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Cell structure and Organisms

Cells in biology

All cells have a number of features in common with each other

For a cell to be a cell, it has to have the following components:

Cellular components & functions table

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 There are two distinct types of cell – eukaryotic and prokaryotic

Eukaryotic Cells
Plant and animal cells are both eukaryotic cells

They have the components listed in the table above (so a cell membrane,
cytoplasm and ribosomes), as well as others

A defining feature of eukaryotic cells is that their genetic material (DNA) is

enclosed within a nucleus

Eukaryotic cells vary in size, usually between 10 and 100 µm

Animal and plant cells are both eukaryotic cells as their genetic material is
packaged in a nucleus

Prokaryotic Cells

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 Bacterial cells are a type of prokaryotic cell

A defining feature of prokaryotic cells is that their genetic material is not

enclosed within a nucleus, it is found as a single loop of DNA within the
cytoplasm

Additional smaller, circular pieces of DNA called plasmids may also be

present

The cell membranes of all prokaryotic cells are surrounded by a cell wall
(usually made from a substance called peptidoglycan)

Prokaryotic cells are much smaller in comparison to eukaryotic cells, with

many measuring ~ 1 µm in size

Prokaryotic cells do not have a nucleus, and are much smaller than
eukaryotic cells
Prokaryotic cells table

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 Scale & the Size of Cells
Cells are very small and require a microscope to be seen

Scientists measure the size of cells in micrometers (µm)

1 µm is equivalent to 0.001 mm, or 1 x 103 mm (or alternatively 1 millionth of

a metre, 1 x 106 mm)

You need to be able to convert between different units of measurement,

particularly mm and µm

Make sure you are comfortable converting between different units

You need to show an understanding of the size and scale of cells (and the
subcellular structures within them)

You need to be aware that many subcellular structures in eukaryotic cells are
the same size as or bigger than prokaryotic cells!

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 Differences in size can be described as differences in order of magnitude,
essentially the difference in size calculated by a factor of 10

Size of cells table

Examiner Tips and Tricks

A common exam question is to ask you to calculate the size of subcellular
structures and then to suggest why they may or may not be present in a certain
type of cell. For example: Why do bacterial cells not contain mitochondria?

How to Use Standard Form

When biologists talk about the size of cells and the structures within them,
they are dealing with very small numbers.

Very small (or very big) numbers are represented using standard form; this
helps to avoid confusion

Let’s say we want to represent the length of a Vibrio cholerae cell, which is
1.5µm, in mm

First, we need to convert the measurement in µm into mm (see image in

Scale & the Size of Cells)

1.5 µm ÷ 1000 = 0.0015 mm

Then we convert this into standard form

0.0015 = 1.5 x 103

To convert numbers into standard form:

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 Animal Cells
Eukaryotic cells have subcellular structures, each carrying out a particular
function

Organelles are subcellular ‘compartments’ where specific processes take

place within the cell

The main subcellular structures in animal cells are:

The nucleus

Cell membranes

Mitochondria

Ribosomes

Cytoplasm

Some cellular structures can only be seen when viewed with an electron
microscope

Cell structures table

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 Plant Cells
In addition to the subcellular parts found in animal cells, plant cells have:

A cell wall made of cellulose (algal cells also have this structural
feature)

A permanent vacuole filled with cell sap

Plant cells found in the leaf and stem may also contain chloroplasts

The plant cell shown above contains chloroplasts, so it would be found in the
leaves of a plant

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 Plant cell structure & function table

Specialised cells
A specialised cell is a cell that has a structure that aids its specific
function

This could relate to cell shape, or the combination of cellular

structures present within the cell

Cells specialise by undergoing a process known as differentiation

Specialised cells in animals

Nerve cells

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 Nerve cells (neurones) have an elongated structure which allows them to
coordinate information from the brain and spinal cord with the rest of the
body

Function:

Conduction of electrical impulses

Special features that aid function:

Nerve cells are long, meaning that they can conduct nerve
impulses between different areas of the body

Extensions of the cytoplasm known as dendrites allowing nerve cells

to communicate with other nerve cells, muscles and glands

The axon is covered with a fatty sheath which speeds up nerve

impulse transmission

Muscle cells

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 Muscle cells contain layers of fibres which allow them to contract

Function:

Contraction for movement

Special features that aid function:

Muscle cells have many mitochondria to release energy for contraction

All muscle cells contain protein filaments that can slide over each other
to allow muscle contraction

Sperm cells

Sperm cells are mobile – their tail helps propel them forward in search of an
egg cell

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 Function:

Transfer of genetic material to an egg cell for fertilisation

Special features that aid function:

The mid-piece is packed with mitochondria to release energy (via

respiration) for the tail

The tail rotates, propelling the sperm cell forward and allowing it
to move

The acrosome in the head contains digestive enzymes that can break
down the outer layer of an egg cell so that the haploid nucleus can
enter to fuse with the egg’s nucleus

The head contains a nucleus with half the normal number

of chromosomes, allowing the sperm cell to fuse with an egg cell
to restore the normal chromosome number

Specialised cells in plants

Root hair cells

The root hair is an extension of the cytoplasm, increasing the surface area of
the cell in contact with the soil to maximise absorption of water and minerals

Function:

Absorption of water and mineral ions from soil

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 Special features that aid function:

Root hairs increase surface area (SA) so the rate of water uptake by
osmosis is greater

Thinner walls than other plant cells so that water can move through
easily due to shorter diffusion distance

Mitochondria release energy for active transport of mineral ions

Xylem vessels

Xylem cells lose their top and bottom walls to form a continuous tube
through which water moves from the roots to the leaves

Function:

Transport of water and dissolved ions

Special features that aid function:

No walls between cells to form continuous hollow tubes through which

water is drawn upwards towards the leaves

Cells contain no organelles or cytoplasm, allowing free passage of

water

Outer walls are thickened with a substance

called lignin, strengthening the tubes and providing support for the

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 plant

Phloem cells

Phloem cells are adapted for the transport of dissolved sugars and amino
acids

Function:

Transport of dissolved sugars and amino acids

Special features that aid function:

Cells are joined end-to-end and contain holes in the end cell
walls (sieve plates); this forms tubes which allow sugars and amino
acids to flow easily

Cells have very few subcellular structures to aid the flow of materials

Using a Light Microscope

• Aim: To use a light microscope to observe, draw and label a selection of plant
and animal cells, including a magnification scale
• You will:
◦ Use a light microscope to make observations of biological specimens and
produce labelled scientific drawings

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 ◦ Include a magnification scale

Preparing a microscope slide

• Specimens must be prepared on a microscope slide to be observed under a

light microscope
• This must be done carefully to avoid damaging any biological specimen
• The most common specimens to observe under a light microscope are cheek
cells (animal cells) and onion cells (plant cells)
• Stains are used to highlight structures within cells – methylene blue is used to
stain cheek cells, iodine for onion cells

Care must be taken to avoid smudging the glass slide or trapping air bubbles
under the coverslip
Using a microscope

• Understanding the main features of a light microscope is essential if you are

to use it correctly
• Always hold the microscope by the arm when moving it around the lab, and
always start your observation with the lowest-powered objective lens

Light microscopes have a lens in the eyepiece which is fixed and two or three
objective lenses of different powers

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 Microbiology required practical
Aim:

To investigate the effect of antiseptics or antibiotics on bacterial

growth using agar plates and measuring zones of inhibition

Procedure:

Use an aseptic technique to place filter paper discs soaked in different

antiseptics/antibiotics onto uncontaminated agar plates containing
bacteria

Measure the zone of inhibition around the growing colonies of

bacteria to compare the effect of different antiseptics/antibiotics

Calculate the area of each zone

In this practical, prepared Petri dish plates should be provided which are
used to investigate bacterial growth

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 It is important to be aware of good microbial aseptic techniques (Culturing
Microorganisms)

Preventing contamination is vital in any microbiology investigation to

ensure that only the effect of any antiseptic or antibiotic on the bacterial
species is investigated

It is also important to provide the ideal temperature for bacterial

growth, in school this will be 25 °C

This is important to reduce the chances of growing harmful

pathogens which can lead to various diseases.

You will most likely use safe strains of coli or Micrococcus luteus bacterial
cultures in your practical

A control group should be used

It is vital that one of the paper discs placed on the bacterial agar plate
is not soaked in antiseptic or antibiotic but sterile water instead

This is to ensure that any differences in bacterial growth observed can

be attributed to the presence of the antiseptic or antibiotic used and not
some other factor (such as the paper discs for example)

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 Whilst carrying out this practical it is important to reduce the risk of
contaminating the Petri dish with other sources of bacterial

Commercially produced antibiotic discs are available rather than soaking

discs in disinfectants

Incubating the plates allows the bacteria in the agar to multiply by binary
fission, this may be visible by the agar darkening or by colonies appearing

The antiseptics present in the discs will diffuse into the agar, with the
concentration decreasing with distance from the disc

Where the concentration is sufficient to prevent bacterial growth or kill

bacteria, the agar will remain clear

It is possible to judge which antiseptic or antibiotic is the most effective by

the eye, but it is far more accurate to calculate the diameter of each clear
zone around the paper disc and from this calculate the area of each
inhibition zone

Clear zones of inhibition are not always perfectly circular, so the diameter
of each zone should be measured twice (at 90° angles to each other) and
a mean diameter and area calculated for each clear zone

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 cheat sheet

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