SC421: Introduction to Modern Algebra soln Assignment 3 March 3

DA-IICT, B.Tech, Sem VII Winter 2024

1. If ϕ : G → G′ is a homomorphism then prove that Im(ϕ) is a subgroup of G′ .

soln:
Consider x′ , y ′ ∈ Im(ϕ).
∃ x, y ∈ G such that ϕ(x) = x′ and ϕ(y) = y ′ .
Then ϕ(xy) = ϕ(x)ϕ(y) = x′ y ′ .
∴ x′ y ′ ∈ Im(ϕ).
∴ Im(ϕ) is closed under the group operation in G′ .
ϕ(x−1 ) = (x′ )−1 =⇒ (x′ )−1 ∈ Im(ϕ)
By Lemma 3, Im(ϕ) is a subgroup of G′ .
2. Let S = {a, b, c}. We have seen earlier that G = ⟨P(S), ∆} is a group. Consider the set G′
of three bit numbers. Define an operation of bitwise binary addition of the numbers in this
set. For e.g 011 + 101 = 110. G′ forms a group under this operation. Are these two groups
isomorphic?
soln:
Two groups are isomorphic if we can find an isomorphic mapping between them.
o(G) = o(G′ ) = 8.
The empty set ϕ is the identity element in G and 000 is that of S ′ .
Every other element in G and G′ are their own inverse. So the order of every nonidentity
element in either group is 2.
We make the following mapping from f : G → G′ .

f ({a}) = 100, f ({b}) = 010, f ({c}) = 001

This fixes the isomorphism completely as you can makeout using the product criterion. So
the two groups are isomorphic. We can permute the above mapping and get other isomorphic
mapping. Another possible mapping is
f ({a, b}) = 001, f ({b, c}) = 100, f ({a, c}) = 010
This defines the other correspondences uniquely.
3. Consider G = ⟨R3 , +⟩ and G′ = ⟨R, +⟩. Let f : G → G′ be defined as f ((x, y, z)) = x.
Verify that this is a homomorphism. Find the kernel Kf of this homomorphism and show
that G/Kf is isomorphic to G′ .
soln:
f ((x1 , y1 , z1 ) + (x2 , y2 , z2 )) = f ((x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 , z1 + z2 ))
= x1 + x2
= f ((x1 , y1 , z1 )) + f ((x2 , y2 , z2 ))
So the given mapping is a homomorphism from R3 to R2 .
f ((x, y, z)) = 0, =⇒ x = 0. So Kf = {(x, y, z) ∈ R3 |x = 0}. This is the yz plane. The
cosets of Kf in R3 can be expressed as (a, 0, 0)Kf = {(x, y, z) ∈ R3 |x = a} . So
G/Kf = {(a, 0, 0)Kf |a ∈ R} = {{(x, y, z) ∈ R3 |x = a}|a ∈ R}

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 Consider the following mapping ϕ : G/Kf → R:

ϕ((a, 0, 0)Kf ) = a

This is an isomorphism since

ϕ((a1 , 0, 0)Kf + (a2 , 0, 0)Kf ) = ϕ((a1 + a2 , 0, 0)Kf ) = a1 + a2
Also ϕ((a1 , 0, 0)Kf ) + ϕ((a2 , 0, 0)Kf ) = a1 + a2 .
So ϕ((a1 , 0, 0)Kf + (a2 , 0, 0)Kf ) = ϕ((a1 , 0, 0)Kf ) + ϕ((a2 , 0, 0)Kf ). So this is a homo-
morphism.
ϕ((a1 , 0, 0)Kf ) = ϕ((a2 , 0, 0)Kf ) =⇒ a1 = a2 =⇒ (a1 , 0, 0)Kf = (a2 , 0, 0)Kf .
Hence this mapping is one-one. Also for every real number r we have (r, 0, 0)Kf ∈ G/Kf
such that ϕ((r, 0, 0)Kf ) = r. So this mapping is onto. Hence G/Kf is isomorphic to ⟨R, +⟩.

4. Draw a homomorphism from ⟨Z12 , ⊕⟩ to ⟨Z4 , ⊕⟩.

soln:
Let f : Z12 → Z4 be the required homomorphic mapping. We will first identify the kernel
Kf of this mapping.
G/Kf must be isomorphic to Z4 . So o(G/Kf ) = 4.
Since o(G) = 12, o(Kf ) = 3.
The only subgroup of order 3 in Z12 is ⟨4⟩.
∴ Kf = ⟨4⟩ = {0, 4, 8}.

G/Kf = {Kf , 1 ⊕ Kf , 2 ⊕ Kf , 3 ⊕ Kf }

By proposition 9 G/Kf is isomorphic to Z4 .

If ϕ : G/Kf → Z4 is the isomorphism then it is given by

ϕ(a ⊕ Kf ) = f (a); a = 0, 1, 2, 3

Let us consider the following isomorphism from G/Kf to Z4 :

ϕ(a ⊕ Kf ) = a (1)

If h ∈ Kf then f (a ⊕ h) = f (a) ⊕ f (h) = f (a) = a.

Every element in the coset a ⊕ Kf is mapped to a ∈ Z4 .
So we have
f (0) = f (4) = f (8) = 0
f (1) = f (5) = f (9) = 1
f (2) = f (6) = f (10) = 2
f (3) = f (7) = f (11) = 3
We can have another homomorpism between the two groups if we change the isomorphism
defined in 1. Try it.

5. Def: For any group G, the center Z(G) of G is the set of elements that commute with all
elements of G, i.e
Z(G) = {a ∈ G : ag = ga ∀g ∈ G}

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(a) Find Z(GL(2, C)).
soln:  
a 0
Consider the matrix ∈ GL(2, C).
  0 b
x y
Let ∈ Z(GL(2, C)). Then
z w
     
x y a 0 a 0 x y
= =⇒ by = ay and az = bz
z w 0 b 0 b z w

If a ̸= b then these equations yields y = z =0. 

x 0
∴ members of Z(GL(2, C)) are of the type .
  0 z
0 1
is an invertible matrix.
1 0
     
x 0 0 1 0 1 x 0
= =⇒ x = w
0 z 1 0 1 0 0 z

So  
x 0
Z(GL(2, C)) = { : x ∈ C} (2)
0 x
which are matrices proportional to the identity.
(b) Consider the set of fractional linear transformations of the complex plane, C,
az + b
Ta,b,c,d (z) =
cz + d
 
a b
where is an invertible matrix.
c d
Show that this is a group of transformations and is isomorphic to GL(2, C)/Z(GL(2, C)).
soln:
The set of fractional linear transformations is closed under the operation of composi-
tion, i.e
 
a2 ac11z+d
z+b1
1
+ b2
Ta2 ,b2 ,c2 ,d2 (Ta1 ,b1 ,c1 ,d1 (z)) =  
c2 ac11z+d
z+b1
1
+ d2
(a2 a1 + b2 c1 )z + (a2 b1 + b2 d1 ) a3 z + b 3
= =
(c2 a1 + d2 c1 )z + (c2 b1 + d2 d1 ) c3 z + d 3
(3)

Here we see that     

a3 b 3 a2 b 2 a1 b 1
=
c3 d 3 c2 d2 c1 d 1
Since product of invertible matrices is also invertible we conclude that Ta3 ,b3 ,c3 ,d3 is also
a fractional linear transformation.

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 The composition of fractional linear transformation is associative since matrix multi-
plication is associative.
The transformation T1,0,0,1 acts as the identity element in this set. i.e Ta,b,c,d T1,0,0,1 =
T1,0,0,1 Ta,b,c,d = T
a,b,c,d .   ′ ′ 
a b a b
Consider Ta,b,c,d . is an invertible matrix. Let be its inverse. Then
c d c′ d ′
Ta,b,c,d Ta′ ,b′ ,c′ ,d′ (z) = Ta′ ,b′ ,c′ ,d′ Ta,b,c,d (z) = T1,0,0,1 (z)
So all the group axioms are satisfied by the set of factional linear transformations along
with composition. Hence it forms a group.
Consider the following natural mapping f : GL(2, C) → T as follows:
 
a b
f( ) = Ta,b,c,d
c d
This is a homomorphism since
    
a1 b 1 a2 b 2 a3 b 3
f( ) = f( )
c1 d 1 c2 d 2 c3 d 3
= Ta3 ,b3 ,c3 ,d3
= Ta1 ,b1 ,c1 ,d1 Ta2 ,b2 ,c2 ,d2
   
a1 b 1 a2 b 2
= f( )f ( )
c1 d 1 c2 d2
Now let us find the kernel of this homomorphism. Let k ∈ C. Then
 
k 0
f( ) = Tk,0,0,k
0 k

Now Tk,0,0,k (z) = kz k

= z = T1,0,0,1 (z) which is the identity element in the set of
fractional linear transformations.
So the kernel of this homomorphism is the set
 
x 0
Kf = { : x ∈ C}
0 x
this is same as the set Z(GL(2, C)) defined above (Eq.2). Hence Kf = Z(GL(2, C)).
Hence by proposition 9 the group of fractional linear transformations is isomorphic to
the factor group GL(2, C)/Z(GL(2, C)).
6. If G′ is a non-trivial subgroup of G can G be isomorphic to G′ ?
If so, find an isomorphic mapping from ⟨Z, +⟩ to ⟨4Z, +⟩.
soln:
If G is finite then o(G′ ) < o(G). So we can’t have a bijective mapping from G to G′ . So we
must have both G and G′ infinite.
Both Z and 4Z are infinite groups. Consider the mapping f : G → G′ as follows:
f (k) = 4k where k ∈ Z. This mapping is bijective.
Also f (k1 + k2 ) = 4(k1 + k2 ) = 4k1 + 4k2 = f (k1 ) + f (k2 ).
So f : Z → 4Z is an isomorphism.

4
  
1 x
7. Let G = where x ∈ R. Show that the group G along with the binary operation of
0 1
usual matrix multiplication is isomorphic to ⟨R, +⟩.
soln:
Consider the following mapping from G to R:
 
1 x
f =x
0 1
This is a one-one mapping from G → R.

    
1 x 1 y 1 x+y
f = f
0 1 0 1 0 1
= x+y
   
1 x 1 y
= f +f
0 1 0 1

So this mapping preserves the group operation and hence is an isomorphism. Therefore G is
isomorphic to ⟨Z, +⟩.

8. If T = G1 × G2 × ... × Gn prove that for each i = 1, 2, ..., n there is a homomorphism ϕi of

T onto Gi . Find the kernel of ϕi .
soln:
Consider g = (g1 , g2 , ...., gn ) ∈ T . Let ϕi : T → Gi be defined as ϕi (g) = ϕi ((g1 , g2 , ...., gn )) =
gi ∈ Gi .
Then ϕi (hg) = ϕi ((h1 g1 , h2 g2 , ....hi gi , ...., hn gn )) = hi gi = ϕi (h)ϕi (g). Hence this map-
ping is a homomorphism.
The kernel of this homomorphism is

Kϕi = G1 × G2 × ....Gi−1 × {ei } × Gi+1 .... × Gn

9. Let G be a group and let T = G × G.

(a) Show that D = {(g, g)|g ∈ G} is a group isomorphic to G.
(b) Prove that D is normal in T if and only if G is abelian.
soln:
(a) Consider f : D → G as f ((g, g)) = g. Then this mapping is clearly is bijective.
Also f ((g1 , g1 )(g2 , g2 )) = f ((g1 g2 , g1 g2 )) = g1 g2 = f ((g1 , g1 ))f ((g2 , g2 )). So f is an
isomorphism. So D ∼ = G.
(b) only if:
D is normal in T . Consider g, g1 ∈ G.
Consider the left coset (g1 , e)D of D in T .
Since D is normal (g1 , e)D = D(g1 , e) =⇒ (g1 , e)(g, g) = (g ′ , g ′ )(g1 , e) for some g ′ ∈ G
This gives (g1 g, g) = (g ′ g1 , g ′ ) =⇒ g = g ′ , and g1 g = gg1 . Hence G is abelian.
if part: This is trivial.

10. (a) Let A, B be cyclic groups of order m and n, respectively. Prove that A × B is cyclic if
and only if m and n are relatively prime.

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 soln:
if part:
m and n are relatively prime.
Let a and b be generators of A and B respectively. So o(a) = m and o(b) = n Hence
o(a, b) = l.c.m(m, n) = mn. So (a, b) is a generator of A × B =⇒ A × B is cyclic.
only if:
A × B is cyclic. So ∃(a, b) ∈ A × B such that o(a, b) = mn. o(a)|m and o(b)|n and
l.c.m(o(a), o(b)) = mn, =⇒ o(a) = m and o(b) = n.

(b) Use the result in part (a) to prove the Chinese Remainder Theorem, namely, if m and
n are relatively prime integers and u, v any two integers, then we can find an integer x
such that x ≡ u(modm) and x ≡ v(modn).
soln:
Put A = Zm and B = Zn . Then (1, 1) is a generator of A × B.
Let u(modm) = u′ and v(modn) = v ′ . Then (u′ , v ′ ) ∈ A × B. This implies ∃x such
that (1, 1)x = (u′ , v ′ ), i.e x(modm) = u′ = u(modm) and x(modn) = v ′ = v(modn)
which implies x ≡ u(modm) and x ≡ v(modn)

11. Which of the following homomorphism are possible?

(a) Z8 → K4
soln:
If a group G is homomorphic to a group G′ , there is a kernel K of this homomorphism.
K is a normal subgroup of G. If G and G′ are finite then o(K) = o(G)/o(G′ ) The
homomorphism theorem states that the quotient group G/K is isomorphic to G′ . So
We must first find a normal subgroup of Z8 of order 8/4 = 2. There is only one such
subgroup K = {0, 4}.

G/K = {{0, 4}, {1, 5}, {2, 6}, {3, 7}}

We can verify that this is a cyclic group generated by {1, 5}.

K4 is not a cyclic group. Every element other than identity has order 2. So the generator
{1, 5} can’t be mapped to any element in K4 .
So the given groups are not homomorphic.
(b) Z4 × Z4 → Z2
soln:
Here the order of the kernel will be o(K) = 16/2 = 8.
There are only two subgroups of order 8 in Z4 × Z4 .
They are {0, 2} × Z4 and Z4 × {0, 2}.
Let us take the first one.
The quotient group (Z4 × Z4 )/K is of order 2.
All groups of order 2 are isomorphic. Hence the quotient group is isomorphic to Z2 .
The identity of the quotient group which is K is mapped to 0 ∈ Z2 while the one coset
of K we have in the quotient group is mapped to 1.
More explicitly K = {(0, 0), (0, 1), (0, 2), (0, 3), (2, 0), (2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3)}.
The other coset of K in the quotient group is (1, 0) ⊕ K.

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 For the homomorphism we map all the elements of K to 0 ∈ Z2 and all the elements
of (1, 0) ⊕ K to 1 ∈ Z2 . The homomorphism can be verified.
(c) Z4 × Z4 → Z8
soln:
Z8 is a cyclic group of order 8. 1 is a generator of Z8 . Any element of Z4 × Z4 mapped
to 1 in Z8 must have order which is a multiple of 8. But the maximum order of any
element in Z4 × Z4 is 4. So this homomorphism is not possible.