Oromia Police College

Department of Information Technology Hardware and Network Servicing level III Network
Problems Module code:

Unit of Competence: Identifying and Resolve EIS HNS3 M05 1123

Nominal duration: 90Hour

 By: Group 5
April, 4,2017
Adama

Questions and Discussion

Here Are The Answers:-

1. What is the main function of a switch in a network?

The main function of a switch in a network is to efficiently forward data packets between
devices within the same local area network (LAN). Unlike a hub (which broadcasts data to all
devices), a switch intelligently directs traffic only to the intended recipient, improving
performance and security.

Key Functions of a Network Switch:

1. Packet Switching (Frame Forwarding)

o A switch examines the MAC address of incoming data frames and forwards them
only to the correct destination device, reducing unnecessary network traffic.
2. MAC Address Learning
o Switches build and maintain a MAC address table (CAM table) that maps
devices to their respective ports for faster and more accurate forwarding.
3. Collision Domain Reduction
4.
o Each port on a switch operates in its own collision domain, preventing packet
collisions (unlike hubs, which share a single collision domain).
5. Full-Duplex Communication
o Switches allow devices to send and receive data simultaneously (full-duplex
mode), doubling effective bandwidth compared to half-duplex hubs.
6. VLAN Support (Advanced Switches)
o Managed switches can segment networks into Virtual LANs (VLANs),
improving security and traffic management.
7. Quality of Service (QoS) Prioritization
o Some switches prioritize critical traffic (e.g., VoIP, video streaming) to ensure
smooth performance.

Switch vs. Router vs. Hub

Operates at (OSI
Device Function Traffic Handling
Layer)
Broadcasts data to
Hub Layer 1 (Physical) Dumb, inefficient
all ports
Forwards data based
Switch Layer 2 (Data Link) Smart, efficient
on MAC addresses
Routes data between
Router Layer 3 (Network) Uses IP addresses
different networks

2. How does a router differ from a modem?

Key Differences Between a Router and a Modem
While both routers and modems are essential for internet connectivity, they serve very
different purposes in a network.

Feature Modem Router

Converts signals between
Routes traffic between
your ISP and your home
Primary Function devices on your local
network (e.g., DSL, cable,
network and the internet.
fiber to Ethernet).
Works at Layer 1 Operates at Layer 3
OSI Layer (Physical) and Layer 2 (Network) (uses IP
(Data Link). addresses).
Connects directly to Connects to the modem and
your Internet Service distributes internet to
Connection Type
Provider (ISP) via coaxial, multiple devices (via
DSL, or fiber. Ethernet or Wi-Fi).
Assigns private IPs (e.g.,
Gets a single public
IP Address Handling 192.168.1.x) to devices via
IP from the ISP.
DHCP.
Can prioritize traffic (QoS),
Network Traffic Control Does not manage traffic. run firewalls, and support
VPNs.
Typically no Wi-Fi (unless Often includes Wi-Fi
Wi-Fi Capability
it's a modem-router combo). access point functionality.
Includes NAT, firewall, and
Security Features Minimal (no firewall).
sometimes VPN support.
Detailed Comparison

1. Function
 Modem (Modulator-Demodulator)
o Converts analog signals (from cable/DSL/fiber) into digital data (Ethernet) and
vice versa.

o Example: A cable modem translates signals from your ISP into a format your
router can use.

 Router
o Manages traffic between your local network (LAN) and the internet (WAN).

o Assigns local IPs, enables Wi-Fi, and provides security (firewall, NAT).

2. Connection Setup
 Modem → Connects directly to the ISP (via coaxial, DSL, or fiber).

 Router → Connects to the modem and distributes internet to multiple devices (PCs,
phones, smart devices).

3. Standalone vs. Combo Devices

 Modem-only (e.g., Arris Surfboard) → Requires a separate router.

 Router-only (e.g., TP-Link Archer) → Needs a modem to connect to the ISP.

 Gateway (Modem + Router Combo) (e.g., Xfinity Gateway) → Combines both in one
device (but may have limitations).

4. When Do You Need Each?

 You need a modem if you're connecting directly to an ISP (e.g., cable, DSL, fiber).

 You need a router if you want to share internet with multiple devices (Wi-Fi/Ethernet).

Real-World Example

 Without a modem, your router has no internet signal to distribute.

 Without a router, only one device can connect (via the modem’s single Ethernet port).

Many ISPs provide modem-router combo devices, but using separate units often gives better
performance and flexibility.
 3. What is the role of a firewall in network security?
The Role of a Firewall in Network Security
A firewall acts as a security barrier between trusted and untrusted networks (e.g.,
between a corporate LAN and the internet), controlling incoming and outgoing traffic
based on predefined rules. Its primary purpose is to block malicious traffic while
allowing legitimate communication.

Key Functions of a Firewall

1. Traffic Filtering
 Examines data packets and blocks or allows them based on:
o IP addresses (blacklist/whitelist)

o Port numbers (e.g., blocking port 23 to prevent Telnet attacks)

o Protocols (e.g., HTTP, FTP, SSH)

 Example: A firewall can block traffic from known malicious IPs.

2. Prevents Unauthorized Access

 Acts as a gatekeeper, stopping hackers, malware, and cyberattacks (e.g., DDoS,
ransomware) from entering the network.

 Example: Blocks brute-force login attempts on an office network.

3. Network Address Translation (NAT)

 Many firewalls perform NAT, hiding internal IP addresses from the public internet to
enhance security.

 Example: A home router’s firewall allows multiple devices to share one public IP.

4. Application-Level Security (Next-Gen Firewalls)

 Advanced firewalls inspect application-layer traffic (e.g., blocking malicious websites
or restricting social media access).

 Example: A corporate firewall blocks access to unauthorized cloud storage sites.

5. VPN Support
 Some firewalls include VPN (Virtual Private Network) capabilities for secure remote
access.

 Example: Employees connect to the company network securely via a firewall-protected

VPN.
6. Logging & Monitoring
 Keeps records of traffic patterns, helping detect and analyze security threats.

 Example: IT teams review firewall logs to identify suspicious activity.

Types of Firewalls

Type Description Use Case Type

Packet-Filtering Checks packet Packet-Filtering
Basic home routers
Firewall headers (IP, port) Firewall
Tracks active
Stateful Inspection Stateful Inspection
connections for Enterprise networks
Firewall Firewall
better security
Acts as an
Web application
Proxy Firewall intermediary for Proxy Firewall
security
requests
Deep packet
Next-Generation Advanced enterprise Next-Generation
inspection + AI
Firewall (NGFW) security Firewall (NGFW)
threat detection

Firewall vs. Antivirus

 Firewall → Blocks external threats before they enter the network.

 Antivirus → Detects and removes malware already inside a device.

Why Firewalls Are Essential

 Protects sensitive data (financial records, customer info).

 Ensures compliance (e.g., HIPAA, GDPR).
 Reduces attack surface by blocking unnecessary ports/services.

4. Why do we use a gateway in networking?

Why Do We Use a Gateway in Networking?
A gateway is a critical networking device (or software) that connects different
networks with incompatible protocols or architectures, enabling seamless
communication. Unlike routers (which route traffic within similar networks),
gateways translate protocols, convert data formats, and bridge entirely different
systems.

Key Reasons We Use Gateways

1. Connects Dissimilar Networks

 Allows communication between networks that use different protocols, addressing
schemes, or technologies.

 Examples:
 o LAN ↔ Internet (WAN) (e.g., your home router acts as a gateway).

o IPv4 ↔ IPv6 (a gateway translates between the two).

o Email systems (Microsoft Exchange ↔ SMTP).

2. Protocol Translation
 Converts data from one protocol to another so different systems can interact.

 Example:
o A VoIP gateway converts analog phone signals to digital (SIP) for internet calls.

o A cloud gateway lets IoT devices (using Zigbee/MQTT) communicate with cloud
servers (HTTP/HTTPS).

3. Security & Access Control

 Acts as a security checkpoint, enforcing firewalls, VPNs, and encryption.

 Example:

o A corporate gateway filters malicious traffic before it enters the internal
network.

o A payment gateway secures online transactions between merchants and banks.

4. Network Address Translation (NAT)

 Many gateways perform NAT, allowing multiple devices to share a single public IP.

 Example:
o Your home router (gateway) assigns private IPs (e.g., 192.168.1.x) but uses one
public IP for all internet traffic.

5. Traffic Routing & Optimization

 Determines the best path for data between networks (like a router but with added
intelligence).

 Example:

o An API gateway routes requests between microservices in a cloud environment.

6. Legacy System Integration

 Enables older systems to work with modern networks.

 Example:
 o A mainframe gateway lets a legacy banking system interact with modern web
apps.

 Gateway vs. Router vs. Modem

Device Primary Role Key Difference

Converts ISP signals No routing, just signal
Modem
(DSL/cable/fiber) to digital translation
Routes traffic within similar
Uses IP addresses, no
Router networks (e.g., LAN to
protocol conversion
WAN)
Bridges entirely different
Can include router/modem
Gateway networks (protocol
functions
translation)

Real-World Gateway Examples

 Default Gateway → Your home router (connects LAN to the internet).

 Cloud Gateway → AWS Storage Gateway (links on-premise data to cloud).
 Payment Gateway → PayPal (secures online transactions).
 IoT Gateway → Aggregates sensor data (e.g., Zigbee to Wi-Fi).

5. What are the advantages of using a switch over a hub?

Advantages of Using a Switch Over a Hub
Switches have largely replaced hubs in modern networks due to their superior
performance, security, and efficiency. Here’s why switches are the better choice:

1. Intelligent Traffic Handling (Unicast Communication)

 Hub: Broadcasts data to all connected devices, causing unnecessary traffic.

 Switch: Forwards data only to the intended recipient (using MAC addresses), reducing
congestion.
o Example: In an office, a switch prevents your printer traffic from reaching
unrelated computers.

2. Higher Network Performance (Full-Duplex Mode)

 Hub: Operates in half-duplex (devices can’t send & receive simultaneously).

 Switch: Supports full-duplex, doubling bandwidth (e.g., 100 Mbps → effectively 200
Mbps).
o Example: Video calls and large file transfers happen smoothly without collisions.

3. Reduced Collisions (Separate Collision Domains)

 Hub: All devices share one collision domain (data collisions slow the network).
 Switch: Each port has its own collision domain, eliminating collisions.
 o Example: In a busy café Wi-Fi, switches prevent slowdowns caused by multiple
devices talking at once.

4. Improved Security

 Hub: Broadcasts data everywhere, making eavesdropping easy.

 Switch: Sends data only to the target device, preventing sniffing attacks.
o Example: A hacker can’t intercept your banking data if the network uses a switch.

5. Better Scalability

 Hub: Performance degrades as more devices connect.

 Switch: Handles hundreds of devices efficiently (ideal for large networks).

o Example: Data centers rely on switches to manage thousands of servers.

6. VLAN Support (Advanced Switches)

 Hub: Cannot segment networks.

 Switch: Supports VLANs (Virtual LANs), isolating traffic for security/performance.
o Example: A hospital separates guest Wi-Fi traffic from critical patient data
systems.

7. Energy Efficiency (Green Ethernet)

 Modern switches power down unused ports, saving energy (unlike always-on hubs).

Comparison Table: Switch vs. Hub

Feature Hub Switch

Traffic Handling Broadcasts to all Sends to target only
Duplex Mode Half-duplex Full-duplex
Collision Domains Single (shared) Per-port (isolated)
Security Low (sniffable) High (MAC-based filtering)
Performance Impact Slows with more devices Stays fast
VLAN Support No Yes (managed switches)

When Would You Still Use a Hub?

Hubs are rarely used today, but may appear in:

 Legacy systems (old industrial networks).

 Low-cost setups where simplicity > performance (e.g., a tiny home lab).

6. What is NAT (Network Address Translation), and which device typically handles it?
 What is NAT (Network Address Translation)?
NAT (Network Address Translation) is a networking technique that maps private IP
addresses (used within a local network) to a public IP address (used on the internet).
This allows multiple devices in a private network (e.g., home or office) to share a single
public IP when accessing the internet.

Why is NAT Used?

1. Saves IPv4 Addresses

o The internet has a limited number of IPv4 addresses. NAT lets many devices use
one public IP.

o Example: Your home router assigns private IPs (like 192.168.1.10) but uses
just one public IP from your ISP.

2. Enhances Security
o Hides internal devices behind the router’s public IP, making them harder to target
directly.

3. Simplifies Network Management

o Allows ISPs to assign fewer public IPs while supporting many customers.

How NAT Works

1. A device (e.g., your laptop) sends a request to a website.

2. The router (NAT device) replaces the private source IP (192.168.1.10) with its public IP
(e.g., 203.0.113.5).
3. The website replies to the public IP.
4. The router forwards the response back to the correct private device using a NAT
translation table.

Types of NAT

Type Description Use Case

1-to-1 permanent mapping Hosting a server (e.g., web,
Static NAT
(private IP ↔ public IP) email)
Temporary mapping from a
Dynamic NAT Offices with many users
pool of public IPs
Maps multiple private IPs
PAT (Port Address Home routers (default
to one public IP + unique
Translation) setup)
ports (most common)

Which Device Handles NAT?

 Primary Device: Router (home, office, or enterprise).

 o Example: Your Wi-Fi router performs NAT to let phones, laptops, and smart TVs
share one internet connection.
 Other Devices:
o Firewalls (often include NAT functionality).
o Some advanced switches (Layer 3 switches).

Key Benefits of NAT

✔ Cost-effective (reduces need for extra public IPs).

✔ Security (shields internal devices from direct exposure).
✔ IPv4 Preservation (delays the need for full IPv6 adoption).

Limitations of NAT

❌ Breaks End-to-End Connectivity (can complicate peer-to-peer apps like VoIP or gaming).
❌ Performance Overhead (large-scale NAT can slow traffic).

Example Scenario

 Without NAT: If every device in your home needed a unique public IP, ISPs would run
out of IPv4 addresses quickly.
 With NAT: Your router assigns 192.168.1.x internally but uses just one public IP for all
outbound internet traffic.

7. How does a Network Attached Storage (NAS) benefit an organization?

How a Network Attached Storage (NAS) Benefits an Organization
A Network Attached Storage (NAS) device is a dedicated file storage system connected
to a network, enabling multiple users and devices to access, share, and back up data
efficiently. Here’s how it benefits organizations:

1. Centralized Storage & Easy File Sharing

 Single Source of Truth: Stores all critical files (documents, media, databases) in one
place, eliminating scattered data.
 Cross-Platform Access: Employees (Windows, Mac, Linux) and devices (PCs,
smartphones) can access files seamlessly.
 Example: Marketing teams collaborate on shared project folders without emailing large
files.

2. Improved Data Security & Redundancy

  RAID Support: Protects against drive failures (e.g., RAID 1 mirrors data; RAID 5
allows single-drive recovery).
 Automated Backups: Scheduled backups to NAS prevent data loss from ransomware or
accidental deletion.
 Access Controls: User/group permissions restrict sensitive data (e.g., HR files accessible
only to authorized staff)

3. Cost-Effective Scalability

 Cheaper Than Cloud for Large Data: No recurring subscription fees; expand storage
by adding drives.
 Pay-as-You-Grow: Start with a small NAS and upgrade as needed (unlike expensive
enterprise SANs).

4. High Availability & Disaster Recovery

 Failover Support: Some NAS systems offer dual power supplies/network ports for
uptime.
 Remote Replication: Syncs data to an offsite NAS or cloud for disaster recovery.

5. Performance Optimization

 Faster Than Cloud: Local network access avoids internet latency (ideal for large
video/design files).
 SSD Caching: Accelerates frequently accessed data (e.g., databases).

treamlined Workflows

 Integrates with Apps: Supports virtualization (VM storage), email servers, and media
servers (Plex).
 Automation: Syncs with tools like Dropbox or scripts for repetitive tasks.

7. Compliance & Audit Readiness

 Versioning: Keeps file histories for regulatory compliance (e.g., HIPAA, GDPR).
 Activity Logs: Tracks who accessed/modified files for audits.

NAS vs. Alternatives

Solution Best For NAS Advantage

Local Hard Drives Single users Multi-user access, backups
Lower long-term cost, no
Cloud Storage Remote teams
bandwidth limits
Enterprise SAN Large-scale data Simplicity, affordability

Real-World Use Cases

  Small Business: A law firm stores case files securely with client-specific access controls.
 Creative Agency: 4K video editors work directly from the NAS to avoid local storage
limits.
 Healthcare Clinic: Patient records are backed up nightly with HIPAA-compliant
encryption.

Key Considerations When Choosing a NAS

 Drive Bays: More bays = more storage/RAID options (e.g., 2-bay for homes, 8-bay for
enterprises).
 CPU/RAM: Needed for heavy workloads (e.g., video transcoding).
 Software: Look for intuitive OS (Synology DSM, QNAP QTS) and app support.

8. How can a software-defined network (SDN) improve network management?

How Software-Defined Networking (SDN) Improves Network Management
Software-Defined Networking (SDN) decouples the control plane (decision-making)
from the data plane (packet forwarding), enabling centralized, programmable network
management. This architecture revolutionizes traditional networking by offering:

1. Centralized Network Control

 Dynamic Configuration: SDN controllers (e.g., OpenDaylight, Cisco ACI) manage all
devices from a single dashboard, eliminating manual CLI/device-by-device setups.
 Example: Instantly apply security policies across hundreds of switches via software.

2. Automation & Orchestration

 Reduces Human Errors: Automates VLAN provisioning, QoS policies, and firewall
rules.
 Self-Healing Networks: Detects failures (e.g., broken links) and reroutes traffic
automatically.

3. Improved Traffic Engineering

 Real-Time Load Balancing: SDN optimizes paths based on congestion, latency, or cost
(e.g., prioritizing VoIP traffic).

 Example: A data center SDN directs video streaming traffic to the least congested server.

4. Enhanced Security & Micro-Segmentation

 Zero Trust Enforcement: Isolates threats by dynamically segmenting networks (e.g.,

separating IoT devices from critical servers).
 Example: Instantly quarantine a compromised device via SDN policies.

5. Scalability & Flexibility

  Cloud Integration: SDN works seamlessly with hybrid/multi-cloud environments (e.g.,
AWS + on-premises).
 API-Driven: DevOps teams program networks using APIs (e.g., RESTful) for CI/CD
pipelines.

6. Cost & Resource Efficiency

 Reduces Hardware Dependency: Leverages commodity switches controlled by

software.
 Energy Savings: Powers down unused links during low traffic.

7. Better Visibility & Analytics

 Flow Monitoring: Tracks application performance, detects anomalies (e.g., DDoS

attacks).
 Predictive Maintenance: AI/ML analyzes traffic patterns to prevent bottlenecks.

SDN vs. Traditional Networking

Feature Traditional Network SDN

Control Distributed (per device) Centralized (controller)
Configuration Manual CLI Automated, API-driven
Traffic Management Static routes Dynamic, policy-based
Scalability Limited by hardware Software-defined, elastic

Real-World SDN Use Cases

 Data Centers: Google’s B4 SDN WAN reduces bandwidth costs by 30%.

 ISPs: AT&T uses SDN for 5G network slicing (customized virtual networks).
 Enterprises: Banks deploy SDN for secure, low-latency trading networks.

Challenges of SDN Adoption

⚠ Legacy Integration: Coexisting with traditional networks can be complex.

⚠ Security Risks: Centralized controllers are high-value attack targets.
⚠ Skill Gaps: Requires training in automation tools (Python, OpenFlow).

9. What are the different types of network topologies, and how do devices interact
within them?

Types of Network Topologies & Device Interactions

Network topology defines how devices (nodes) are interconnected and communicate.
Each type has unique advantages, limitations, and interaction patterns.
1. Bus Topology

Layout: All devices share a single communication line (backbone cable).

Device Interaction:

 Devices listen for data on the central cable.

 Broadcast-based: A signal sent by one device travels to all others but is accepted only
by the intended recipient.

 Collision-prone: Uses CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Detection)

to manage traffic.

Pros:
✔ Simple, low-cost setup.
✔ Easy to add new devices.

Cons:

❌ Single point of failure (backbone break disrupts the entire network).

❌ Performance degrades with heavy traffic.

Example: Early Ethernet networks (10Base2).

2. Star Topology

Layout: All devices connect to a central hub/switch.

Device Interaction:

 The central device (switch/hub) manages traffic.

 Hub: Broadcasts data to all devices (inefficient).

 Switch: Directs data only to the target device (intelligent forwarding).

Pros:
✔ Easy to troubleshoot (fault isolation).
✔ Scalable—adding devices doesn’t disrupt others.

Cons:

❌ Dependent on the central device (if the switch fails, the network goes down).

Example: Modern office networks (Ethernet via switches).

3. Ring Topology

Layout: Devices form a closed loop; data travels in one direction (unidirectional) or both
(bidirectional).
Device Interaction:

 Data passes through each device in sequence via token passing.

 A device holds the token to transmit data, preventing collisions.

Pros:
✔ Predictable performance (no collisions).
✔ Equal access for all devices.

Cons:

❌ A single node failure breaks the ring.

❌ Difficult to expand.

Example: Token Ring networks (IBM legacy systems).

4. Mesh Topology

Layout: Devices are interconnected (full or partial mesh).

Device Interaction:

 Full Mesh: Every device connects to every other (redundant, high-cost).

 Partial Mesh: Critical devices have multiple paths.

 Self-healing—if one link fails, traffic reroutes.

Pros:

✔ Extremely reliable (no single point of failure).

✔ High bandwidth (multiple paths).

Cons:
❌ Expensive (cabling and maintenance).

Example: Military networks, telecom backbones.

5. Tree (Hierarchical) Topology

Layout: Combines star and bus topologies in a tree-like structure.

Device Interaction:
  Root node (core switch) connects to branch switches, which link to end devices.

 Data flows hierarchically (e.g., from HQ → branch office → workstations).

Pros:
✔ Scalable for large organizations.
✔ Isolates network segments.

Cons:
❌ Dependent on root device (failure disrupts entire branches).

Example: Corporate WANs, university campuses.

6. Hybrid Topology

Layout: Mix of two or more topologies (e.g., star-ring, star-bus).

Device Interaction:

 Combines strengths of different topologies.

 Example: A star-bus hybrid might connect departmental star networks via a backbone
bus.

Pros:
✔ Flexible and fault-tolerant.
✔ Optimized for specific needs.

Cons:
❌ Complex design and maintenance.

Example: Large enterprise networks with multiple branches.

Comparison Table

Topology Scalability Fault Tolerance Cost Best Use Case

Bus Low None Low Small LANs
Star High Moderate Medium Offices, homes
Ring Low Low Medium Legacy systems
Mesh High Extreme High Critical infra
Tree High Moderate High Enterprises
Hybrid Custom Custom Varies Complex needs

Key Takeaways

 Star topology dominates modern LANs (thanks to switches).

 Mesh is ideal for mission-critical redundancy.
  Bus and Ring are legacy but still seen in industrial systems.
 Hybrid topologies offer tailored solutions for large networks.

🚀 Pro Tip: For most businesses, a star topology with switches provides the best balance of
cost, performance, and reliability.

10. Differentiate physical and logical computer network topology?

Physical vs. Logical Network Topology: Key Differences

Network topology can be viewed from two perspectives: physical (how devices
are physically connected) and logical (how data logically flows). Here’s a breakdown of
their differences:

1. Physical Topology

Definition: The actual layout of cables, devices, and network components.

Focuses on:

 Hardware connections (Ethernet, fiber optics, Wi-Fi).

 Device placement (routers, switches, workstations).

 Physical pathways (how wires run between rooms/buildings).

Examples

 Star Topology: All devices connect to a central switch (physically wired).

 Bus Topology: Devices linked via a single backbone cable.

 Ring Topology: Devices connected in a closed loop (e.g., FDDI networks).

Key Characteristics

✔ Visible & tangible (you can trace cables).

✔ Influences installation cost & maintenance.
✔ Changes require rewiring (e.g., moving a workstation).

2. Logical Topology

Definition: The virtual pathway data takes between devices, regardless of physical
connections.
Focuses on:

 Data flow (how signals travel, protocols used).

  Communication rules (Ethernet, Token Ring, IP routing).

 Software-defined paths (VLANs, VPNs, SDN).

Examples

 Ethernet (Logical Bus): Data broadcasts to all devices but only the intended recipient
processes it.
 Token Ring (Logical Ring): Devices pass a "token" to transmit data, even if physically
wired in a star.
 VLANs (Virtual LANs): Devices in different physical locations behave as if they’re on
the same LAN.

Key Characteristics

✔ Abstract & software-controlled (configured via OS/network settings).

✔ Determines efficiency & security (e.g., traffic prioritization).
✔ Can be changed without rewiring (e.g., reconfiguring a switch).

Comparison Table

Aspect Physical Topology Logical Topology

Actual hardware
Definition Virtual data paths
connections
Invisible (configured in
Visibility Tangible (cables, devices)
software)
Changes Requires rewiring Adjustable via settings
Star (devices wired to a VLAN (logical grouping of
Example
switch) devices)
Protocol Impact Minimal cable type)Direct (e.g. Ethernet vs. Token Ring)
(e.g.

Real-World Analogy

 Physical Topology = Road Infrastructure

o How highways, streets, and bridges are built.
 Logical Topology = Traffic Rules
o One-way streets, traffic lights, and GPS routing algorithms.

Why Both Matter

 Physical Topology affects cost, scalability, and fault tolerance.

 Logical Topology determines speed, security, and network behavior.

Example:
  A company may have a physical star topology (all PCs wired to a switch) but
use logical VLANs to separate departments (Finance, HR) for security.

Key Takeaway

 Physical = "How it’s built."

 Logical = "How it works."

🚀 Pro Tip: When designing a network, align the logical topology (e.g., VLANs, SDN) with
the physical layout (cable management, switch placement) for optimal performance!

11. What is the different between IP address and MAC address?

IP Address vs. MAC Address: Key Differences

Both IP addresses and MAC addresses are used to identify devices on a network, but
they serve different purposes and operate at different layers of the OSI model.

1. IP Address (Internet Protocol Address)

 Purpose: Identifies a device logically on a network (LAN or internet).

 Layer: Network Layer (Layer 3) of the OSI model.

 Format:
o IPv4: 192.168.1.1 (32-bit, decimal)

o IPv6: 2001:0db8:85a3::8a2e:0370:7334 (128-bit, hexadecimal)

 Assigned By:
o Dynamically (via DHCP) or statically (manually configured).

 Changeable?
o Yes (changes based on network, e.g., home vs. office Wi-Fi).

 Used For:
o Routing traffic across networks (internet communication).

o Enables remote connections (e.g., accessing a website via its IP).

Example:

 When you visit google.com, your device uses Google’s IP address (142.250.190.46) to
reach it.
2. MAC Address (Media Access Control Address)
 Purpose: Identifies a device physically on a local network.

 Layer: Data Link Layer (Layer 2) of the OSI model.

 Format:
o 48-bit hexadecimal (e.g., 00:1A:2B:3C:4D:5E).

o First half (OUI) identifies the manufacturer (e.g., 00:1A:2B = Cisco).

 Assigned By:
o Hard-coded into the device’s NIC (Network Interface Card) by the manufacturer.

 hangeable?
o Technically yes (MAC spoofing), but usually permanent.
 Used For:
o Direct communication within the same local network (e.g., between your laptop
and router).
o Helps switches forward data to the correct device.

Example:

 Your router uses your laptop’s MAC address to send Wi-Fi data directly to it.

Comparison Table
Feature IP Address MAC Address
Logical network Physical device
Purpose
identification identification
OSI Layer Layer 3 (Network) Layer 2 (Data Link)
Manufacturer (burned into
Assigned By DHCP or manual config
NIC)
No (permanent, unless
Changeable? Yes (dynamic or static)
spoofed)
48-bit hex
Format IPv4 (192.168.1.1) or IPv6
(00:1A:2B:3C:4D:5E)
Global (internet) or Local
Scope Local network only
(LAN)
Ethernet/Wi-Fi
Example Use Connecting to a website
communication

How They Work Together

1. When you request a website, your device uses:

o IP Address → To find the destination on the internet.
o MAC Address → To communicate with the router (local network).
 2. ARP (Address Resolution Protocol) translates IP → MAC within a LAN.

Key Takeaway

 IP Address = "Your mailing address" (can change, used for global routing).
 MAC Address = "Your Social Security Number" (unique to your device, used
locally).

🚀 Pro Tip:

 Use ipconfig /all (Windows) or ifconfig (Linux/macOS) to see both IP and MAC
addresses.
 MAC filtering in Wi-Fi networks restricts access based on hardware IDs.