Computer science

Computer science is the study of computation, information, and automation.[1][2][3] Computer science spans Fundamental areas of computer science
theoretical disciplines (such as algorithms, theory of computation, and information theory) to applied
disciplines (including the design and implementation of hardware and software).[4][5][6]

Algorithms and data structures are central to computer science.[7] The theory of computation concerns
abstract models of computation and general classes of problems that can be solved using them. The fields of Programming language Computational
cryptography and computer security involve studying the means for secure communication and preventing theory complexity
security vulnerabilities. Computer graphics and computational geometry address the generation of images. theory
Programming language theory considers different ways to describe computational processes, and database
theory concerns the management of repositories of data. Human–computer interaction investigates the
interfaces through which humans and computers interact, and software engineering focuses on the design and
principles behind developing software. Areas such as operating systems, networks and embedded systems
investigate the principles and design behind complex systems. Computer architecture describes the Artificial intelligence Computer architecture
construction of computer components and computer-operated equipment. Artificial intelligence and machine
learning aim to synthesize goal-orientated processes such as problem-solving, decision-making,
environmental adaptation, planning and learning found in humans and animals. Within artificial intelligence, computer vision aims to understand and process
image and video data, while natural language processing aims to understand and process textual and linguistic data.

The fundamental concern of computer science is determining what can and cannot be automated.[2][8][3][9][10] The Turing Award is generally recognized as the
highest distinction in computer science.[11][12]

History
The earliest foundations of what would become computer science predate the invention of the modern digital computer. Machines
for calculating fixed numerical tasks such as the abacus have existed since antiquity, aiding in computations such as multiplication
and division. Algorithms for performing computations have existed since antiquity, even before the development of sophisticated
computing equipment.[16]

Wilhelm Schickard designed and constructed the first working mechanical calculator in 1623.[17] In 1673, Gottfried Leibniz
demonstrated a digital mechanical calculator, called the Stepped Reckoner.[18] Leibniz may be considered the first computer
scientist and information theorist, because of various reasons, including the fact that he documented the binary number system. In
1820, Thomas de Colmar launched the mechanical calculator industry[note 1] when he invented his simplified arithmometer, the
first calculating machine strong enough and reliable enough to be used daily in an office environment. Charles Babbage started
the design of the first automatic mechanical calculator, his Difference Engine, in 1822, which eventually gave him the idea of the Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz
first programmable mechanical calculator, his Analytical Engine.[19] He started developing this machine in 1834, and "in less (1646–1716) developed
than two years, he had sketched out many of the salient features of the modern computer".[20] "A crucial step was the adoption of logic in a binary number
a punched card system derived from the Jacquard loom"[20] making it infinitely programmable.[note 2] In 1843, during the system and has been
called the "founder of
translation of a French article on the Analytical Engine, Ada Lovelace wrote, in one of the many notes she included, an algorithm
computer science".[13]
to compute the Bernoulli numbers, which is considered to be the first published algorithm ever specifically tailored for
implementation on a computer. [21] Around 1885, Herman Hollerith invented the tabulator, which used punched cards to
process statistical information; eventually his company became part of IBM. Following Babbage, although unaware of his
earlier work, Percy Ludgate in 1909 published[22] the 2nd of the only two designs for mechanical analytical engines in
history. In 1914, the Spanish engineer Leonardo Torres Quevedo published his Essays on Automatics,[23] and designed,
inspired by Babbage, a theoretical electromechanical calculating machine which was to be controlled by a read-only program.
The paper also introduced the idea of floating-point arithmetic.[24][25] In 1920, to celebrate the 100th anniversary of the
invention of the arithmometer, Torres presented in Paris the Electromechanical Arithmometer, a prototype that demonstrated
the feasibility of an electromechanical analytical engine,[26] on which commands could be typed and the results printed
automatically.[27] In 1937, one hundred years after Babbage's impossible dream, Howard Aiken convinced IBM, which was
making all kinds of punched card equipment and was also in the calculator business[28] to develop his giant programmable
calculator, the ASCC/Harvard Mark I, based on Babbage's Analytical Engine, which itself used cards and a central computing Charles Babbage is sometimes
unit. When the machine was finished, some hailed it as "Babbage's dream come true".[29] referred to as the "father of
computing".[14]
During the 1940s, with the development of new and more powerful computing machines such as the Atanasoff–Berry
computer and ENIAC, the term computer came to refer to the machines rather than their human predecessors.[30] As it
became clear that computers could be used for more than just mathematical calculations, the field of computer science broadened to study computation in
general. In 1945, IBM founded the Watson Scientific Computing Laboratory at Columbia University in New York City. The renovated fraternity house on
Manhattan's West Side was IBM's first laboratory devoted to pure science. The lab is the forerunner of IBM's Research Division, which today operates research
facilities around the world.[31] Ultimately, the close relationship between IBM and Columbia University was instrumental in the emergence of a new scientific
discipline, with Columbia offering one of the first academic-credit courses in computer science in 1946.[32] Computer science began to be established as a
distinct academic discipline in the 1950s and early 1960s.[33][34] The world's first computer science degree program, the Cambridge Diploma in Computer
Science, began at the University of Cambridge Computer Laboratory in 1953. The first computer science department in the United States was formed at Purdue
University in 1962.[35] Since practical computers became available, many applications of computing have become distinct areas of study in their own rights.
Etymology and scope
Although first proposed in 1956,[36] the term "computer science" appears in a 1959 article in Communications of the
ACM,[37] in which Louis Fein argues for the creation of a Graduate School in Computer Sciences analogous to the creation of
Harvard Business School in 1921.[38] Louis justifies the name by arguing that, like management science, the subject is
applied and interdisciplinary in nature, while having the characteristics typical of an academic discipline.[37] His efforts, and
those of others such as numerical analyst George Forsythe, were rewarded: universities went on to create such departments,
starting with Purdue in 1962.[39] Despite its name, a significant amount of computer science does not involve the study of
computers themselves. Because of this, several alternative names have been proposed.[40] Certain departments of major
universities prefer the term computing science, to emphasize precisely that difference. Danish scientist Peter Naur suggested
the term datalogy,[41] to reflect the fact that the scientific discipline revolves around data and data treatment, while not
necessarily involving computers. The first scientific institution to use the term was the Department of Datalogy at the
Ada Lovelace published the
University of Copenhagen, founded in 1969, with Peter Naur being the first professor in datalogy. The term is used mainly in
first algorithm intended for
the Scandinavian countries. An alternative term, also proposed by Naur, is data science; this is now used for a multi- processing on a computer.[15]
disciplinary field of data analysis, including statistics and databases.

In the early days of computing, a number of terms for the practitioners of the field of computing were suggested (albeit facetiously) in the Communications of
the ACM—turingineer, turologist, flow-charts-man, applied meta-mathematician, and applied epistemologist.[42] Three months later in the same journal,
comptologist was suggested, followed next year by hypologist.[43] The term computics has also been suggested.[44] In Europe, terms derived from contracted
translations of the expression "automatic information" (e.g. "informazione automatica" in Italian) or "information and mathematics" are often used, e.g.
informatique (French), Informatik (German), informatica (Italian, Dutch), informática (Spanish, Portuguese), informatika (Slavic languages and Hungarian) or
pliroforiki (πληροφορική, which means informatics) in Greek. Similar words have also been adopted in the UK (as in the School of Informatics, University of
Edinburgh).[45] "In the U.S., however, informatics is linked with applied computing, or computing in the context of another domain."[46]

A folkloric quotation, often attributed to—but almost certainly not first formulated by—Edsger Dijkstra, states that "computer science is no more about
computers than astronomy is about telescopes."[note 3] The design and deployment of computers and computer systems is generally considered the province of
disciplines other than computer science. For example, the study of computer hardware is usually considered part of computer engineering, while the study of
commercial computer systems and their deployment is often called information technology or information systems. However, there has been exchange of ideas
between the various computer-related disciplines. Computer science research also often intersects other disciplines, such as cognitive science, linguistics,
mathematics, physics, biology, Earth science, statistics, philosophy, and logic.

Computer science is considered by some to have a much closer relationship with mathematics than many scientific disciplines, with some observers saying that
computing is a mathematical science.[33] Early computer science was strongly influenced by the work of mathematicians such as Kurt Gödel, Alan Turing, John
von Neumann, Rózsa Péter and Alonzo Church and there continues to be a useful interchange of ideas between the two fields in areas such as mathematical
logic, category theory, domain theory, and algebra.[36]

The relationship between computer science and software engineering is a contentious issue, which is further muddied by disputes over what the term "software
engineering" means, and how computer science is defined.[47] David Parnas, taking a cue from the relationship between other engineering and science
disciplines, has claimed that the principal focus of computer science is studying the properties of computation in general, while the principal focus of software
engineering is the design of specific computations to achieve practical goals, making the two separate but complementary disciplines.[48]

The academic, political, and funding aspects of computer science tend to depend on whether a department is formed with a mathematical emphasis or with an
engineering emphasis. Computer science departments with a mathematics emphasis and with a numerical orientation consider alignment with computational
science. Both types of departments tend to make efforts to bridge the field educationally if not across all research.

Philosophy

Epistemology of computer science

Despite the word science in its name, there is debate over whether or not computer science is a discipline of science,[49] mathematics,[50] or engineering.[51]
Allen Newell and Herbert A. Simon argued in 1975,

Computer science is an empirical discipline. We would have called it an experimental science, but like astronomy, economics, and geology, some of
its unique forms of observation and experience do not fit a narrow stereotype of the experimental method. Nonetheless, they are experiments. Each
new machine that is built is an experiment. Actually constructing the machine poses a question to nature; and we listen for the answer by observing
the machine in operation and analyzing it by all analytical and measurement means available.[51]

It has since been argued that computer science can be classified as an empirical science since it makes use of empirical testing to evaluate the correctness of
programs, but a problem remains in defining the laws and theorems of computer science (if any exist) and defining the nature of experiments in computer
science.[51] Proponents of classifying computer science as an engineering discipline argue that the reliability of computational systems is investigated in the
same way as bridges in civil engineering and airplanes in aerospace engineering.[51] They also argue that while empirical sciences observe what presently
exists, computer science observes what is possible to exist and while scientists discover laws from observation, no proper laws have been found in computer
science and it is instead concerned with creating phenomena.[51]

Proponents of classifying computer science as a mathematical discipline argue that computer programs are physical realizations of mathematical entities and
programs that can be deductively reasoned through mathematical formal methods.[51] Computer scientists Edsger W. Dijkstra and Tony Hoare regard
instructions for computer programs as mathematical sentences and interpret formal semantics for programming languages as mathematical axiomatic
systems.[51]
Paradigms of computer science
A number of computer scientists have argued for the distinction of three separate paradigms in computer science. Peter Wegner argued that those paradigms are
science, technology, and mathematics.[52] Peter Denning's working group argued that they are theory, abstraction (modeling), and design.[33] Amnon H. Eden
described them as the "rationalist paradigm" (which treats computer science as a branch of mathematics, which is prevalent in theoretical computer science, and
mainly employs deductive reasoning), the "technocratic paradigm" (which might be found in engineering approaches, most prominently in software
engineering), and the "scientific paradigm" (which approaches computer-related artifacts from the empirical perspective of natural sciences,[53] identifiable in
some branches of artificial intelligence).[54] Computer science focuses on methods involved in design, specification, programming, verification, implementation
and testing of human-made computing systems.[55]

Fields
As a discipline, computer science spans a range of topics from theoretical studies of algorithms and the limits of computation to the practical issues of
implementing computing systems in hardware and software.[56][57] CSAB, formerly called Computing Sciences Accreditation Board—which is made up of
representatives of the Association for Computing Machinery (ACM), and the IEEE Computer Society (IEEE CS)[58]—identifies four areas that it considers
crucial to the discipline of computer science: theory of computation, algorithms and data structures, programming methodology and languages, and computer
elements and architecture. In addition to these four areas, CSAB also identifies fields such as software engineering, artificial intelligence, computer networking
and communication, database systems, parallel computation, distributed computation, human–computer interaction, computer graphics, operating systems, and
numerical and symbolic computation as being important areas of computer science.[56]

Theoretical computer science

Theoretical computer science is mathematical and abstract in spirit, but it derives its motivation from practical and everyday computation. It aims to understand
the nature of computation and, as a consequence of this understanding, provide more efficient methodologies.

Theory of computation
According to Peter Denning, the fundamental question underlying computer science is, "What can be automated?"[3] Theory of computation is focused on
answering fundamental questions about what can be computed and what amount of resources are required to perform those computations. In an effort to answer
the first question, computability theory examines which computational problems are solvable on various theoretical models of computation. The second
question is addressed by computational complexity theory, which studies the time and space costs associated with different approaches to solving a multitude of
computational problems.

The famous P = NP? problem, one of the Millennium Prize Problems,[59] is an open problem in the theory of computation.

Automata theory Formal languages Computability theory Computational complexity theory

Models of computation Quantum computing theory Logic circuit theory Cellular automata

Information and coding theory

Information theory, closely related to probability and statistics, is related to the quantification of information. This was developed by Claude Shannon to find
fundamental limits on signal processing operations such as compressing data and on reliably storing and communicating data.[60] Coding theory is the study of
the properties of codes (systems for converting information from one form to another) and their fitness for a specific application. Codes are used for data
compression, cryptography, error detection and correction, and more recently also for network coding. Codes are studied for the purpose of designing efficient
and reliable data transmission methods. [61]

Coding theory Channel capacity Algorithmic information theory Signal detection theory Kolmogorov complexity

Data structures and algorithms

Data structures and algorithms are the studies of commonly used computational methods and their computational efficiency.
 O(n2)

Analysis of Algorithm Data Combinatorial Computational Randomized

algorithms design structures optimization geometry algorithms

Programming language theory and formal methods

Programming language theory is a branch of computer science that deals with the design, implementation, analysis, characterization, and classification of
programming languages and their individual features. It falls within the discipline of computer science, both depending on and affecting mathematics, software
engineering, and linguistics. It is an active research area, with numerous dedicated academic journals.

Formal methods are a particular kind of mathematically based technique for the specification, development and verification of software and hardware
systems.[62] The use of formal methods for software and hardware design is motivated by the expectation that, as in other engineering disciplines, performing
appropriate mathematical analysis can contribute to the reliability and robustness of a design. They form an important theoretical underpinning for software
engineering, especially where safety or security is involved. Formal methods are a useful adjunct to software testing since they help avoid errors and can also
give a framework for testing. For industrial use, tool support is required. However, the high cost of using formal methods means that they are usually only used
in the development of high-integrity and life-critical systems, where safety or security is of utmost importance. Formal methods are best described as the
application of a fairly broad variety of theoretical computer science fundamentals, in particular logic calculi, formal languages, automata theory, and program
semantics, but also type systems and algebraic data types to problems in software and hardware specification and verification.

Formal semantics Type theory Compiler design Programming languages Formal verification Automated theorem proving

Applied computer science

Computer graphics and visualization

Computer graphics is the study of digital visual contents and involves the synthesis and manipulation of image data. The study is connected to many other fields
in computer science, including computer vision, image processing, and computational geometry, and is heavily applied in the fields of special effects and video
games.

2D computer graphics Computer animation Rendering Mixed reality Virtual reality Solid modeling

Image and sound processing

Information can take the form of images, sound, video or other multimedia. Bits of information can be streamed via signals. Its processing is the central notion
of informatics, the European view on computing, which studies information processing algorithms independently of the type of information carrier – whether it
is electrical, mechanical or biological. This field plays important role in information theory, telecommunications, information engineering and has applications
in medical image computing and speech synthesis, among others. What is the lower bound on the complexity of fast Fourier transform algorithms? is one of the
unsolved problems in theoretical computer science.

FFT algorithms Image processing Speech recognition Data compression Medical image computing Speech synthesis
Computational science, finance and engineering
Scientific computing (or computational science) is the field of study concerned with constructing mathematical models and quantitative analysis techniques and
using computers to analyze and solve scientific problems. A major usage of scientific computing is simulation of various processes, including computational
fluid dynamics, physical, electrical, and electronic systems and circuits, as well as societies and social situations (notably war games) along with their habitats,
among many others. Modern computers enable optimization of such designs as complete aircraft. Notable in electrical and electronic circuit design are
SPICE,[63] as well as software for physical realization of new (or modified) designs. The latter includes essential design software for integrated circuits.[64]

Numerical Computational Computational Medical Computational Compu

Bioinformatics Neuroinformatics Psychoinformatics
analysis physics chemistry informatics engineering music

Human–computer interaction
Human–computer interaction (HCI) is the field of study and research concerned with the design and use of computer systems, mainly based on the analysis of
the interaction between humans and computer interfaces. HCI has several subfields that focus on the relationship between emotions, social behavior and brain
activity with computers.

Affective computing Brain–computer interface Human-centered design Physical computing Social computing

Software engineering
Software engineering is the study of designing, implementing, and modifying the software in order to ensure it is of high quality, affordable, maintainable, and
fast to build. It is a systematic approach to software design, involving the application of engineering practices to software. Software engineering deals with the
organizing and analyzing of software—it does not just deal with the creation or manufacture of new software, but its internal arrangement and maintenance. For
example software testing, systems engineering, technical debt and software development processes.

Artificial intelligence
Artificial intelligence (AI) aims to or is required to synthesize goal-orientated processes such as problem-solving, decision-making, environmental adaptation,
learning, and communication found in humans and animals. From its origins in cybernetics and in the Dartmouth Conference (1956), artificial intelligence
research has been necessarily cross-disciplinary, drawing on areas of expertise such as applied mathematics, symbolic logic, semiotics, electrical engineering,
philosophy of mind, neurophysiology, and social intelligence. AI is associated in the popular mind with robotic development, but the main field of practical
application has been as an embedded component in areas of software development, which require computational understanding. The starting point in the late
1940s was Alan Turing's question "Can computers think?", and the question remains effectively unanswered, although the Turing test is still used to assess
computer output on the scale of human intelligence. But the automation of evaluative and predictive tasks has been increasingly successful as a substitute for
human monitoring and intervention in domains of computer application involving complex real-world data.

Computational learning theory Computer vision Neural networks Planning and scheduling

Natural language processing Computational game theory Evolutionary computation Autonomic computing

Representation and reasoning Pattern recognition Robotics Swarm intelligence

Computer systems

Computer architecture and microarchitecture

Computer architecture, or digital computer organization, is the conceptual design and fundamental operational structure of a computer system. It focuses largely
on the way by which the central processing unit performs internally and accesses addresses in memory.[65] Computer engineers study computational logic and
design of computer hardware, from individual processor components, microcontrollers, personal computers to supercomputers and embedded systems. The term
"architecture" in computer literature can be traced to the work of Lyle R. Johnson and Frederick P. Brooks Jr., members of the Machine Organization
department in IBM's main research center in 1959.

Processing unit Microarchitecture Multiprocessing Processor design

Ubiquitous computing Systems architecture Operating systems Input/output

Embedded system Real-time computing Dependability Interpreter

Concurrent, parallel and distributed computing

Concurrency is a property of systems in which several computations are executing simultaneously, and potentially interacting with each other.[66] A number of
mathematical models have been developed for general concurrent computation including Petri nets, process calculi and the parallel random access machine
model.[67] When multiple computers are connected in a network while using concurrency, this is known as a distributed system. Computers within that
distributed system have their own private memory, and information can be exchanged to achieve common goals.[68]

Computer networks
This branch of computer science aims to manage networks between computers worldwide.

Computer security and cryptography

Computer security is a branch of computer technology with the objective of protecting information from unauthorized access, disruption, or modification while
maintaining the accessibility and usability of the system for its intended users.

Historical cryptography is the art of writing and deciphering secret messages. Modern cryptography is the scientific study of problems relating to distributed
computations that can be attacked.[69] Technologies studied in modern cryptography include symmetric and asymmetric encryption, digital signatures,
cryptographic hash functions, key-agreement protocols, blockchain, zero-knowledge proofs, and garbled circuits.

Databases and data mining

A database is intended to organize, store, and retrieve large amounts of data easily. Digital databases are managed using database management systems to store,
create, maintain, and search data, through database models and query languages. Data mining is a process of discovering patterns in large data sets.

Discoveries
The philosopher of computing Bill Rapaport noted three Great Insights of Computer Science:[70]

Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz's, George Boole's, Alan Turing's, Claude Shannon's, and Samuel Morse's insight: there are only two objects that a
computer has to deal with in order to represent "anything".[note 4]

All the information about any computable problem can be represented using only 0 and 1 (or any other bistable pair that can flip-flop
between two easily distinguishable states, such as "on/off", "magnetized/de-magnetized", "high-voltage/low-voltage", etc.).

Alan Turing's insight: there are only five actions that a computer has to perform in order to do "anything".

Every algorithm can be expressed in a language for a computer consisting of only five basic instructions:[71]
 move left one location;
move right one location;
read symbol at current location;
print 0 at current location;
print 1 at current location.

Corrado Böhm and Giuseppe Jacopini's insight: there are only three ways of combining these actions (into more complex ones) that are
needed in order for a computer to do "anything".[72]

Only three rules are needed to combine any set of basic instructions into more complex ones:
sequence: first do this, then do that;
selection: IF such-and-such is the case, THEN do this, ELSE do that;
repetition: WHILE such-and-such is the case, DO this.
The three rules of Boehm's and Jacopini's insight can be further simplified with the use of goto (which means it is more elementary
than structured programming).

Programming paradigms
Programming languages can be used to accomplish different tasks in different ways. Common programming paradigms include:

Functional programming, a style of building the structure and elements of computer programs that treats computation as the evaluation of
mathematical functions and avoids state and mutable data. It is a declarative programming paradigm, which means programming is done with
expressions or declarations instead of statements.[73]
Imperative programming, a programming paradigm that uses statements that change a program's state.[74] In much the same way that the
imperative mood in natural languages expresses commands, an imperative program consists of commands for the computer to perform.
Imperative programming focuses on describing how a program operates.
Object-oriented programming, a programming paradigm based on the concept of "objects", which may contain data, in the form of fields, often
known as attributes; and code, in the form of procedures, often known as methods. A feature of objects is that an object's procedures can
access and often modify the data fields of the object with which they are associated. Thus object-oriented computer programs are made out
of objects that interact with one another.[75]
Service-oriented programming, a programming paradigm that uses "services" as the unit of computer work, to design and implement
integrated business applications and mission critical software programs.
Many languages offer support for multiple paradigms, making the distinction more a matter of style than of technical capabilities.[76]

Research
Conferences are important events for computer science research. During these conferences, researchers from the public and private sectors present their recent
work and meet. Unlike in most other academic fields, in computer science, the prestige of conference papers is greater than that of journal publications.[77][78]
One proposed explanation for this is the quick development of this relatively new field requires rapid review and distribution of results, a task better handled by
conferences than by journals.[79]

See also
Computer science education List of computer science awards
Glossary of computer science List of pioneers in computer science
List of computer scientists Outline of computer science

Notes
1. In 1851
2. "The introduction of punched cards into the new engine was important not only as a more convenient form of control than the drums, or
because programs could now be of unlimited extent, and could be stored and repeated without the danger of introducing errors in setting the
machine by hand; it was important also because it served to crystallize Babbage's feeling that he had invented something really new,
something much more than a sophisticated calculating machine." Bruce Collier, 1970
3. See the entry "Computer science" on Wikiquote for the history of this quotation.
4. The word "anything" is written in quotation marks because there are things that computers cannot do. One example is: to answer the question
if an arbitrary given computer program will eventually finish or run forever (the Halting problem).

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worldcat.org/oclc/137325053) from the original on May 6, 2022. s://web.archive.org/web/20150722020941/http://cra.org/resources/b
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70. Rapaport, William J. (September 20, 2013). "What Is on_and_tenure/) from the original on July 22, 2015. Retrieved
Computation?" (http://www.cse.buffalo.edu/~rapaport/computation.h July 19, 2015.
tml). State University of New York at Buffalo. Archived (https://web.a 79. Fortnow, Lance (August 2009). "Viewpoint: Time for Computer
rchive.org/web/20010214002845/http://www.cse.buffalo.edu/~rapap Science to Grow Up" (https://doi.org/10.1145%2F1536616.153663
ort/computation.html) from the original on February 14, 2001. 1). Communications of the ACM. 52 (8): 33–35.
Retrieved August 31, 2013. doi:10.1145/1536616.1536631 (https://doi.org/10.1145%2F153661
6.1536631).

Further reading
Tucker, Allen B. (2004). Computer Science Handbook (2nd ed.). Chapman and Hall/CRC. ISBN 978-1-58488-360-9.
Ralston, Anthony; Reilly, Edwin D.; Hemmendinger, David (2000). Encyclopedia of Computer Science (http://portal.acm.org/ralston.cfm)
(4th ed.). Grove's Dictionaries. ISBN 978-1-56159-248-7. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20200608005417/https://dl.acm.org/doi/book/
10.5555/1074100) from the original on June 8, 2020. Retrieved February 6, 2011.
Edwin D. Reilly (2003). Milestones in Computer Science and Information Technology (https://archive.org/details/milestonesincomp0000reil).
Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 978-1-57356-521-9.
Knuth, Donald E. (1996). Selected Papers on Computer Science. CSLI Publications, Cambridge University Press.
Collier, Bruce (1990). The little engine that could've: The calculating machines of Charles Babbage (http://robroy.dyndns.info/collier/index.htm
l). Garland Publishing Inc. ISBN 978-0-8240-0043-1. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20070120190231/http://robroy.dyndns.info/collier/i
ndex.html) from the original on January 20, 2007. Retrieved May 4, 2013.
Cohen, Bernard (2000). Howard Aiken, Portrait of a computer pioneer. The MIT press. ISBN 978-0-262-53179-5.
Tedre, Matti (2014). The Science of Computing: Shaping a Discipline. CRC Press, Taylor & Francis.
Randell, Brian (1973). The origins of Digital computers, Selected Papers. Springer-Verlag. ISBN 978-3-540-06169-4.
Randell, Brian (October–December 1982). "From Analytical Engine to Electronic Digital Computer: The Contributions of Ludgate, Torres, and
Bush" (https://web.archive.org/web/20130921055055/http://www.cs.ncl.ac.uk/publications/articles/papers/398.pdf) (PDF). IEEE Annals of the
History of Computing. 4 (4): 327–341. doi:10.1109/mahc.1982.10042 (https://doi.org/10.1109%2Fmahc.1982.10042). S2CID 1737953 (http
s://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:1737953). Archived from the original (http://www.cs.ncl.ac.uk/research/pubs/articles/papers/398.pdf)
(PDF) on September 21, 2013.
Peter J. Denning. Is computer science science? (http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1053309&coll=&dl=ACM&CFID=15151515&CFTOKEN
=6184618), Communications of the ACM, April 2005.
Peter J. Denning, Great principles in computing curricula (http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=971303&dl=ACM&coll=&CFID=15151515&CF
TOKEN=6184618), Technical Symposium on Computer Science Education, 2004.

External links
DBLP Computer Science Bibliography (http://dblp.uni-trier.de/)
Association for Computing Machinery (http://www.acm.org/)
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (https://www.ieee.org/)

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