Sampling

Sampling concepts :
Sampling is a process of selecting a few from a bigger group to become the basis for estimating
or predicting the prevalence of an unknown piece of information, situation, or outcome regarding
the bigger group.
A sample is a sub group of the population you are interested in.

Before we get into the details of various issues pertaining to sampling, it would be appropriate to
discuss some of the sampling concepts.

Population :
Population refers to any group of people or objects that form the subject of study in a particular
survey and as similar in one or more ways .
For example - If, in an organization there are 1000 engineers, out of which 350 are mechanical
engineers who intend to leave the organization within six months & we are interested in only them ,
then all the 350 mechanical engineers would form the population of interest.

Element :
An element comprises a single member of the population. Out of the 350 mechanical engineers
mentioned above, each mechanical engineer would form an element of the population.

Sampling frame :
Sampling frame comprises all the elements of a population with proper identification that is available
to us for selection at any stage of sampling.
For example, the list of registered voters in a constituency could form a sampling frame; the
telephone directory; the number of students registered with a university are examples of sampling
frames. When the population size is very large, it becomes virtually impossible to form a sampling
frame.
Sample :
It is a subset of the population. It comprises only some elements of the population.
Example : if out of those 350 mechanical engineers, only 30 are surveyed regarding their
intentions to leave, these 30 members would constitute the sample.

Sampling unit :
A sampling unit is a single member of the sample. If a sample of 50 students is taken from a
population of 200 MBA students in a business school, then each of the 50 students is a
sampling unit.

Sampling :
It is a process of selecting an adequate number of elements from the population so that the study
of the sample will not only help in understanding the characteristics of the population but will also
enable us to generalize the results.

Census :
An examination of each and every element of the population is called census or complete
enumeration. Census is an alternative to sampling.
 Sampling methods :
There are different types of sample designs based on two factors viz., the representation basis
and the element selection technique. On the representation basis, the sample may be probability
sampling or it may be non-probability sampling.
Probability sampling is based on the concept of random selection, whereas non-probability
sampling is ‘non-random’ sampling.

Types of Sampling

Probability/ Random sampling Non-probability/ non-random

sampling

I
Systematic sampling Quota

Stratified sampling Proportionate Stratified sampling Judgmental

Disproportionate Stratified sampling Accidental

Cluster sampling Single stage Expert

Double stage Snowball

Multi stage
 Non-probability sampling :
• Non-probability sampling is that sampling procedure which does not afford any basis for
estimating the probability that each item in the population has of being included in the sample.
• Non-probability sampling is also known by different names such as deliberate sampling, purposive
sampling and judgement sampling.
• In this type of sampling, items for the sample are selected deliberately by the researcher; his
choice concerning the items remains supreme.
• In other words, under non-probability sampling the organisers of the inquiry purposively choose
the particular units of the universe for constituting a sample on the basis that the small mass that
they so select out of a huge one will be typical or representative of the whole.
• This type do not follow the theory of probability in the choice of elements from the sampling
population.
• It are used when the number of elements in a population is either unknown or cannot be
individually identified.

There are five commonly used non-probability designs each based on a different consideration
which are commonly used in both qualitative and quantitative research. These are. :
• Quota sampling
• Accidental sampling
• Judgemental sampling or purposive sampling
• Expert sampling
• Snowball sampling.
 A) Quota Sampling
- Under quota sampling the interviewers are simply given quotas to be filled from the different strata, with
some restrictions on how they are to be filled.
- In other words, the actual selection of the items for the sample is left to the interviewer’s discretion.
- This type of sampling is very convenient and is relatively inexpensive.
But the samples so selected certainly do not possess the characteristic of random samples.
- Quota samples are essentially judgement samples and inferences drawn on their basis are not amenable
statistical treatment in a formal way

B) Accidental Sampling
- Accidental sampling is also based upon convenience in accessing the sampling population.
- Whereas quota sampling attempts to include people possessing and visible characteristic, accidental
sampling makes no such attempt.
- You stop collecting data when you reach the required number of respondents, you decided to have in
your sample.
- This method of sampling is common among the market research, and newspaper reporters.
- It has more or less the same advantages and disadvantages as quota sampling.

C) Judgemental or Purposive Sampling

- The primary consideration in purpose sampling is your judgement as to who can provide the best
information to achieve the objectives of your study.
- You as a researcher, only go to those people who in your opinion are likely to have the required
information and be willing to share it with you.
- This type of sampling is extremely useful. When you want to construct a historical reality,
describe a phenomenon or develop something about which only a little is known..
- This sampling strategy is more common in qualitative research, but when you use it in
quantitative, you select a predetermined number of people who, in your judgement, are the best
positioned to provide you the needed information for your study.
D) Expert Sampling

The only difference between judgemental and expert sampling is that in case of the former, it is
entirely your judgement as to the ability of the respondents to contribute to the study.
- But in the case of expert, your respondents must be known experts in the field of interest to you.
- This is again used in both types of research, but more so in qualitative studies.
- When you use it in qualitative research, the number of people you talk to is dependent upon the
data saturation point, whereas in quantitative research, you decide on the number of experts to be
contacted without considering the saturation point.

E) Snowball Sampling

Snowball sampling is the process of selecting a sample using networks.

- this sampling technique is useful. If you know little about the group or organisation, you wish to
study, as you need only to make contact with a few individuals, who can then direct you to the
other members of the group.
- This method of selecting a sample is useful for studying communication patterns, decision-
making, or diffusion of knowledge within a group.
 Probability sampling :
- Probability sampling is also known as ‘random sampling’ or ‘chance sampling’. Under this
sampling design, every item of the universe has an equal chance of inclusion in the sample.
- It is, so to say, a lottery method in which individual units are picked up from the whole group not
deliberately but by some mechanical process.
- Here it is blind chance alone that determines whether one item or the other is selected.
- The results obtained from probability or random sampling can be assured in terms of probability
i.e., we can measure the errors of estimation or the significance of results obtained from a random
sample, and this fact brings out the superiority of random sampling design over the deliberate
sampling design.
- Random sampling from a finite population refers to that method of sample selection which gives
each possible sample combination an equal probability of being picked up and each item in the
entire population to have an equal chance of being included in the sample.

The implications of random sampling (or simple random sampling) are:

(a) It gives each element in the population an equal probability of getting into the sample; and all
choices are independent of one another.
(b) It gives each possible sample combination an equal probability of being chosen.

Probability sampling under restricted sampling techniques, as stated above, may result in complex
random sampling designs.
Some of the popular complex random sampling designs are as follows:
• Systematic sampling
• Stratified sampling
• Cluster sampling
• Area sampling
• Multi stage sampling
• Sampling with probability proportional to size
A) Systematic Sampling

- The most practical way of sampling is to select every ith item on a list.
- Sampling of this type is known as systematic sampling. An element of randomness is
introduced into this kind of sampling by using random numbers to pick up the unit with which to
start.
- in systematic sampling, only the first unit is selected randomly, and the remaining units of the
samples are selected at intervals.
-It is an easier and less costly method of sampling and can be conveniently used even in case of
large populations.

B) Stratified Sampling

If a population from which a sample is to be drawn does not constitute a homogeneous group,
stratified sampling technique is generally applied in order to obtain representative sample.
- Under stratified sampling, the population is divided into several of populations that are
individually more homogeneous than the total population, and then we select items from each
stratum to constitute a sample.
- Since each stratum is more homogeneous than the total population, we are able to get more
precise estimates for each stratum.

C) Cluster Sampling

- In cluster sampling, the total population is divided into a number of relatively small subdivisions
which are clusters of steel smaller units, and then some of these clusters are randomly selected for
inclusion in the overall sample.
- Cluster sampling reduces cost by concentrating surveys in selected clusters .
- But certainly, it is less precise than random sampling .
 D) Area Sampling
If cluster happens to be some geographic subdivision, in that case, cluster sampling is better
known as area sampling.
In other words cluster designs, where the primary sampling unit represents a cluster of units based
on a geographical area, at distinguished as area sampling .

E) Multi-stage Sampling

Multi stage sampling is a further development of the principle of cluster sampling.

Suppose we want to investigate the working efficiency of nationalised banks in India, and we
want to take a sample of few banks for this purpose , the first stage is to select large primary
sampling unit such as stages in a country. Then we may select certain district and interview
all Bank in the chosen district..
This would represent a two stage sampling design with the ultimate sampling units being
clusters of districts.

F) Sampling with probability proportional to size

In the case of cluster sampling units do not have the same number of approximately the same
number of elements, it is considered appropriate to use a random selection process where the
probability of each cluster being included in the sample is proportional to the size of the cluster.
The result of this type are equivalent to those of a simple random sample, and the method is less .

G) Sequential Sampling

This sampling design is somewhat complex sample design.

- The ultimate size of the sample under this technique is not fixed in advance, but, is it a mind
according to the mathematical decision rules on the basis of information yelled as survey
progresses.
 Characteristics of a good sample :

(a) Sample design must result in a truly representative sample.

• A representative sample accurately reflects the characteristics, behaviors, or attributes of the

entire population.
• This ensures that the conclusions drawn from the sample study can be generalized to the
population.
• To achieve representativeness, the sample design should account for diversity within the population
and avoid over-representing or under-representing any subgroup.
• Techniques such as stratified random sampling, where the population is divided into subgroups
(strata) and samples are taken proportionally, help achieve a representative sample.

b) Sample design must be such which results in a small sampling error.

• Sampling error is the difference between the sample statistic (e.g., mean, proportion) and the true
population parameter.
• A good sample design minimizes this error, increasing the reliability and precision of the findings.
• Factors influencing sampling error include sample size, variability in the population, and the
sampling technique. Larger samples generally reduce sampling error, but the design must balance
size with practicality.
• Proper randomization and avoiding biased methods of sample selection also contribute to
minimizing sampling error.
 (c) Sample design must be viable in the context of funds available for
the research study.

• Financial feasibility is critical for determining the practicality of the sampling method.
• A sample design that is cost-effective yet maintains quality is ideal. For example, online surveys are
often cheaper than face-to-face interviews while still yielding valid results.
• The researcher must balance accuracy and cost, ensuring that the chosen sample design delivers
meaningful results without exceeding the available budget.
• Techniques like cluster sampling are often used in large-scale studies to reduce costs.

(d) Sample design must be such so that systematic bias can be

controlled in a better way.

• Systematic bias occurs when the sample systematically deviates from the population due to flaws
in the sampling process (e.g., excluding specific groups).
• This type of bias can distort results and lead to incorrect conclusions.
• A good sample design incorporates measures to control and minimize such biases, such as
ensuring randomization, using robust sampling frames, and avoiding convenience sampling.
• Pre-testing and validating the sampling process can also help identify and correct potential
biases early in the study.
 (e) Sample should be such that the results of the sample study can be
applied, in general, for the universe with a reasonable level of confidence.

• The ultimate goal of sampling is generalizability—applying the findings from the sample to the
entire population (universe).
• For results to be generalizable, the sample must be representative, the sample size should be
sufficient, and confidence levels (usually 95% or 99%) and margin of error must be appropriate.
• This characteristic is often assessed through statistical measures such as confidence intervals
and p-values.
• If the sample design is flawed, the study may lack external validity, limiting the applicability of its
results.

Each of these characteristics underscores the need for careful planning, execution, and evaluation
of the sample design to ensure the research findings are valid, reliable, and applicable to the
broader population.