Module 3

PN junctions : Contact potential, Electrical Field, Potential and Charge

distribution at the junction, Biasing and Energy band diagrams, Ideal diode
equation. Metal Semiconductor contacts, Electron affinity and work function,
Ohmic and Rectifying Contacts, current voltage characteristics. Bipolar junction
transistor, current components, Transistor action, Base width modulation
 PN Junctions (Diodes)
Holes Free electrons
p-type n-type
+ – + – + – + – – + – + – + – +
– + – + – + – + + – + – + – + –
+ – + – + – + – – + – + – + – +
– + – + – + – + + – + – + – + –
+ – + – + – + – – + – + – + – +
– + – + – + – + + – + – + – + –

Acceptor negative ION Doner positive ION

P Type : Doped with NA N Type : Doped with ND Donor

acceptor Atoms Atoms

Number of Holes pp0 = NA Number of Electrons nno= ND

𝒏𝒊 𝟐 𝒏𝒊 𝟐
Number of Electrons npo = Number of Holes pn0 =
NA N𝑫
➢ Upon joining the two regions diffusion of carriers to take place because of the large
carrier concentration gradients at the junction.

➢ Thus holes diffuse from the p side into the n side, and electrons diffuse from n to p.

➢ This diffusion of charge carries leaves a region of uncompensated negative ions on

the P side and positive ions on the N side.

➢ An opposing electric field to this diffusion is created at the junction.

➢ This electric field creates a drift current, where electrons that are minority carriers on
the on the p side drift into the n side, and holes drift from n to p side.

➢ Equilibrium is reached, Diffusion current is balances with Drift current resulting in

no net flow.
 Depletion Region
diffusion drift
current (IDiff) current (IDrift)

p-type – – – + ++ n-type
+ – + – + – + – – + – + – + – +
– + – + – + – + + – + – + – + –
+ – + – + – + – – + – + – + – +
– + – + – + – + + – + – + – + –
+ – + – + – + – – + – + – + – +
– + – + – + – + + – + – + – + –

Electric Field

V0 Built in Voltage
 diffusion drift
current (IDiff) current (IDrift)

➢ This region of immobile charge is called Depletion region or space charge region.

➢ The potential appearing across the two ends of the depletion layer at equilibrium is called
Built in potential or Barrier potential or Contact potential or Diffusion potential
 Properties of an equilibrium p-n junction:

➢ The contact potential(Vo) separates the bands in

the valence and conduction energy bands are
higher on the p side of the junction than on the n
side6 by the amount qV0
Directions of the four components of
particle flow within the transition region,
and the resulting Current directions.

IDiff = IDrift
PN Junction @ Equilibrium
 Built in Potential
➢ The drift and diffusion components of the hole current just cancel at equilibrium:

Eqn 1

➢ Rearrange Eqn 1
Eqn 2

where the x-direction is arbitrarily taken from p to n.

➢ The electric field can be written in terms of the gradient in the potential,

➢ The Einstein relation

Substitute these relationship in above equation 2

 Eqn 2 becomes

➢ The above equation can be solved by integration over the appropriate limits.

➢ In this case we are interested in the potential on either side of the junction, 𝒱p and 𝒱n, and the
hole concentration just at the edge of the transition region on either side, pp and pn.

Eqn 3
 ➢ The potential difference 𝒱n - 𝒱p is the contact potential V0

➢ Eqn 3 can be written as

➢ If we consider the step junction to be made up of material with Na acceptors/cm3 on the p

side and a concentration of Nd donors on the n side,

➢ Another useful form

➢ By using the equilibrium condition ppnp = ni 2= pnnn,

Example: An abrupt Si p-n junction has Na = 1018 cm-3 on one side and Nd = 5 * 1015 cm-3
on the other.
(a) Calculate the Fermi level positions at 300 K in the p and n regions.

(b) Draw an equilibrium band diagram for the junction and determine the contact
potential V0 from the diagram.
(c) Compare the results of part (b) with V0 as calculated from Equation
 ➢ Built in Potential increases with doping for given material under given temperature.

➢ Built in Potential increases with increase in Band gap for given doping under given
temperature (ni decreases with increase in band gap).

➢ ni increases with increase in temperature so Built in Potential decreases with increase in

temperature

➢ Built in Potential in terms of energy levels

qV0 = ECp -ECn = Eip -Ein

= EVp -EVn =EFp -EFn
 Space Charge at a Junction

The transition region, with x = 0 defined at

the metallurgical junction;

xp0 is the penetration of the space charge region into

the p material, and xn0 is the penetration into n.

Charge density within the transition region,

neglecting the free carriers;

The assumption of carrier depletion within W and neutrality outside W is known as the depletion approximation.
➢ Since the dipole about the junction must have an equal number of charges on either
side the transition region may extend into the p and n regions unequally, depending on
the relative doping of the two sides.

➢ Suppose If the p side is more lightly doped than the n side (Na < Nd), the space charge
region must extend farther into the p material than into the n, to “uncover” an
equivalent amount of charge.

➢ For a sample of cross-sectional area A, the total uncompensated charge on either side
of the junction is
 Built in Electric Field
➢ To calculate the electric field distribution within the
transition region, we begin with Poisson’s equation.

➢ Poisson’s equation relates the gradient of the electric

field to the local space charge at any point x:

➢ if we neglect the contribution of the carriers (p-n)

to the space charge in transition region

Eqn 1

Eqn 2
The electric field distribution, where the reference
direction for ℰ is arbitrarily taken as the +x direction.
➢ The plot of ℰ(x) vs x within the transition region has two slopes, positive on the n side and
negative on the p side(from the equations).

➢ There is a maximum value of the field ℰ0 at x = 0.(All the electric flux lines pass through
the x = 0 plane, so this is the obvious point of maximum electric field.)

➢ ℰ(x) is everywhere negative within the transition region.

➢ The electric field is assumed to go to zero at the edges of the transition region, since we are
neglecting any small ℰ field in the neutral n or p regions.
 The value of maximum Electric field ℰ0
From Poisson’s equation we have

Integrating either part with suitable limits

Therefore, the maximum value of the electric field is

 Width of the Depletion region
➢ It is simple to relate the electric field to the contact potential V0, since the ℰ field at any x is
the negative of the potential gradient at that point:

Area under

➢ This relates the contact potential to the width of the depletion region:

Eqn 3
➢ The balance of charge requirement xp0/xn0= Nd/Na

➢ Width of the Depletion region W= = xn0 ( 1 + xp0/xn0)

W = xn0 ( 1 + Nd/Na)) Eqn 4 Similarly

➢ Sub Eqn 4 in Eqn 3

➢ By solving for W, we have an expression for the width of the transition region
 Forward- and Reverse-Biased Junctions; Steady State Conditions

(a) Open-circuit: voltage drop across depletion region = V0 ,

IDiff = Idrift or ID = IS (Saturation Current)

(b) Reverse bias: voltage drop across depletion region = V0 +VR,

IDiff < IDrift
(c) Forward bias: voltage drop across depletion region = V0 -VF,
IDiff > IDrift
Under equilibrium

Forward Biased

Reverse Biased
 Forward Biased Reverse Biased
Under equilibrium
Under equilibrium Forward Biased Reverse Biased

IDiff = IDrift IDiff > IDrift IDiff < IDrift

 Qualitative Description of Current Flow at a Junction

➢ For almost all calculations it is valid to assume that an applied voltage appears entirely across
the transition region.

➢ The resistance is small in each neutral region, and only a small voltage drop can be maintained
outside the space charge (transition) region.
➢ An applied voltage changes the following parameters for open circuited pn junction

1. Electrostatic potential barrier at the junction:

➢ Forward biased: is lowered by a forward bias (Vf )from the equilibrium contact potential V0 to
the smaller value V0 - Vf .

➢ Reverse bias (V = -Vr) the potential barrier at the junction becomes larger (V0 + Vr)
2. Electric field within the transition region can be deduced from the potential barrier.

➢ The field decreases with forward bias, since the applied electric field opposes the built-in field.

➢ With reverse bias the field at the junction is increased by the applied field, which is in the same
direction as the equilibrium field

3. Transition region width W:

➢ Change in electric field at the junction calls for a change in the transition region width W.

➢ The width W to decrease under forward bias (smaller ℰ, fewer uncompensated charges) and to
increase under reverse bias.
4. Separation of the energy bands is a direct function of the electrostatic potential barrier at the junction

➢ Bands are separated less [q(V0 - Vf)] under forward bias than at equilibrium, and more [q(V0 + Vr)]
under reverse bias.

➢ Under forward bias, the Fermi level on the n side EFn is above EFp by the energy qVf ;

➢ For reverse bias, EFp is qVr joules higher than Efn.

5. Diffusion current

➢ With forward bias, however, the barrier is lowered (to V0 - Vf ), and many more electrons in the n-side
conduction band have sufficient energy to diffuse from n to p over the smaller barrier.

➢ Therefore, the electron diffusion current can be quite large with forward bias.

➢ Similarly, more holes can diffuse from p to n under forward bias because of the lowered barrier.
➢ For reverse bias the barrier becomes so large (V0 + Vr) that virtually no electrons in the n-side
conduction band or holes in the p-side valence band have enough energy to surmount it.

➢ Therefore, the diffusion current is usually negligible for reverse bias.

6. Drift current is relatively insensitive to the height of the potential barrier.

➢ The reason for this apparent anomaly is the fact that the drift current is limited not by how fast
carriers are swept down the barrier, but rather how often.

➢ The current is small, because there are very few minority electrons in both sides to participate.
I–V characteristic of a p-n junction.
 Ideal Diode Current Equation

Assumptions
1. Diode is a Long diode
2. Abrupt junction.
3. Low level injection of excess carriers.
4. No generation and recombination in depletion region.
5. Diode is in steady state.
Carrier Injection
➢ The minority carrier concentration on each side of a p-n junction is varied with the applied
bias due to variations in the diffusion of carriers across the junction.

➢ The equilibrium ratio of hole concentrations on each side

Eqn 1
➢ With the applied bias(V) the equilibrium ratio of hole concentrations on each side becomes
(Hole concentration at –xp0)
Nd>Na majority carrier on p side
Eqn 2

(Hole concentration at xn0)

minority carrier on n side
➢ For low-level injection we can neglect changes in the majority carrier concentrations(pp)

➢ Now divide Eqn 1 by Eqn 2 we get and using above relation we get

Eqn 3

➢ With forward biased there is a great increase in minority carrier hole concentration at the edge
of the transition region on the n side p(xn0)
➢ The exponential increase of the hole concentration at xn0 with forward bias is an example of
minority carrier injection.
xp xn

➢ Distances measured in the x-direction in the n material from xn0 will be designated xn; distances
in the p material measured in the –x-direction with -xp0 as the origin will be called xp.
 ➢ Excess minority carrier (holes) created in N side due to diffusion
p(xn0) – pn Eqn 4

➢ Excess minority carrier (electrons) created in P side due to diffusion

n(-xp0) – np Eqn 5

➢ When we solve the diffusion equation for the distributions of excess carriers assuming
long p and n regions: *Refer module 2 for derivations
Eqn 6
Excess carriers on p region

Excess carriers on n region Eqn 7

➢ The hole diffusion current at any point xn in the n material

Eqn 7

Substitute equation 6

Eqn 8

➢ Thus the hole diffusion current at each position xn is proportional to the excess hole
concentration at that point.
➢ The total hole current injected into the n material at the junction
Substitute xn =0 in equation 8

Eqn 9

➢ By a similar analysis, the injection of electrons into the p material leads to an electron current at
the junction of

Eqn 10

➢ The minus sign means that the electron current is opposite to the xp-direction; that is,
the true direction of In is in the +x direction, adding to Ip in the total current
➢ If we neglect recombination in the transition region then the total current I in the +x direction

(Current is taken in +x direction and

xp is in –x direction)

the reverse saturation current diode equation

➢ Add the hole current injected into the n material Ip(xn = 0) to the electron current injected
into the p material Ip(xp = 0), after including a minus sign with In(xp) to conform with the
conventional definition of positive current in the +x direction
 ➢ We can calculate the current for reverse bias by letting V = -Vr

The current equation becomes

➢ If Vr is larger than a few kT/q, the total current is just the reverse saturation current
Variation of the quasi- Fermi levels with position for forward biased.

➢ The equilibrium EF is split

into the quasi- Fermi levels
Fn and Fp which are
separated within W by an
energy qV caused by the
applied bias, V.

➢ On either side of the

junction, it is the minority
carrier quasi-Fermi level that
varies the most.
Electron and hole components of current in a forward-biased p-n junction

➢ Calculation of the
majority carrier
currents in the two
neutral regions, the
majority carrier
component of
current at any point
is just the difference
between I and the
minority
component.
➢ Near the junction (just outside of the depletion regions) the majority carrier concentration
changes by exactly the same amount as minority carriers in order to maintain space charge
neutrality.

➢ Very far away from the junction (more than 3 to 5 diffusion lengths), the minority carrier
concentration decays to a low, constant background value and the only possible current
component is majority carrier drift current.

➢ When approaching the junction there is a spatially varying majority (and minority) carrier
concentration and the majority carrier current changes from pure drift to drift and diffusion,
although drift always dominates for majority carriers except in cases of very high levels of
injection
Solution
 Metal Semiconductor Junction
➢ A junction between metal and semiconductor may behave like rectifying contact or Ohmic
contact.

➢ The rectifying metal semiconductor contact conduct only in one direction and act like a
diode, its called Schottky Diode

➢ Ohmic contact of Metal semiconductor junction conduct well in both direct and it obey
Ohms law
 Energy Band diagram of Metal
Vacuum Level

qϕm

EFm

➢ Energy band diagram of metal is drawn with respect to vacuum level.

➢ Characteristics of metal is represent using Work function qϕm
➢ Work function is the energy difference between vacuum level and Fermi level
➢ Vacuum level is reference energy level for all materials and its is constant .
➢ Electron affinity is measured from the vacuum level to the semiconductor conduction band edge.
➢ The behavior of an ideal metal semiconductor contact depends on the relative value of work
function of metal (ϕm) and semiconductor (ϕsc).

➢ When a metal with work function ϕm is brought in contact with a semiconductor having
a work function ϕs, charge transfer occurs until the Fermi levels align at equilibrium
 Schottky contact or rectifying contact
1. Metal n-type semiconductor contact ϕm>ϕs

Band diagrams for the metal and the Equilibrium band

semiconductor before joining diagram for the junction.
➢ To align the two Fermi levels, the electrons from semiconductor in conduction band will
start diffusing to metal side since n side electrons have higher electron energy than
electrons in the metal side.

➢ In the n-type semiconductor a depletion region W is formed near the junction by

uncompensated positive ions..

➢ The positive charge due to uncompensated donor ions within W matches the negative
charge on the metal creating electric field from n side to metal side.

➢ The electric field bends the bands within W.

➢ The equilibrium contact potential V0, which prevents further net electron diffusion from
the semiconductor conduction band into the metal

V0 =
➢ The potential barrier height ΦB for electron injection from the metal into the semiconductor
conduction band is Φm- , where q (called the electron affinity) is measured from the
vacuum level to the semiconductor conduction band edge.

ΦB = Φm-

➢ The equilibrium potential difference V0 can be decreased or increased by the application of

either forward- or reverse-bias voltage, as in the p-n junction.
2. Metal p-type semiconductor contact ϕm< ϕsc

Band diagrams for the metal and the Equilibrium band

semiconductor before joining diagram for the junction.
 Ohmic metal–semiconductor contacts:
1. n-type semiconductor metal contact ϕm> ϕs
P-type semiconductor
➢ Ideal metal–semiconductor contacts are ohmic when the charge induced in the
semiconductor in aligning the Fermi levels is provided by majority carriers.

➢ In the Φm < Φs (n-type) case, the Fermi levels are aligned at equilibrium by transferring
electrons from the metal to the semiconductor.

➢ This raises the semiconductor electron energies relative to the metal at equilibrium.

➢ In this case the barrier to electron flow between the metal and the semiconductor is small
and easily overcome by a small voltage.

➢ Similarly, the case Φm > Φs (p-type) results in easy hole flow across the junction.

➢ Unlike the rectifying contacts discussed previously, no depletion region occurs in the
semiconductor in these cases since the electrostatic potential difference required to align
the Fermi levels at equilibrium calls for accumulation of majority carriers in the
semiconductor.
 Current voltage characteristics.

➢ When a forward-bias voltage V is applied to the Schottky barrier in metal ntype

semiconductor junction, the contact potential is reduced from V0 to V0 – V.

➢ As a result, electrons in the semiconductor conduction band can diffuse across the depletion
region to the metal.

➢ This gives rise to a forward current (metal to semiconductor) through the junction.

➢ Conversely, a reverse bias increases the barrier to V0 + Vr, and electron flow from
semiconductor to metal becomes negligible.

➢ In either case flow of electrons from the metal to the semiconductor is retarded by the
barrier Φm -
➢ The resulting diode equation is similar in form to that of the p-n junction

➢ The reverse saturation current should depend upon the size of the barrier for electron injection
from the metal into the semiconductor. This barrier is unaffected by the bias voltage.

➢ We expect the probability of an electron in the metal surmounting this barrier to be given by a
Boltzmann factor.