investigation
CHAPTER 111
Fire elements
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fuel
FUEL
FUELS (Combustible
Materials)- fuel is matter and
matter exist in three physical
states: solid, liquid and gas.
COMBUSTABLE SUBSTANCES -Substances
that burn in air to produce light and heat are called
combustible substances
Solids melt to become liquids, and these may vaporize and become
gases. The basic rule is that at high enough temperature all fuels can be
converted to gases. And each of the physical states exhibits different
physical and chemical properties that directly affect a fuel's combustibility.
FUEL
Is also a material that provides
useful energy Fuels are used to
heat and cook food, power
engines and produce electricity.
Most fuels release energy by burning with
oxygen in the air. But some - especially chemical
fuels used in rockets - need special oxidizers in
order to burn. Nuclear fuels do not burn but
release energy through the fission (splitting) of
fusion (joining together) of atoms
classifications of
combustible
materials
Classification of
Combustible Materials
1. Class A Fuels - they are ordinary combustible
materials that are usually made of organic
substances such as wood and wood-based
products. It includes some synthetic or inorganic
materials like rubber, leather, and plastic products.
2. Class B Fuels - materials that are in the form of flammable liquids
such as alcohol, acidic solutions, oil, liquid petroleum products, etc.
3. Class C Fuels - they are normally fire resistant materials such as
materials used on electrical wiring and other electrical appliances.
Classification of
Combustible Materials
4. Class D Fuels - they are combustible metallic
substances such as magnesium, titanium,
zirconium, sodium and potassium.
5. Class K Fuels - Cooking media (oil, lads,
fats)
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General Categories
of Fuel
General Categories of Fuel
1. Solid Combustible Materials -
includes organic and inorganic natural or
2. Liquid Combustible Materials -
includes all flammable liquid fuels and
chemicals
3. Gaseous Substances - includes those
toxic/ hazardous gases that are capable of
ignition
GENERAL CATEGORIES OF FUEL
THE SOLID
FUELS
THE SOLID FUELS
The most obvious solid fuels are wood, paper and cloth. Its burning rate
depends on its configuration. For example, solid fuels in the form of dust
will burn faster than bulky materials.
TYPES OF FLAMMABLE
SOLIDS
a. Pyrolyzable solid fuels - include many of the ordinary accepted
combustibles: wood, paper and so on. The vapors released by
their chemical decomposition support flaming combustion. This
exemplifies a gas-to-gas reaction: the vapors released mixed with
oxygen in the air to produce a flame.
b. Non-pyrolyzable solid fuels - solid fuels that are difficult to ignite. A
common example is charcoal. Chemical decomposition does not
occur because there are no pyrolyzable elements present. No
THE SOLID FUELS
The following are group of solid
f l
1. Biomass - it is the name given to such replaceable organic matters
like wood, garbage and animal manure that can be use to produce
2. Fabrics and Textiles - almost all fibers and textiles are combustible.
A fiber is a very fine thin strand or thread like object. Fabrics are twisted
or woven fibers. And textiles are machine woven or knitted fabric.
Classification of Fibers
a. Natural Fibers - they come from plants, from animals, from
minerals
b. Synthetic/Artificial Fibers - organic fibers, cellulose fibers,
ll l t t ll l di i fib lik fib
GENERAL CATEGORIES OF FUEL
THE LIQUID
FUELS
THE LIQUID FUELS
Liquid fuels are mainly made from Petroleum, but some synthetic
liquids are also produced. Petroleum is also called crude oil. They may
be refined to produce gasoline, diesel oil, and kerosene. Other fuel oils
obtained by refining petroleum to distillate oil and residual oils. Distillate
oils are light oils, which are used chiefly to heat homes and small
buildings. Residual oils are heavy, and used to provide energy to
tiliti f t i dl hi
Oil-based paint products are also highly flammable liquids. In the
process of vaporization, flammable liquids release vapor in much the
same way as solid fuels. The rate of vapor is greater for liquids than
solids, since liquids have less closely packed molecules. In addition,
liquids can release vapor over a wide range. This makes gasoline a
continuous fire hazard; it produces flammable vapor at normal
THE LIQUID FUELS
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
OF LIQUIDS
1. They are matters with definite volume but no definite shape.
2. They assume the shape of their vessel because there is free
movement of molecules.
3. They are slightly compressible. They are not capable of indefinite
expansion, unlike gas.
2 GENERAL GROUPS OF
LIQUID FUELS
1. Flammable liquids - they are liquids having a flash point of 37.8 °C
(100°F) and a vapor pressure not exceeding 40 psia (2068.6 um)
at 37.8 °C.
2. Combustible Liquids - these liquids have flash point at or above
GENERAL CATEGORIES OF FUEL
THE GAS FUELS
THE GAS FUELS
Gaseous fuels are those in which molecules are in rapid movement
and random motion. They have no definite shape or volume, and
assume the shape and volume of their container. There are both
natural and manufactured flammable gases. Gas fuels flow easily
through pipes and are used to provide energy for homes, businesses,
di d ti
CHARACTERISTICS OF
GAS FUELS
1. They are matters that have no definite shape.
2. They are composed of very tiny particles (molecules) at constant
random motion in a straight line
3. Gas molecules collide against one another and against the wall of
the container and are relatively far from one another.
CLASSIFICATIONS OF GASES
1. BASED ON
SOURCE
a. Natural Gas - the gas used to heat buildings, cook food, and provides
energy for industries. It consists chiefly of methane, a colorless and
odorless gas. Natural gas is usually mixed with compounds of foul-
smelling elements like sulfur so gas leaks can be detected. Butane and
propane, which make up a small proportion of natural gas, become
liquids when placed under large amount of pressure. When pressure is
l d th h b kt
b. Manufactured Gas - this gas like synthetic liquid fuels is used chiefly
where certain fuels are abundant and others are scarce. Coal,
petroleum, and biomass can all be converted to gas through heating
d i h i l d
CLASSIFICATIONS OF GASES
2. ACCORDING TO PHYSICAL
PROPERTIES
a. Compressed Gas - gas in which at all normal temperature inside its
container; exist solely in the gaseous state under pressure. The
pressure depends on the pressure to which the container is originally
charged and how much gas remains in the container. However,
temperature affects the volume and pressure of the gas.
b. Liquefied Gas- gas, which, at normal temperature inside its
container, exist partly in the liquid state and partly in gaseous state and
under pressure as long as any liquid remains in the container. The
pressure basically depends on the temperature of the liquid although
the amount of liquid also affects the pressure under some condition. A
liquefied gas exhibits a more complicated behavior as the result of
CLASSIFICATIONS OF GASES
2. ACCORDING TO PHYSICAL
PROPERTIES
c. Cryogenic Gas- a liquefied gas which exists in its container
at temperature far below normal atmospheric temperature,
usually slightly above its boiling point and correspondingly low
t d t
CLASSIFICATIONS OF GASES
3. ACCORDING TO USAGE
a. Fuel Gases - flammable gases usually used for burning with air to
produce heat, utilize as power, light, comfort, and process. Most
commonly used gases are natural gas and the LPG (butane and
)
b. Industrial Gases - This group includes a large number of gases used
for industrial processes as those in welding and cutting (oxygen,
acetylene); refrigeration (freon, ammonia, sulfur dioxide); chemical
processing (hydrogen, nitrogen, ammonia, chlorine); water treatment
( hl i fl i )
c. Medical Gases - those used for treatment such as anesthesia
(chloroform, nitrous oxide); respiratory therapy (oxygen).
Burning of
Gaseous Fuels
Gaseous fuels already in the are
required Vapor State. Only the
proper intermixed with oxygen
and sufficient heat is needed for
ignition. Gases like flammable
liquids, always produce a visible
flame, they do not smolder.
CHEMICAL FUELS
Chemical fuels, which are produced in solid and liquid form,
create great amounts of heat and power. They are used chiefly
in rocket engines. Chemical rocket propellants consist of both a
fuel and an oxidizer. A common rocket fuel is the chemical
hydrazine. The oxidizer is a substance, such as nitrogen
tetroxide, that contains oxygen. When the propellant is ignited,
the oxidizer provides the oxygen the fuel needs to burn.
Chemical f els are also sed in some racing cars
NUCLEAR FUELS
Nuclear fuels provide energy through the fission or fusion of their
atoms. Uranium is the most commonly used nuclear fuel, though
plutonium also provides nuclear energy. When the atoms of these
elements undergo fission, they release tremendous amounts of heat.
Nuclear fuels are used mainly to generate electricity. They also power
some submarines and ships. Nuclear energy can also be produced
th h th f i fh d t
Nuclear Fission - split of the nucleus
of atoms
Nuclear Fusion combination of two
light nuclei of atom
CHAPTER 1V
THE HEAT elements
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heat
HEAT
It is the energy possessed by
a material or substance due to
molecular activity..
In physics, heat is the transfer of energy from one part of a
substance to another or from one body to another by virtue of a
difference in temperature. Heat is energy in transit; it always flows from
substance at higher temperature to the substance at a lower
temperature, raising the temperature of the latter and lowering that of
the former substance, provided the volume of the bodies remains
constant. Heat does not flow from lower to a higher temperature unless
another form of energy transfer work is always present
HEAT
The study of energy is rooted
in the subject of
thermodynamics, a very logical
science that carefully defines
energy, heat, temperature and
other properties.
Heat is thermal energy in motion that
travels from a hot to a cold region.
Thermal energy is a property of matter
directly associated with the concept of
temperature.
SPECIFIC HEAT
The heat capacity or the
measure of the amount of heat
required raising the temperature
of a unit mass of a substance
one-degree. If the heating
process occurs while the
substance is maintained at a
constant volume or is subjected
to a constant pressure the
measure is referred to as a
specific heat at constant volume
LATENT HEAT
A number of physical changes
are associated with the change
of temperature of a substance.
Almost all substances expand in
volume when heated and
contract when cooled. The
amount of heat to produce a
change phase is called LATENT
HEAT, and hence, latent heats of
sublimation, melting and
vaporization exist
TEMPERATURE SCALES
1. Celsius - it has a freezing point of 0°C and a boiling point of
100°C. It is widely used through out the world, particularly for
scientific works
2. Fahrenheit - it is used mostly in English speaking countries for
purposes other than scientific works and based on the mercury
thermometer. In this scale, the freezing point of water is 32°F and
the boiling point is 212 °F
3. Kelvin or Absolute - it is the most commonly used
thermodynamic temperature scale. Zero is defined as absolute zero
of temperature that is, 273.15 °c, or-459.67 °F.
TEMPERATURE SCALES
4. Rankine is another temperature scale employing absolute zero
as its lowest point in which each degree of temperature is
equivalent to one degree on the Fahrenheit scale. The freezing
point of water under this scale is 492 'R and the boiling point is
672 °R
5. International Temperature Scale - In 1933, scientist of 31
nations adopted a new international temperature scale with
additional fixed temperature points, based on the Kelvin scale
and thermodynamic principles. The international scale is based
on the property of electrical resistively, with platinum wire as the
standard for temperature between -190° and 660°C.
HEAT PRODUCTION
There are five ways to produce
heat:
1. Chemical - chemically produced heat is the result of rapid oxidation.
2. Mechanical - mechanical heat is the product of friction. The rubbing of two
sticks together to generate enough heat is an example.
3. Electrical - electrical heat is the product of arcing, shorting or other
electrical malfunction. Poor wire connections, too much resistance, a loose
ground, and too much current flowing through an improperly sized wire are
other sources of electrical heat
4. Compressed gas - when a gas is compressed, its molecular activity is
greatly increased producing heat.
5. Nuclear - Nuclear energy is the product of the splitting or fusing of atomic
particles (Fission or fusion respectively). The tremendous heat energy in a
nuclear power plant produces steam to turn steam turbines.
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heat transfer
HEAT TRANSFER
The transfer of heat is a major factor in fires and has an effect on ignition,
growth, spread, decay and extinction. Heat transfer is also responsible for
much of the physical evidence used by investigators in attempting to
establish the origin of fire and its cause. Heat transfer is accompanied by
three mechanisms: conduction, convection and radiation. All three play a
role in the investigation of fire, and the understanding of each is
THREE WAYS TO TRANSFER HEAT
It is a form of heat
1 Example, if you touch a
hot stove, the pain you
transfer that takes place
CONDUCTION
THREE WAYS TO TRANSFER HEAT
2 It is the transfer of heat
Is the transfer of heat through a circulating
energy by the movement
CONVECTION
THREE WAYS TO TRANSFER HEAT
Radiated heat moves in wave
Is the transfer of heat
3 and rays much like sunlight.
Radiated heat travels the speed,
energy from hot to cooler as does visible light: 186,000
miles per second. It is primarily
responsible for the exposure
hazards that develop and exist
RADIATION during a fire. Heat waves travel in
a direct or straight line from their
source until they strike an object.
The heat that collects on the
surface of the object or building in
the path of the heat waves is
subsequently absorbed into its
mass through conduction.
HEAT TRANSFER
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oxygen
OXYGEN (Oxidizing Agent)
Oxygen as defined earlier is a colorless, odorless, tasteless, gaseous
chemical element, the most abundant of all elements: it occurs free in
the atmosphere, forming one fifth of its volume, and in combination in
water, sandstone, limestone, etc.; it is very active, being able to
combine with nearly all other elements, and is essential to life
processes and to combustion
The common oxidizing agent is oxygen present in air. Air composes
21% oxygen, 78% nitrogen, and 1% inert gas (principally Argon).
Take Note: 21% normal oxygen is needed to produce fire in the
presence of fuel and heat. 12% oxygen is insufficient to can support
flash point, and 16-21% oxygen can support produce fire, 14-15%
oxygen fire point.
OXYGEN (Oxidizing Agent)
That’s all !
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