-semester, we were differentiating functions which involve
only one independent variable. But in many practical situations there are several
quantities which depend on two or more variables. For example, the area of a rect-
angle depends on its breadth b and length l, the volume of a cylinder depends upon
its radius and height, etc.

If the value of z depends on two quantities x and y, then we write z = f (x, y).
Here, z is the dependent variable while x and y are independent variables.

Definition 26.0.2 (Partial Derivative) Let z = f (x, y) be a function of two in-

dependent variables x and y. If we keep y constant, then z becomes a function of x
alone. We write this in short form as
∂z ∂f ∂
, , f (x, y), fx , fx (x, y).
∂x ∂x ∂x
Similarly, if z is a function of three or more variable, say x1 , x2 , x3 , . . ., then the partial
derivative of z with respect to each one of the variables is obtained by differentiating
z with respect to that variable, keeping all other variables as constant.

∂f ∂f
Example 26.0.3 Find = fx and = fy of the following functions
∂x ∂y
(i)
f (x, y) = xe2x+3y

(ii)
x−y
f (x, y) =
x+y
(iii)  
y
f (x, y) = ln x.
x

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Solution

(i)
f (x, y) = xe2x+3y
∂f
To find , we treat y as a constant and differentiate with respect to x;
∂x
∂f
= 2xe2x+3y + e2x+3y .
∂x
∂f
To find , we treat x as a constant and differentiate with respect to y;
∂y
∂f
= 3xe2x+3y
∂y

(ii)
x−y
f (x, y) =
x+y
∂f
finding , we get;
∂x
∂f x + y − (x − y)
=
∂x (x + y)2
∂f
finding , we get;
∂y

∂f −(x + y) − (x − y) 2x
= 2
=− .
∂y (x + y) (x + y)2

(iii)  
y
f (x, y) = ln x.
x
Here, fx is
y 1 y y
fx = · − 2 ln x = 2 (1 − ln x)
x x x x
and fy is
1
fy = ln x.
x
∂f
Example 26.0.4 (Finding Partial Derivatives at a Point) Find the values
∂x
∂f
and at the point (4, −5) if
∂y

f (x, y) = x2 + 3xy + y − 1.

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Solution
∂f
To find , we treat y as a constant and differentiate with respect to x;
∂x
∂f ∂ 2

= x + 3xy + y − 1 = 2x + 3 · 1 · y + 0 − 0 = 2x + 3y.
∂x ∂x
∂f
The value of at (4, −5) is 2(4) + 3(−5) = −7.
∂x
∂f
To find , we treat x as a constant and differentiate with respect to y;
∂y
∂f ∂ 2

= x + 3xy + y − 1 = 0 + 3 · x · 1 + 1 − 0 = 3x + 1
∂y ∂y
∂f
The value of at (4, −5) is 3(4) + 1 = 13.
∂y

26.1 Application Using the Lagrange Multiplier for Optimi-

sation of Functions
To find the optimum values of a function z = f (x, y) subject to a constraint, ax+by =
M , we define the Lagrangian function, L, where

L = L(x, y, λ) = f (x, y) + λ(M − ax − by)

where λ is called a Lagrange multiplier and is treated as a variable. L is the sum

of the original function to be optimised and λ × (constant = 0). The optimum value
of λ must be determined in addition to the optimum values of the variables x and y.
Since the problem consists of three independent variables, x, y and λ, therefore, three
first-order derivatives are; Lx , Ly and Lλ

Example 26.1.1 (Maximising Total Revenue Subject to a Budget Constraint)

The total revenue function for two goods is given by the equation

T R = 36x − 3x2 + 56y − 4y 2

Find the number of units of each good which must be sold if profit is to be maximised
when the firm is subject to a budget constraint, 5x + 10y = 80.

Solution
Define the Lagrangian;

L = 36x − 3x2 + 56y − 4y 2 + λ(80 − 5x − 10y)

Step 1; Find the first-order partial derivatives;

Lx = 36 − 6x − 5λ, Ly = 56 − 8y − 10λ, Lλ = 80 − 5x − 10y

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step 2; Equate the first-order partial derivatives to zero and solve for x, y and λ. It
is more convenient to eliminate λ from the first two equations and then solve for x
and y.

36 − 6x − 5λ = 0 (110)
56 − 8y − 10λ = 0 (111)
80 − 5x − 10y = 0 (112)

Which solves as follow; Multiplying Equation (108) through by −2, we get;

−75 + 12x + 10λ = 0 (113)

Adding Equation (111) and Equation (109), we get;

−16 + 12x − 8y = 0 (114)

Now using Equations (110) and (112) to solve for x and y, first dividing through
Equation (110) by 5 we get;

16 − x − 2y = 0 (115)

Also dividing Equation (112) through by −4, we get;

4 − 3x + 2y = 0 (116)

Now adding Equations (113) and (114) together, we get;

11
20 − 4x + 0 = 0 ⇒ x = =5
4
Substituting x = 5 into any equation containing x and y such as Equation (113) and
solve for y we get;
16 − x 11
y= = = 5.5
2 2
Therefore, x = 5 and y = 5.5 are the quantities of goods X and Y for which revenue
is maximised. Maximum total revenue is

T R = 36(5) − 3(5)2 + 56(5.5) − 4(5.5)2 = 292.

Page 340 of 336

For further readings, see the references ([4], [1],[5], [3] and [2])

References
[1] John Bird. Engineering mathematics. Routledge, 2003.

[2] Teresa Bradley. Essential mathematics for economics and business. John Wiley
& Sons, 2013.

[3] Tomasz Brzezniak, Zdislaw; Zastawniak. Basic Stochastic Processes; A course

through exercises. Springer, 1998.- ISBN: 3540761756, 1998, -x 225 pages.

[4] HK Dass. Advanced engineering mathematics. S. Chand Publishing, 2008.

[5] Richard Hamming. Numerical methods for scientists and engineers. Courier Cor-
poration, 2012.

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