Machine learning

Machine learning (ML) is a field of study in artificial intelligence concerned with the development and
study of statistical algorithms that can learn from data and generalise to unseen data, and thus perform
tasks without explicit instructions.[1] Within a subdiscipline in machine learning, advances in the field of
deep learning have allowed neural networks, a class of statistical algorithms, to surpass many previous
machine learning approaches in performance.[2]

ML finds application in many fields, including natural language processing, computer vision, speech
recognition, email filtering, agriculture, and medicine.[3][4] The application of ML to business problems is
known as predictive analytics.

Statistics and mathematical optimisation (mathematical programming) methods comprise the foundations
of machine learning. Data mining is a related field of study, focusing on exploratory data analysis (EDA)
via unsupervised learning.[6][7]

From a theoretical viewpoint, probably approximately correct learning provides a framework for
describing machine learning.

History
The term machine learning was coined in 1959 by Arthur Samuel, an IBM employee and pioneer in the
field of computer gaming and artificial intelligence.[8][9] The synonym self-teaching computers was also
used in this time period.[10][11]

Although the earliest machine learning model was introduced in the 1950s when Arthur Samuel invented
a program that calculated the winning chance in checkers for each side, the history of machine learning
roots back to decades of human desire and effort to study human cognitive processes.[12] In 1949,
Canadian psychologist Donald Hebb published the book The Organization of Behavior, in which he
introduced a theoretical neural structure formed by certain interactions among nerve cells.[13] Hebb's
model of neurons interacting with one another set a groundwork for how AIs and machine learning
algorithms work under nodes, or artificial neurons used by computers to communicate data.[12] Other
researchers who have studied human cognitive systems contributed to the modern machine learning
technologies as well, including logician Walter Pitts and Warren McCulloch, who proposed the early
mathematical models of neural networks to come up with algorithms that mirror human thought
processes.[12]

By the early 1960s, an experimental "learning machine" with punched tape memory, called Cybertron,
had been developed by Raytheon Company to analyse sonar signals, electrocardiograms, and speech
patterns using rudimentary reinforcement learning. It was repetitively "trained" by a human
operator/teacher to recognise patterns and equipped with a "goof" button to cause it to reevaluate
incorrect decisions.[14] A representative book on research into machine learning during the 1960s was
Nilsson's book on Learning Machines, dealing mostly with machine learning for pattern classification.[15]
Interest related to pattern recognition continued into the 1970s, as described by Duda and Hart in
1973.[16] In 1981 a report was given on using teaching strategies so that an artificial neural network
learns to recognise 40 characters (26 letters, 10 digits, and 4 special symbols) from a computer
terminal.[17]

Tom M. Mitchell provided a widely quoted, more formal definition of the algorithms studied in the
machine learning field: "A computer program is said to learn from experience E with respect to some
class of tasks T and performance measure P if its performance at tasks in T, as measured by P, improves
with experience E."[18] This definition of the tasks in which machine learning is concerned offers a
fundamentally operational definition rather than defining the field in cognitive terms. This follows Alan
Turing's proposal in his paper "Computing Machinery and Intelligence", in which the question "Can
machines think?" is replaced with the question "Can machines do what we (as thinking entities) can
do?".[19]

Modern-day machine learning has two objectives. One is to classify data based on models which have
been developed; the other purpose is to make predictions for future outcomes based on these models. A
hypothetical algorithm specific to classifying data may use computer vision of moles coupled with
supervised learning in order to train it to classify the cancerous moles. A machine learning algorithm for
stock trading may inform the trader of future potential predictions.[20]

Relationships to other fields

Artificial intelligence
As a scientific endeavour, machine learning grew out of the
quest for artificial intelligence (AI). In the early days of AI as
an academic discipline, some researchers were interested in
having machines learn from data. They attempted to approach
the problem with various symbolic methods, as well as what
were then termed "neural networks"; these were mostly
perceptrons and other models that were later found to be
reinventions of the generalised linear models of statistics.[22]
Probabilistic reasoning was also employed, especially in
automated medical diagnosis.[23]: 488

However, an increasing emphasis on the logical, knowledge-

based approach caused a rift between AI and machine
Machine learning as subfield of AI[21]
learning. Probabilistic systems were plagued by theoretical
and practical problems of data acquisition and
representation.[23]: 488 By 1980, expert systems had come to dominate AI, and statistics was out of
favour.[24] Work on symbolic/knowledge-based learning did continue within AI, leading to inductive
logic programming(ILP), but the more statistical line of research was now outside the field of AI proper,
in pattern recognition and information retrieval.[23]: 708–710, 755 Neural networks research had been
abandoned by AI and computer science around the same time. This line, too, was continued outside the
AI/CS field, as "connectionism", by researchers from other disciplines including John Hopfield, David
Rumelhart, and Geoffrey Hinton. Their main success came in the mid-1980s with the reinvention of
backpropagation.[23]: 25

Machine learning (ML), reorganised and recognised as its own field, started to flourish in the 1990s. The
field changed its goal from achieving artificial intelligence to tackling solvable problems of a practical
nature. It shifted focus away from the symbolic approaches it had inherited from AI, and toward methods
and models borrowed from statistics, fuzzy logic, and probability theory.[24]

Data compression
There is a close connection between machine learning and compression. A system that predicts the
posterior probabilities of a sequence given its entire history can be used for optimal data compression (by
using arithmetic coding on the output distribution). Conversely, an optimal compressor can be used for
prediction (by finding the symbol that compresses best, given the previous history). This equivalence has
been used as a justification for using data compression as a benchmark for "general
intelligence".[25][26][27]

An alternative view can show compression algorithms implicitly map strings into implicit feature space
vectors, and compression-based similarity measures compute similarity within these feature spaces. For
each compressor C(.) we define an associated vector space ℵ, such that C(.) maps an input string x,
corresponding to the vector norm ||~x||. An exhaustive examination of the feature spaces underlying all
compression algorithms is precluded by space; instead, feature vectors chooses to examine three
representative lossless compression methods, LZW, LZ77, and PPM.[28]

According to AIXI theory, a connection more directly explained in Hutter Prize, the best possible
compression of x is the smallest possible software that generates x. For example, in that model, a zip file's
compressed size includes both the zip file and the unzipping software, since you can not unzip it without
both, but there may be an even smaller combined form.

Examples of AI-powered audio/video compression software include NVIDIA Maxine, AIVC.[29]

Examples of software that can perform AI-powered image compression include OpenCV, TensorFlow,
MATLAB's Image Processing Toolbox (IPT) and High-Fidelity Generative Image Compression.[30]

In unsupervised machine learning, k-means clustering can be utilized to compress data by grouping
similar data points into clusters. This technique simplifies handling extensive datasets that lack
predefined labels and finds widespread use in fields such as image compression.[31]

Data compression aims to reduce the size of data files, enhancing storage efficiency and speeding up data
transmission. K-means clustering, an unsupervised machine learning algorithm, is employed to partition a
dataset into a specified number of clusters, k, each represented by the centroid of its points. This process
condenses extensive datasets into a more compact set of representative points. Particularly beneficial in
image and signal processing, k-means clustering aids in data reduction by replacing groups of data points
with their centroids, thereby preserving the core information of the original data while significantly
decreasing the required storage space.[32]

Large language models (LLMs) are also efficient lossless data compressors on some data sets, as
demonstrated by DeepMind's research with the Chinchilla 70B model. Developed by DeepMind,
Chinchilla 70B effectively compressed data, outperforming conventional methods such as Portable
Network Graphics (PNG) for images and Free Lossless Audio Codec (FLAC) for audio. It achieved
compression of image and audio data to 43.4% and 16.4% of their original sizes, respectively. There is,
however, some reason to be concerned that the data set used for testing overlaps the LLM training data
set, making it possible that the Chinchilla 70B model is only an efficient compression tool on data it has
already been trained on.[33][34]

Data mining
Machine learning and data mining often employ the same methods and overlap significantly, but while
machine learning focuses on prediction, based on known properties learned from the training data, data
mining focuses on the discovery of (previously) unknown properties in the data (this is the analysis step
of knowledge discovery in databases). Data mining uses many machine learning methods, but with
different goals; on the other hand, machine learning also employs data mining methods as "unsupervised
learning" or as a preprocessing step to improve learner accuracy. Much of the confusion between these
two research communities (which do often have separate conferences and separate journals, ECML
PKDD being a major exception) comes from the basic assumptions they work with: in machine learning,
performance is usually evaluated with respect to the ability to reproduce known knowledge, while in
knowledge discovery and data mining (KDD) the key task is the discovery of previously unknown
knowledge. Evaluated with respect to known knowledge, an uninformed (unsupervised) method will
easily be outperformed by other supervised methods, while in a typical KDD task, supervised methods
cannot be used due to the unavailability of training data.

Machine learning also has intimate ties to optimisation: Many learning problems are formulated as
minimisation of some loss function on a training set of examples. Loss functions express the discrepancy
between the predictions of the model being trained and the actual problem instances (for example, in
classification, one wants to assign a label to instances, and models are trained to correctly predict the
preassigned labels of a set of examples).[35]

Generalization
Characterizing the generalisation of various learning algorithms is an active topic of current research,
especially for deep learning algorithms.

Statistics
Machine learning and statistics are closely related fields in terms of methods, but distinct in their
principal goal: statistics draws population inferences from a sample, while machine learning finds
generalisable predictive patterns.[36] According to Michael I. Jordan, the ideas of machine learning, from
methodological principles to theoretical tools, have had a long pre-history in statistics.[37] He also
suggested the term data science as a placeholder to call the overall field.[37]

Conventional statistical analyses require the a priori selection of a model most suitable for the study data
set. In addition, only significant or theoretically relevant variables based on previous experience are
included for analysis. In contrast, machine learning is not built on a pre-structured model; rather, the data
shape the model by detecting underlying patterns. The more variables (input) used to train the model, the
more accurate the ultimate model will be.[38]
Leo Breiman distinguished two statistical modelling paradigms: data model and algorithmic model,[39]
wherein "algorithmic model" means more or less the machine learning algorithms like Random Forest.

Some statisticians have adopted methods from machine learning, leading to a combined field that they
call statistical learning.[40]

Statistical physics
Analytical and computational techniques derived from deep-rooted physics of disordered systems can be
extended to large-scale problems, including machine learning, e.g., to analyse the weight space of deep
neural networks.[41] Statistical physics is thus finding applications in the area of medical diagnostics.[42]

Theory
A core objective of a learner is to generalise from its experience.[5][43] Generalisation in this context is
the ability of a learning machine to perform accurately on new, unseen examples/tasks after having
experienced a learning data set. The training examples come from some generally unknown probability
distribution (considered representative of the space of occurrences) and the learner has to build a general
model about this space that enables it to produce sufficiently accurate predictions in new cases.

The computational analysis of machine learning algorithms and their performance is a branch of
theoretical computer science known as computational learning theory via the probably approximately
correct learning model. Because training sets are finite and the future is uncertain, learning theory usually
does not yield guarantees of the performance of algorithms. Instead, probabilistic bounds on the
performance are quite common. The bias–variance decomposition is one way to quantify generalisation
error.

For the best performance in the context of generalisation, the complexity of the hypothesis should match
the complexity of the function underlying the data. If the hypothesis is less complex than the function,
then the model has under fitted the data. If the complexity of the model is increased in response, then the
training error decreases. But if the hypothesis is too complex, then the model is subject to overfitting and
generalisation will be poorer.[44]

In addition to performance bounds, learning theorists study the time complexity and feasibility of
learning. In computational learning theory, a computation is considered feasible if it can be done in
polynomial time. There are two kinds of time complexity results: Positive results show that a certain class
of functions can be learned in polynomial time. Negative results show that certain classes cannot be
learned in polynomial time.

Approaches

Machine learning approaches are traditionally divided into three broad categories, which correspond to
learning paradigms, depending on the nature of the "signal" or "feedback" available to the learning
system:
 Supervised learning: The computer is
presented with example inputs and their
desired outputs, given by a "teacher",
and the goal is to learn a general rule
that maps inputs to outputs.
Unsupervised learning: No labels are
given to the learning algorithm, leaving it
on its own to find structure in its input.
Unsupervised learning can be a goal in
itself (discovering hidden patterns in In supervised learning, the training data is labelled with
data) or a means towards an end the expected answers, while in unsupervised learning,
(feature learning). the model identifies patterns or structures in unlabelled
data.
Reinforcement learning: A computer
program interacts with a dynamic
environment in which it must perform a
certain goal (such as driving a vehicle or playing a game against an opponent). As it
navigates its problem space, the program is provided feedback that's analogous to rewards,
which it tries to maximise.[5]
Although each algorithm has advantages and limitations, no single algorithm works for all
problems.[45][46][47]

Supervised learning
Supervised learning algorithms build a mathematical model
of a set of data that contains both the inputs and the desired
outputs.[48] The data, known as training data, consists of a set
of training examples. Each training example has one or more
inputs and the desired output, also known as a supervisory
signal. In the mathematical model, each training example is
represented by an array or vector, sometimes called a feature
vector, and the training data is represented by a matrix.
Through iterative optimisation of an objective function,
supervised learning algorithms learn a function that can be
used to predict the output associated with new inputs.[49] An
optimal function allows the algorithm to correctly determine
the output for inputs that were not a part of the training data.
An algorithm that improves the accuracy of its outputs or A support-vector machine is a supervised
predictions over time is said to have learned to perform that learning model that divides the data into
regions separated by a linear boundary.
task.[18]
Here, the linear boundary divides the
Types of supervised-learning algorithms include active black circles from the white.

learning, classification and regression.[50] Classification

algorithms are used when the outputs are restricted to a limited set of values, while regression algorithms
are used when the outputs can take any numerical value within a range. For example, in a classification
algorithm that filters emails, the input is an incoming email, and the output is the folder in which to file
the email. In contrast, regression is used for tasks such as predicting a person's height based on factors
like age and genetics or forecasting future temperatures based on historical data.[51]
Similarity learning is an area of supervised machine learning closely related to regression and
classification, but the goal is to learn from examples using a similarity function that measures how similar
or related two objects are. It has applications in ranking, recommendation systems, visual identity
tracking, face verification, and speaker verification.

Unsupervised learning
Unsupervised learning algorithms find structures in data that has not been labelled, classified or
categorised. Instead of responding to feedback, unsupervised learning algorithms identify commonalities
in the data and react based on the presence or absence of such commonalities in each new piece of data.
Central applications of unsupervised machine learning include clustering, dimensionality reduction,[7]
and density estimation.[52]

Cluster analysis is the assignment of a set of observations into subsets (called clusters) so that
observations within the same cluster are similar according to one or more predesignated criteria, while
observations drawn from different clusters are dissimilar. Different clustering techniques make different
assumptions on the structure of the data, often defined by some similarity metric and evaluated, for
example, by internal compactness, or the similarity between members of the same cluster, and
separation, the difference between clusters. Other methods are based on estimated density and graph
connectivity.

A special type of unsupervised learning called, self-supervised learning involves training a model by
generating the supervisory signal from the data itself.[53][54]

Semi-supervised learning
Semi-supervised learning falls between unsupervised learning (without any labelled training data) and
supervised learning (with completely labelled training data). Some of the training examples are missing
training labels, yet many machine-learning researchers have found that unlabelled data, when used in
conjunction with a small amount of labelled data, can produce a considerable improvement in learning
accuracy.

In weakly supervised learning, the training labels are noisy, limited, or imprecise; however, these labels
are often cheaper to obtain, resulting in larger effective training sets.[55]

Reinforcement learning
Reinforcement learning is an area of machine learning concerned with how software agents ought to take
actions in an environment so as to maximise some notion of cumulative reward. Due to its generality, the
field is studied in many other disciplines, such as game theory, control theory, operations research,
information theory, simulation-based optimisation, multi-agent systems, swarm intelligence, statistics and
genetic algorithms. In reinforcement learning, the environment is typically represented as a Markov
decision process (MDP). Many reinforcement learning algorithms use dynamic programming
techniques.[56] Reinforcement learning algorithms do not assume knowledge of an exact mathematical
model of the MDP and are used when exact models are infeasible. Reinforcement learning algorithms are
used in autonomous vehicles or in learning to play a game against a human opponent.
Dimensionality reduction
Dimensionality reduction is a process of reducing the number of
random variables under consideration by obtaining a set of
principal variables.[57] In other words, it is a process of reducing
the dimension of the feature set, also called the "number of
features". Most of the dimensionality reduction techniques can be
considered as either feature elimination or extraction. One of the
popular methods of dimensionality reduction is principal
component analysis (PCA). PCA involves changing higher-
dimensional data (e.g., 3D) to a smaller space (e.g., 2D). The
manifold hypothesis proposes that high-dimensional data sets lie
along low-dimensional manifolds, and many dimensionality
reduction techniques make this assumption, leading to the area of manifold learning and manifold
regularisation.

Other types
Other approaches have been developed which do not fit neatly into this three-fold categorisation, and
sometimes more than one is used by the same machine learning system. For example, topic modelling,
meta-learning.[58]

Self-learning
Self-learning, as a machine learning paradigm was introduced in 1982 along with a neural network
capable of self-learning, named crossbar adaptive array (CAA).[59][60] It gives a solution to the problem
learning without any external reward, by introducing emotion as an internal reward. Emotion is used as
state evaluation of a self-learning agent. The CAA self-learning algorithm computes, in a crossbar
fashion, both decisions about actions and emotions (feelings) about consequence situations. The system is
driven by the interaction between cognition and emotion.[61] The self-learning algorithm updates a
memory matrix W =||w(a,s)|| such that in each iteration executes the following machine learning routine:

1. in situation s perform action a

2. receive a consequence situation s'
3. compute emotion of being in the consequence situation v(s')
4. update crossbar memory w'(a,s) = w(a,s) + v(s')
It is a system with only one input, situation, and only one output, action (or behaviour) a. There is neither
a separate reinforcement input nor an advice input from the environment. The backpropagated value
(secondary reinforcement) is the emotion toward the consequence situation. The CAA exists in two
environments, one is the behavioural environment where it behaves, and the other is the genetic
environment, wherefrom it initially and only once receives initial emotions about situations to be
encountered in the behavioural environment. After receiving the genome (species) vector from the genetic
environment, the CAA learns a goal-seeking behaviour, in an environment that contains both desirable
and undesirable situations.[62]
Feature learning
Several learning algorithms aim at discovering better representations of the inputs provided during
training.[63] Classic examples include principal component analysis and cluster analysis. Feature learning
algorithms, also called representation learning algorithms, often attempt to preserve the information in
their input but also transform it in a way that makes it useful, often as a pre-processing step before
performing classification or predictions. This technique allows reconstruction of the inputs coming from
the unknown data-generating distribution, while not being necessarily faithful to configurations that are
implausible under that distribution. This replaces manual feature engineering, and allows a machine to
both learn the features and use them to perform a specific task.

Feature learning can be either supervised or unsupervised. In supervised feature learning, features are
learned using labelled input data. Examples include artificial neural networks, multilayer perceptrons, and
supervised dictionary learning. In unsupervised feature learning, features are learned with unlabelled
input data. Examples include dictionary learning, independent component analysis, autoencoders, matrix
factorisation[64] and various forms of clustering.[65][66][67]

Manifold learning algorithms attempt to do so under the constraint that the learned representation is low-
dimensional. Sparse coding algorithms attempt to do so under the constraint that the learned
representation is sparse, meaning that the mathematical model has many zeros. Multilinear subspace
learning algorithms aim to learn low-dimensional representations directly from tensor representations for
multidimensional data, without reshaping them into higher-dimensional vectors.[68] Deep learning
algorithms discover multiple levels of representation, or a hierarchy of features, with higher-level, more
abstract features defined in terms of (or generating) lower-level features. It has been argued that an
intelligent machine is one that learns a representation that disentangles the underlying factors of variation
that explain the observed data.[69]

Feature learning is motivated by the fact that machine learning tasks such as classification often require
input that is mathematically and computationally convenient to process. However, real-world data such as
images, video, and sensory data has not yielded attempts to algorithmically define specific features. An
alternative is to discover such features or representations through examination, without relying on explicit
algorithms.

Sparse dictionary learning

Sparse dictionary learning is a feature learning method where a training example is represented as a linear
combination of basis functions and assumed to be a sparse matrix. The method is strongly NP-hard and
difficult to solve approximately.[70] A popular heuristic method for sparse dictionary learning is the k-
SVD algorithm. Sparse dictionary learning has been applied in several contexts. In classification, the
problem is to determine the class to which a previously unseen training example belongs. For a dictionary
where each class has already been built, a new training example is associated with the class that is best
sparsely represented by the corresponding dictionary. Sparse dictionary learning has also been applied in
image de-noising. The key idea is that a clean image patch can be sparsely represented by an image
dictionary, but the noise cannot.[71]
Anomaly detection
In data mining, anomaly detection, also known as outlier detection, is the identification of rare items,
events or observations which raise suspicions by differing significantly from the majority of the data.[72]
Typically, the anomalous items represent an issue such as bank fraud, a structural defect, medical
problems or errors in a text. Anomalies are referred to as outliers, novelties, noise, deviations and
exceptions.[73]

In particular, in the context of abuse and network intrusion detection, the interesting objects are often not
rare objects, but unexpected bursts of inactivity. This pattern does not adhere to the common statistical
definition of an outlier as a rare object. Many outlier detection methods (in particular, unsupervised
algorithms) will fail on such data unless aggregated appropriately. Instead, a cluster analysis algorithm
may be able to detect the micro-clusters formed by these patterns.[74]

Three broad categories of anomaly detection techniques exist.[75] Unsupervised anomaly detection
techniques detect anomalies in an unlabelled test data set under the assumption that the majority of the
instances in the data set are normal, by looking for instances that seem to fit the least to the remainder of
the data set. Supervised anomaly detection techniques require a data set that has been labelled as
"normal" and "abnormal" and involves training a classifier (the key difference from many other statistical
classification problems is the inherently unbalanced nature of outlier detection). Semi-supervised
anomaly detection techniques construct a model representing normal behaviour from a given normal
training data set and then test the likelihood of a test instance to be generated by the model.

Robot learning
Robot learning is inspired by a multitude of machine learning methods, starting from supervised learning,
reinforcement learning,[76][77] and finally meta-learning (e.g. MAML).

Association rules
Association rule learning is a rule-based machine learning method for discovering relationships between
variables in large databases. It is intended to identify strong rules discovered in databases using some
measure of "interestingness".[78]

Rule-based machine learning is a general term for any machine learning method that identifies, learns, or
evolves "rules" to store, manipulate or apply knowledge. The defining characteristic of a rule-based
machine learning algorithm is the identification and utilisation of a set of relational rules that collectively
represent the knowledge captured by the system. This is in contrast to other machine learning algorithms
that commonly identify a singular model that can be universally applied to any instance in order to make
a prediction.[79] Rule-based machine learning approaches include learning classifier systems, association
rule learning, and artificial immune systems.

Based on the concept of strong rules, Rakesh Agrawal, Tomasz Imieliński and Arun Swami introduced
association rules for discovering regularities between products in large-scale transaction data recorded by
point-of-sale (POS) systems in supermarkets.[80] For example, the rule
found in the sales data of a supermarket would indicate that if a
customer buys onions and potatoes together, they are likely to also buy hamburger meat. Such
information can be used as the basis for decisions about marketing activities such as promotional pricing
or product placements. In addition to market basket analysis, association rules are employed today in
application areas including Web usage mining, intrusion detection, continuous production, and
bioinformatics. In contrast with sequence mining, association rule learning typically does not consider the
order of items either within a transaction or across transactions.

Learning classifier systems (LCS) are a family of rule-based machine learning algorithms that combine a
discovery component, typically a genetic algorithm, with a learning component, performing either
supervised learning, reinforcement learning, or unsupervised learning. They seek to identify a set of
context-dependent rules that collectively store and apply knowledge in a piecewise manner in order to
make predictions.[81]

Inductive logic programming (ILP) is an approach to rule learning using logic programming as a uniform
representation for input examples, background knowledge, and hypotheses. Given an encoding of the
known background knowledge and a set of examples represented as a logical database of facts, an ILP
system will derive a hypothesized logic program that entails all positive and no negative examples.
Inductive programming is a related field that considers any kind of programming language for
representing hypotheses (and not only logic programming), such as functional programs.

Inductive logic programming is particularly useful in bioinformatics and natural language processing.
Gordon Plotkin and Ehud Shapiro laid the initial theoretical foundation for inductive machine learning in
a logical setting.[82][83][84] Shapiro built their first implementation (Model Inference System) in 1981: a
Prolog program that inductively inferred logic programs from positive and negative examples.[85] The
term inductive here refers to philosophical induction, suggesting a theory to explain observed facts, rather
than mathematical induction, proving a property for all members of a well-ordered set.

Models
A machine learning model is a type of mathematical model that, once "trained" on a given dataset, can
be used to make predictions or classifications on new data. During training, a learning algorithm
iteratively adjusts the model's internal parameters to minimise errors in its predictions.[86] By extension,
the term "model" can refer to several levels of specificity, from a general class of models and their
associated learning algorithms to a fully trained model with all its internal parameters tuned.[87]

Various types of models have been used and researched for machine learning systems, picking the best
model for a task is called model selection.

Artificial neural networks

Artificial neural networks (ANNs), or connectionist systems, are computing systems vaguely inspired by
the biological neural networks that constitute animal brains. Such systems "learn" to perform tasks by
considering examples, generally without being programmed with any task-specific rules.

An ANN is a model based on a collection of connected units or nodes called "artificial neurons", which
loosely model the neurons in a biological brain. Each connection, like the synapses in a biological brain,
can transmit information, a "signal", from one artificial neuron to another. An artificial neuron that
receives a signal can process it and then signal additional artificial neurons connected to it. In common
ANN implementations, the signal at a connection between artificial neurons is a real number, and the
output of each artificial neuron is computed by some non-linear function of the sum of its inputs. The
connections between artificial neurons are called
"edges". Artificial neurons and edges typically have a
weight that adjusts as learning proceeds. The weight
increases or decreases the strength of the signal at a
connection. Artificial neurons may have a threshold
such that the signal is only sent if the aggregate signal
crosses that threshold. Typically, artificial neurons are
aggregated into layers. Different layers may perform
different kinds of transformations on their inputs.
Signals travel from the first layer (the input layer) to
the last layer (the output layer), possibly after
traversing the layers multiple times.

The original goal of the ANN approach was to solve

problems in the same way that a human brain would.
However, over time, attention moved to performing
specific tasks, leading to deviations from biology.
Artificial neural networks have been used on a variety
of tasks, including computer vision, speech An artificial neural network is an interconnected
group of nodes, akin to the vast network of
recognition, machine translation, social network
neurons in a brain. Here, each circular node
filtering, playing board and video games and medical
represents an artificial neuron and an arrow
diagnosis. represents a connection from the output of one
artificial neuron to the input of another.
Deep learning consists of multiple hidden layers in an
artificial neural network. This approach tries to model
the way the human brain processes light and sound into vision and hearing. Some successful applications
of deep learning are computer vision and speech recognition.[88]

Decision trees
Decision tree learning uses a decision tree as a predictive
model to go from observations about an item (represented in
the branches) to conclusions about the item's target value
(represented in the leaves). It is one of the predictive
modelling approaches used in statistics, data mining, and
machine learning. Tree models where the target variable can
take a discrete set of values are called classification trees; in
these tree structures, leaves represent class labels, and
branches represent conjunctions of features that lead to those
class labels. Decision trees where the target variable can take
continuous values (typically real numbers) are called
regression trees. In decision analysis, a decision tree can be
used to visually and explicitly represent decisions and
A decision tree showing survival
decision making. In data mining, a decision tree describes
probability of passengers on the Titanic
data, but the resulting classification tree can be an input for
decision-making.
Random forest regression
Random forest regression (RFR) falls under umbrella of decision tree-based models. RFR is an ensemble
learning method that builds multiple decision trees and averages their predictions to improve accuracy
and to avoid overfitting. To build decision trees, RFR uses bootstrapped sampling, for instance each
decision tree is trained on random data of from training set. This random selection of RFR for training
enables model to reduce bias predictions and achieve accuracy. RFR generates independent decision
trees, and it can work on single output data as well multiple regressor task. This makes RFR compatible
to be used in various application.[89][90]

Support-vector machines
Support-vector machines (SVMs), also known as support-vector networks, are a set of related supervised
learning methods used for classification and regression. Given a set of training examples, each marked as
belonging to one of two categories, an SVM training algorithm builds a model that predicts whether a
new example falls into one category.[91] An SVM training algorithm is a non-probabilistic, binary, linear
classifier, although methods such as Platt scaling exist to use SVM in a probabilistic classification setting.
In addition to performing linear classification, SVMs can efficiently perform a non-linear classification
using what is called the kernel trick, implicitly mapping their inputs into high-dimensional feature spaces.

Regression analysis
Regression analysis encompasses a large variety
of statistical methods to estimate the relationship
between input variables and their associated
features. Its most common form is linear
regression, where a single line is drawn to best fit
the given data according to a mathematical
criterion such as ordinary least squares. The latter
is often extended by regularisation methods to
mitigate overfitting and bias, as in ridge
regression. When dealing with non-linear
problems, go-to models include polynomial
Illustration of linear regression on a data set
regression (for example, used for trendline fitting
in Microsoft Excel[92]), logistic regression (often
used in statistical classification) or even kernel regression, which introduces non-linearity by taking
advantage of the kernel trick to implicitly map input variables to higher-dimensional space.

Multivariate linear regression extends the concept of linear regression to handle multiple dependent
variables simultaneously. This approach estimates the relationships between a set of input variables and
several output variables by fitting a multidimensional linear model. It is particularly useful in scenarios
where outputs are interdependent or share underlying patterns, such as predicting multiple economic
indicators or reconstructing images,[93] which are inherently multi-dimensional.
Bayesian networks
A Bayesian network, belief network, or directed acyclic
graphical model is a probabilistic graphical model that
represents a set of random variables and their conditional
independence with a directed acyclic graph (DAG). For
example, a Bayesian network could represent the probabilistic
relationships between diseases and symptoms. Given
symptoms, the network can be used to compute the
A simple Bayesian network. Rain
probabilities of the presence of various diseases. Efficient influences whether the sprinkler is
algorithms exist that perform inference and learning. activated, and both rain and the sprinkler
Bayesian networks that model sequences of variables, like influence whether the grass is wet.
speech signals or protein sequences, are called dynamic
Bayesian networks. Generalisations of Bayesian networks
that can represent and solve decision problems under uncertainty are called influence diagrams.

Gaussian processes
A Gaussian process is a stochastic process in which every
finite collection of the random variables in the process has a
multivariate normal distribution, and it relies on a pre-defined
covariance function, or kernel, that models how pairs of
points relate to each other depending on their locations.

Given a set of observed points, or input–output examples, the

An example of Gaussian Process
distribution of the (unobserved) output of a new point as Regression (prediction) compared with
function of its input data can be directly computed by looking other regression models[94]
like the observed points and the covariances between those
points and the new, unobserved point.

Gaussian processes are popular surrogate models in Bayesian optimisation used to do hyperparameter
optimisation.

Genetic algorithms
A genetic algorithm (GA) is a search algorithm and heuristic technique that mimics the process of natural
selection, using methods such as mutation and crossover to generate new genotypes in the hope of finding
good solutions to a given problem. In machine learning, genetic algorithms were used in the 1980s and
1990s.[95][96] Conversely, machine learning techniques have been used to improve the performance of
genetic and evolutionary algorithms.[97]

Belief functions
The theory of belief functions, also referred to as evidence theory or Dempster–Shafer theory, is a general
framework for reasoning with uncertainty, with understood connections to other frameworks such as
probability, possibility and imprecise probability theories. These theoretical frameworks can be thought
of as a kind of learner and have some analogous properties of how evidence is combined (e.g.,
Dempster's rule of combination), just like how in a pmf-based Bayesian approach would combine
probabilities. However, there are many caveats to these beliefs functions when compared to Bayesian
approaches in order to incorporate ignorance and uncertainty quantification. These belief function
approaches that are implemented within the machine learning domain typically leverage a fusion
approach of various ensemble methods to better handle the learner's decision boundary, low samples, and
ambiguous class issues that standard machine learning approach tend to have difficulty resolving.[4][9]
However, the computational complexity of these algorithms are dependent on the number of propositions
(classes), and can lead to a much higher computation time when compared to other machine learning
approaches.

Rule-based models
Rule-based machine learning (RBML) is a branch of machine learning that automatically discovers and
learns 'rules' from data. It provides interpretable models, making it useful for decision-making in fields
like healthcare, fraud detection, and cybersecurity. Key RBML techniques includes learning classifier
systems,[98] association rule learning,[99] artificial immune systems,[100] and other similar models. These
methods extract patterns from data and evolve rules over time.

Training models
Typically, machine learning models require a high quantity of reliable data to perform accurate
predictions. When training a machine learning model, machine learning engineers need to target and
collect a large and representative sample of data. Data from the training set can be as varied as a corpus of
text, a collection of images, sensor data, and data collected from individual users of a service. Overfitting
is something to watch out for when training a machine learning model. Trained models derived from
biased or non-evaluated data can result in skewed or undesired predictions. Biased models may result in
detrimental outcomes, thereby furthering the negative impacts on society or objectives. Algorithmic bias
is a potential result of data not being fully prepared for training. Machine learning ethics is becoming a
field of study and notably, becoming integrated within machine learning engineering teams.

Federated learning
Federated learning is an adapted form of distributed artificial intelligence to training machine learning
models that decentralises the training process, allowing for users' privacy to be maintained by not needing
to send their data to a centralised server. This also increases efficiency by decentralising the training
process to many devices. For example, Gboard uses federated machine learning to train search query
prediction models on users' mobile phones without having to send individual searches back to
Google.[101]

Applications
There are many applications for machine learning, including:

Agriculture
Anatomy
Adaptive website
Affective computing
Astronomy
Automated decision-making
Banking
Behaviorism
Bioinformatics
Brain–machine interfaces
Cheminformatics
Citizen Science
Climate Science
Computer networks
Computer vision
Credit-card fraud detection
Data quality
DNA sequence classification
Economics
Financial market analysis[102]
General game playing
Handwriting recognition
Healthcare
Information retrieval
Insurance
Internet fraud detection
Knowledge graph embedding
Linguistics
Machine learning control
Machine perception
Machine translation
Material Engineering
Marketing
Medical diagnosis
Natural language processing
Natural language understanding
Online advertising
Optimisation
Recommender systems
Robot locomotion
Search engines
Sentiment analysis
Sequence mining
Software engineering
Speech recognition
Structural health monitoring
Syntactic pattern recognition
Telecommunications
Theorem proving
 Time-series forecasting
Tomographic reconstruction[103]
User behaviour analytics
In 2006, the media-services provider Netflix held the first "Netflix Prize" competition to find a program
to better predict user preferences and improve the accuracy of its existing Cinematch movie
recommendation algorithm by at least 10%. A joint team made up of researchers from AT&T Labs-
Research in collaboration with the teams Big Chaos and Pragmatic Theory built an ensemble model to
win the Grand Prize in 2009 for $1 million.[104] Shortly after the prize was awarded, Netflix realised that
viewers' ratings were not the best indicators of their viewing patterns ("everything is a recommendation")
and they changed their recommendation engine accordingly.[105] In 2010 The Wall Street Journal wrote
about the firm Rebellion Research and their use of machine learning to predict the financial crisis.[106] In
2012, co-founder of Sun Microsystems, Vinod Khosla, predicted that 80% of medical doctors jobs would
be lost in the next two decades to automated machine learning medical diagnostic software.[107] In 2014,
it was reported that a machine learning algorithm had been applied in the field of art history to study fine
art paintings and that it may have revealed previously unrecognised influences among artists.[108] In 2019
Springer Nature published the first research book created using machine learning.[109] In 2020, machine
learning technology was used to help make diagnoses and aid researchers in developing a cure for
COVID-19.[110] Machine learning was recently applied to predict the pro-environmental behaviour of
travellers.[111] Recently, machine learning technology was also applied to optimise smartphone's
performance and thermal behaviour based on the user's interaction with the phone.[112][113][114] When
applied correctly, machine learning algorithms (MLAs) can utilise a wide range of company
characteristics to predict stock returns without overfitting. By employing effective feature engineering
and combining forecasts, MLAs can generate results that far surpass those obtained from basic linear
techniques like OLS.[115]

Recent advancements in machine learning have extended into the field of quantum chemistry, where
novel algorithms now enable the prediction of solvent effects on chemical reactions, thereby offering new
tools for chemists to tailor experimental conditions for optimal outcomes.[116]

Machine Learning is becoming a useful tool to investigate and predict evacuation decision making in
large scale and small scale disasters. Different solutions have been tested to predict if and when
householders decide to evacuate during wildfires and hurricanes.[117][118][119] Other applications have
been focusing on pre evacuation decisions in building fires.[120][121]

Machine learning is also emerging as a promising tool in geotechnical engineering, where it is used to
support tasks such as ground classification, hazard prediction, and site characterization. Recent research
emphasizes a move toward data-centric methods in this field, where machine learning is not a
replacement for engineering judgment, but a way to enhance it using site-specific data and patterns.[122]

Limitations
Although machine learning has been transformative in some fields, machine-learning programs often fail
to deliver expected results.[123][124][125] Reasons for this are numerous: lack of (suitable) data, lack of
access to the data, data bias, privacy problems, badly chosen tasks and algorithms, wrong tools and
people, lack of resources, and evaluation problems.[126]
The "black box theory" poses another yet significant challenge. Black box refers to a situation where the
algorithm or the process of producing an output is entirely opaque, meaning that even the coders of the
algorithm cannot audit the pattern that the machine extracted out of the data.[127] The House of Lords
Select Committee, which claimed that such an "intelligence system" that could have a "substantial impact
on an individual's life" would not be considered acceptable unless it provided "a full and satisfactory
explanation for the decisions" it makes.[127]

In 2018, a self-driving car from Uber failed to detect a pedestrian, who was killed after a collision.[128]
Attempts to use machine learning in healthcare with the IBM Watson system failed to deliver even after
years of time and billions of dollars invested.[129][130] Microsoft's Bing Chat chatbot has been reported to
produce hostile and offensive response against its users.[131]

Machine learning has been used as a strategy to update the evidence related to a systematic review and
increased reviewer burden related to the growth of biomedical literature. While it has improved with
training sets, it has not yet developed sufficiently to reduce the workload burden without limiting the
necessary sensitivity for the findings research themselves.[132]

Explainability
Explainable AI (XAI), or Interpretable AI, or Explainable Machine Learning (XML), is artificial
intelligence (AI) in which humans can understand the decisions or predictions made by the AI.[133] It
contrasts with the "black box" concept in machine learning where even its designers cannot explain why
an AI arrived at a specific decision.[134] By refining the mental models of users of AI-powered systems
and dismantling their misconceptions, XAI promises to help users perform more effectively. XAI may be
an implementation of the social right to explanation.

Overfitting
Settling on a bad, overly complex theory gerrymandered to fit
all the past training data is known as overfitting. Many
systems attempt to reduce overfitting by rewarding a theory in
accordance with how well it fits the data but penalising the
theory in accordance with how complex the theory is.[135]

Other limitations and vulnerabilities

Learners can also disappoint by "learning the wrong lesson".
The blue line could be an example of
A toy example is that an image classifier trained only on overfitting a linear function due to random
pictures of brown horses and black cats might conclude that noise.
all brown patches are likely to be horses. [136] A real-world
example is that, unlike humans, current image classifiers
often do not primarily make judgements from the spatial relationship between components of the picture,
and they learn relationships between pixels that humans are oblivious to, but that still correlate with
images of certain types of real objects. Modifying these patterns on a legitimate image can result in
"adversarial" images that the system misclassifies.[137][138]
Adversarial vulnerabilities can also result in nonlinear systems, or from non-pattern perturbations. For
some systems, it is possible to change the output by only changing a single adversarially chosen
pixel.[139] Machine learning models are often vulnerable to manipulation or evasion via adversarial
machine learning.[140]

Researchers have demonstrated how backdoors can be placed undetectably into classifying (e.g., for
categories "spam" and well-visible "not spam" of posts) machine learning models that are often
developed or trained by third parties. Parties can change the classification of any input, including in cases
for which a type of data/software transparency is provided, possibly including white-box
access.[141][142][143]

Model assessments
Classification of machine learning models can be validated by accuracy estimation techniques like the
holdout method, which splits the data in a training and test set (conventionally 2/3 training set and 1/3 test
set designation) and evaluates the performance of the training model on the test set. In comparison, the K-
fold-cross-validation method randomly partitions the data into K subsets and then K experiments are
performed each respectively considering 1 subset for evaluation and the remaining K-1 subsets for
training the model. In addition to the holdout and cross-validation methods, bootstrap, which samples n
instances with replacement from the dataset, can be used to assess model accuracy.[144]

In addition to overall accuracy, investigators frequently report sensitivity and specificity meaning true
positive rate (TPR) and true negative rate (TNR) respectively. Similarly, investigators sometimes report
the false positive rate (FPR) as well as the false negative rate (FNR). However, these rates are ratios that
fail to reveal their numerators and denominators. Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) along with the
accompanying Area Under the ROC Curve (AUC) offer additional tools for classification model
assessment. Higher AUC is associated with a better performing model.[145]

Ethics

The ethics of artificial intelligence covers a broad range of topics within the field that are considered to
have particular ethical stakes.[146] This includes algorithmic biases, fairness,[147] automated decision-
making, accountability, privacy, and regulation. It also covers various emerging or potential future
challenges such as machine ethics (how to make machines that behave ethically), lethal autonomous
weapon systems, arms race dynamics, AI safety and alignment, technological unemployment, AI-enabled
misinformation, how to treat certain AI systems if they have a moral status (AI welfare and rights),
artificial superintelligence and existential risks.[146]

Some application areas may also have particularly important ethical implications, like healthcare,
education, criminal justice, or the military.
Bias
Different machine learning approaches can suffer from different data biases. A machine learning system
trained specifically on current customers may not be able to predict the needs of new customer groups
that are not represented in the training data. When trained on human-made data, machine learning is
likely to pick up the constitutional and unconscious biases already present in society.[148]

Systems that are trained on datasets collected with biases may exhibit these biases upon use (algorithmic
bias), thus digitising cultural prejudices.[149] For example, in 1988, the UK's Commission for Racial
Equality found that St. George's Medical School had been using a computer program trained from data of
previous admissions staff and that this program had denied nearly 60 candidates who were found to either
be women or have non-European sounding names.[148] Using job hiring data from a firm with racist
hiring policies may lead to a machine learning system duplicating the bias by scoring job applicants by
similarity to previous successful applicants.[150][151] Another example includes predictive policing
company Geolitica's predictive algorithm that resulted in "disproportionately high levels of over-policing
in low-income and minority communities" after being trained with historical crime data.[152]

While responsible collection of data and documentation of algorithmic rules used by a system is
considered a critical part of machine learning, some researchers blame lack of participation and
representation of minority population in the field of AI for machine learning's vulnerability to biases.[153]
In fact, according to research carried out by the Computing Research Association (CRA) in 2021, "female
faculty merely make up 16.1%" of all faculty members who focus on AI among several universities
around the world.[154] Furthermore, among the group of "new U.S. resident AI PhD graduates," 45%
identified as white, 22.4% as Asian, 3.2% as Hispanic, and 2.4% as African American, which further
demonstrates a lack of diversity in the field of AI.[154]

Language models learned from data have been shown to contain human-like biases.[155][156] Because
human languages contain biases, machines trained on language corpora will necessarily also learn these
biases.[157][158] In 2016, Microsoft tested Tay, a chatbot that learned from Twitter, and it quickly picked
up racist and sexist language.[159]

In an experiment carried out by ProPublica, an investigative journalism organisation, a machine learning

algorithm's insight into the recidivism rates among prisoners falsely flagged "black defendants high risk
twice as often as white defendants".[152] In 2015, Google Photos once tagged a couple of black people as
gorillas, which caused controversy. The gorilla label was subsequently removed, and in 2023, it still
cannot recognise gorillas.[160] Similar issues with recognising non-white people have been found in many
other systems.[161]

Because of such challenges, the effective use of machine learning may take longer to be adopted in other
domains.[162] Concern for fairness in machine learning, that is, reducing bias in machine learning and
propelling its use for human good, is increasingly expressed by artificial intelligence scientists, including
Fei-Fei Li, who said that "[t]here's nothing artificial about AI. It's inspired by people, it's created by
people, and—most importantly—it impacts people. It is a powerful tool we are only just beginning to
understand, and that is a profound responsibility."[163]
Financial incentives
There are concerns among health care professionals that these systems might not be designed in the
public's interest but as income-generating machines. This is especially true in the United States where
there is a long-standing ethical dilemma of improving health care, but also increasing profits. For
example, the algorithms could be designed to provide patients with unnecessary tests or medication in
which the algorithm's proprietary owners hold stakes. There is potential for machine learning in health
care to provide professionals an additional tool to diagnose, medicate, and plan recovery paths for
patients, but this requires these biases to be mitigated.[164]

Hardware
Since the 2010s, advances in both machine learning algorithms and computer hardware have led to more
efficient methods for training deep neural networks (a particular narrow subdomain of machine learning)
that contain many layers of nonlinear hidden units.[165] By 2019, graphics processing units (GPUs), often
with AI-specific enhancements, had displaced CPUs as the dominant method of training large-scale
commercial cloud AI.[166] OpenAI estimated the hardware compute used in the largest deep learning
projects from AlexNet (2012) to AlphaZero (2017), and found a 300,000-fold increase in the amount of
compute required, with a doubling-time trendline of 3.4 months.[167][168]

Tensor Processing Units (TPUs)

Tensor Processing Units (TPUs) are specialised hardware accelerators developed by Google specifically
for machine learning workloads. Unlike general-purpose GPUs and FPGAs, TPUs are optimised for
tensor computations, making them particularly efficient for deep learning tasks such as training and
inference. They are widely used in Google Cloud AI services and large-scale machine learning models
like Google's DeepMind AlphaFold and large language models. TPUs leverage matrix multiplication
units and high-bandwidth memory to accelerate computations while maintaining energy efficiency.[169]
Since their introduction in 2016, TPUs have become a key component of AI infrastructure, especially in
cloud-based environments.

Neuromorphic computing
Neuromorphic computing refers to a class of computing systems designed to emulate the structure and
functionality of biological neural networks. These systems may be implemented through software-based
simulations on conventional hardware or through specialised hardware architectures.[170]

physical neural networks

A physical neural network is a specific type of neuromorphic hardware that relies on electrically
adjustable materials, such as memristors, to emulate the function of neural synapses. The term "physical
neural network" highlights the use of physical hardware for computation, as opposed to software-based
implementations. It broadly refers to artificial neural networks that use materials with adjustable
resistance to replicate neural synapses.[171][172]
Embedded machine learning
Embedded machine learning is a sub-field of machine learning where models are deployed on embedded
systems with limited computing resources, such as wearable computers, edge devices and
microcontrollers.[173][174][175][176] Running models directly on these devices eliminates the need to
transfer and store data on cloud servers for further processing, thereby reducing the risk of data breaches,
privacy leaks and theft of intellectual property, personal data and business secrets. Embedded machine
learning can be achieved through various techniques, such as hardware acceleration,[177][178] approximate
computing,[179] and model optimisation.[180][181] Common optimisation techniques include pruning,
quantisation, knowledge distillation, low-rank factorisation, network architecture search, and parameter
sharing.

Software
Software suites containing a variety of machine learning algorithms include the following:

Free and open-source software

Caffe MXNet
Deeplearning4j OpenNN
DeepSpeed Orange
ELKI pandas (software)
Google JAX ROOT (TMVA with ROOT)
Infer.NET scikit-learn
Keras Shogun
Kubeflow Spark MLlib
LightGBM SystemML
Mahout TensorFlow
Mallet Torch / PyTorch
Microsoft Cognitive Toolkit Weka / MOA
ML.NET XGBoost
mlpack Yooreeka

Proprietary software with free and open-source editions

KNIME
RapidMiner

Proprietary software
Amazon Machine Learning IBM SPSS Modeller
Angoss KnowledgeSTUDIO KXEN Modeller
Azure Machine Learning LIONsolver
IBM Watson Studio Mathematica
Google Cloud Vertex AI MATLAB
Google Prediction API Neural Designer
 NeuroSolutions SAS Enterprise Miner
Oracle Data Mining SequenceL
Oracle AI Platform Cloud Service Splunk
PolyAnalyst STATISTICA Data Miner
RCASE

Journals
Journal of Machine Learning Research
Machine Learning
Nature Machine Intelligence
Neural Computation
IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence

Conferences
AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence
Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL)
European Conference on Machine Learning and Principles and Practice of Knowledge
Discovery in Databases (ECML PKDD)
International Conference on Computational Intelligence Methods for Bioinformatics and
Biostatistics (CIBB)
International Conference on Machine Learning (ICML)
International Conference on Learning Representations (ICLR)
International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems (IROS)
Conference on Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining (KDD)
Conference on Neural Information Processing Systems (NeurIPS)

See also
Automated machine learning – Process of automating the application of machine learning
Big data – Extremely large or complex datasets
Deep learning — branch of ML concerned with artificial neural networks
Differentiable programming – Programming paradigm
List of datasets for machine-learning research
M-theory (learning framework)
Machine unlearning
Solomonoff's theory of inductive inference – A mathematical theory

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Further reading
Alpaydin, Ethem (2020). Introduction to Machine Learning, (4th edition) MIT Press,
ISBN 9780262043793.
Bishop, Christopher (1995). Neural Networks for Pattern Recognition, Oxford University
Press. ISBN 0-19-853864-2.
Bishop, Christopher (2006) Pattern Recognition and Machine Learning, Springer. ISBN 978-
0-387-31073-2
Domingos, Pedro (September 2015), The Master Algorithm, Basic Books, ISBN 978-0-465-
06570-7
Duda, Richard O.; Hart, Peter E.; Stork, David G. (2001) Pattern classification (2nd edition),
Wiley, New York, ISBN 0-471-05669-3.
Hastie, Trevor; Tibshirani, Robert & Friedman, Jerome H. (2009) The Elements of Statistical
Learning, Springer. doi:10.1007/978-0-387-84858-7 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-0-387-
84858-7) ISBN 0-387-95284-5.
MacKay, David J. C. Information Theory, Inference, and Learning Algorithms Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 2003. ISBN 0-521-64298-1
Murphy, Kevin P. (2021). Probabilistic Machine Learning: An Introduction (https://probml.gith
ub.io/pml-book/book1.html) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20210411153246/https://
probml.github.io/pml-book/book1.html) 11 April 2021 at the Wayback Machine, MIT Press.
Nilsson, Nils J. (2015) Introduction to Machine Learning (https://ai.stanford.edu/people/nilss
on/mlbook.html) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20190816182600/http://ai.stanford.e
du/people/nilsson/mlbook.html) 16 August 2019 at the Wayback Machine.
Russell, Stuart & Norvig, Peter (2020). Artificial Intelligence – A Modern Approach. (4th
edition) Pearson, ISBN 978-0134610993.
Solomonoff, Ray, (1956) An Inductive Inference Machine (http://world.std.com/~rjs/indinf56.
pdf) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20110426161749/http://world.std.com/~rjs/indinf5
6.pdf) 26 April 2011 at the Wayback Machine A privately circulated report from the 1956
Dartmouth Summer Research Conference on AI.
Witten, Ian H. & Frank, Eibe (2011). Data Mining: Practical machine learning tools and
techniques (https://www.sciencedirect.com/book/9780123748560) Morgan Kaufmann,
664pp., ISBN 978-0-12-374856-0.

External links
International Machine Learning Society (https://web.archive.org/web/20171230081341/htt
p://machinelearning.org/)
 mloss (https://mloss.org/) is an academic database of open-source machine learning
software.

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