Chapter 6

THE DATABASE LANGUAGE SQL

THE DATABASE LANGUAGE SQL 1

 Objectives

▪ Student can write a SQL script.

▪ Student can compose SQL queries using set (and
bag) operators, correlated subqueries, aggregation
queries.
▪ Student can manipulate proficiently on complex
queries

THE DATABASE LANGUAGE SQL 2

 Contents

▪ Integrity constraints
▪ Structure Query Language
▪ DDL
▪ DML
▪ DCL (self studying)
▪ Sub query

THE DATABASE LANGUAGE SQL 3

 REVIEW

Getting Relational
User High-Level Database Relational
Requiremen Design Schema DBMS
t Design

ER diagram Relational Database Schema

Figure 4.1: The database modeling and implementation process

Studied:
- ER diagram
- Relational model
- Convert ERD 🡪 Relational model
Now: we learn how to set up a relational database on
DBMS THE DATABASE LANGUAGE SQL 4
REVIEW – Entity Relationship Diagram

COMPANY Database

THE DATABASE LANGUAGE SQL 5

 Integrity constraints
▪ Purpose: prevent semantic inconsistencies in
data
▪ Kinds of integrity constraints:
1. Key Constraints (1 table): Primary key, Candidate key
(Unique)
2. Attribute Constraints (1 table): NULL/NOT NULL;
CHECK
3. Referential Integrity Constraints (2 tables): FOREIGN
KEY
4. Global Constraints (n tables): CHECK or CREATE
ASSERTION (self studying)

We will implement these constraints by SQL

THE DATABASE LANGUAGE SQL 6

 Comparison of Strings
Two strings are equal (=) if they are the same
sequence of characters
Other comparisons: <, >, ≤, ≤, ≠
Suppose a=a1a2…an and b=b1b2…bm are two
strings, the first is less than the second if ∃
k≤min(n,m):
◦ ∀i, 1≤i≤k: ai = bi, and
◦ ak+1<bk+1
Example
◦ fodder < foo
◦ bar < bargain

THE DATABASE LANGUAGE SQL 7

 Pattern Matching in SQL

Like or Not Like

SELECT SELECT
FROM FROM
WHERE s LIKE p; WHERE s NOT LIKE p;

Two special characters

▪ % means any sequence of 0 or more
characters
▪ _ means any one character

THE DATABASE LANGUAGE SQL 8

 Pattern Matching in SQL
Example 5.1:
◦ Find all employees named as ‘Võ Việt Anh’
Example 5.2
◦ Find all employees whose name is ended at
‘Anh’

THE DATABASE LANGUAGE SQL 9

 Pattern Matching in SQL
USING ESCAPE keyword
◦ SQL allows us to specify any one character we
like as the escape character for a single pattern
◦ Example
◦ WHERE s LIKE ‘%20!%%’ ESCAPE !
◦ Or WHERE s LIKE ‘%20@%%’ ESCAPE @
🡪 Matching any s string contains the 20% string
◦ WHERE s LIKE ‘x%%x%’ ESCAPE x
🡪 Matching any s string that begins and ends with the
character %

THE DATABASE LANGUAGE SQL 10

 Dates and Times
Dates and times are special data types in SQL
A date constant’s presentation
◦ DATE ‘1948-05-14’
A time constant’s presentation
◦ TIME ‘15:00:02.5’
A combination of dates and times
◦ TIMESTAMP ‘1948-05-14 12:00:00’
Operations on date and time
◦ Arithmetic operations
◦ Comparison operations
THE DATABASE LANGUAGE SQL 11
 Null Values
Null value: special value in SQL
Some interpretations
▪ Value unknown: there is, but I don’t know what it is
▪ Value inapplicable: there is no value that makes sense here
▪ Value withheld: we are not entitled to know the value that
belongs here

Null is not a constant

Two rules for operating upon a NULL value in
WHERE clause
◦ Arithmetic operators on NULL values will return a NULL value
◦ Comparisons with NULL values will return UNKNOWN

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 The Truth-Value UNKNOWN
Truth table for True, False, and Unknown
We can think of TRUE=1; FALSE=0; UNKNOWN=1/2, so
◦ x AND y = MIN(x,y); x OR y = MAX(x, y); NOT x = 1-x

x y x AND y x OR y NOT x
TRUE TRUE TRUE TRUE FALSE
TRUE UNKNOWN UNKNOWN TRUE FALSE
TRUE FALSE FALSE TRUE FALSE
UNKNOWN TRUE UNKNOWN TRUE UNKNOWN
UNKNOWN UNKNOWN UNKNOWN UNKNOWN UNKNOWN
UNKNOWN FALSE FALSE UNKNOWN UNKNOWN
FALSE TRUE FALSE TRUE TRUE
FALSE UNKNOWN FALSE UNKNOWN TRUE
FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE TRUE

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 The Truth-Value Unknown
SQL conditions in Where clause produce three
truth values: True, False, and Unknown
Those tuples which condition has the value True
become part of the answer
Those tuples which condition has the value
False or Unknown are excluded from the answer

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 SQL Overview
▪ SQL (sequel) is a database language designed for managing
data in relational database management systems, and
originally based upon relational algebra.
▪ There are many different dialects of SQL
▪ Ansi SQL (or SQL-86), SQL-92, SQL-99
▪ SQL:2003, SQL:2006, SQL:2008, SQL:2009

▪ Transact-SQL (T-SQL) is Microsoft's and Sybase's

proprietary extension to SQL.
▪ PL/SQL (Procedural Language/Structured Query
Language) is Oracle Corporation's procedural extension for
SQL and the Oracle relational database.
▪ Today, SQL is accepted as the standard RDBMS language

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 Data Definition Language -
CREATE
▪ Database schema
Simple syntax: CREATE DATABASE dbname
Full syntax: https://docs.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/database
▪ Relation schema ~ table

CREATE TABLE tableName

(
fieldname1 datatype [integrity_constraints],
fieldname2 datatype [integrity_constraints],
….
)

Full syntax: https://docs.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/table

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Data Definition Language - Demo

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 Data Definition Language – ALTER,
▪
DROP
Used to modify the structure of table, database
▪Add more columns
ALTER TABLE tableName
ADD columnName datatype [constraint]
▪Remove columns
ALTER TABLE tableName
DROP columnName datatype [constraint]
▪Modify data type
ALTER TABLE tableName
ALTER columnName datatype [constraint]

THE DATABASE LANGUAGE SQL 18

 Data Definition Language– ALTER,
DROP
▪ Add/remove constraints
ALTER TABLE tablename
ADD CONSTRAINT constraintName PRIMARY KEY
(<attribute list>);

ALTER TABLE tablename

ADD CONSTRAINT constraintName FOREIGN KEY (<attribute
list>)
REFERENCES parentTableName (<attribute list>);

ALTER TABLE tablename

ADD CONSTRAINT constraintName CHECK (expressionChecking)
ALTER TABLE tablename
DROP CONSTRAINT constraintName
THE DATABASE LANGUAGE SQL 19
 Data Definition Language– ALTER,
DROP
▪ DROP TABLE tableName
▪ DROP DATABASE dbName

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Physical Diagram - FUHCompany

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Data Manipulation Language (DML)
Key words: INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE, SELECT
INSERT INTO tableName
VALUES (<value 1>, ... <value n>)

INSERT INTO tableName(<listOfFields>)

VALUES (<value 1>, ... <value m>)

INSERT INTO tableName

SELECT listOfFields FROM another_tableName

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Data Manipulation Language (DML)
UPDATE tableName
SET columnName = newValue
[WHERE condition]
Note: newValue could be a value/ an expression/
a SQL statement
◼ Example: Update new salary and depNum

for the employee named ‘Mai Duy An’

THE DATABASE LANGUAGE SQL 23

Data Manipulation Language (DML)
DELETE FROM tableName
[WHERE condition]
TRUNCATE TABLE tableName
▪ What is difference between DELETE and TRUNCATE?
▪ What should we do before implement DELETE or TRUNCATE?
(referential integrity constraint)
▪ Example:
▪ remove a department named ‘Phòng Kế Toán’
▪ remove a department which depNum is 7

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Data Manipulation Language (DML)
SQL Queries and Relational Algebra

SELECT L
FROM R πL(σC(R))
WHERE C

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 T-SQL : Basic Syntax for a simple
SELECT queries
SELECT [ ALL | DISTINCT ]
[ TOP n [ PERCENT ] ]
* | {column_name | expression [alias],…}
[FROM table]
[WHERE conditions]
SELECT identifies what columns
▪ ALL: Specifies that duplicate rows can appear in the result set. ALL is the default
▪ DISTINCT: Specifies that only unique rows can appear in the result set. Null
values are considered equal for the purposes of the DISTINCT keyword
▪ TOP n [ PERCENT ]:Specifies that only the first n rows are to be output from the
query result set. n is an integer between 0 and 4294967295. If PERCENT is also
specified, only the first n percent of the rows are output from the result set. When
specified with PERCENT, n must be an integer between 0 and 100
FROM identifies which table
The WHERE clause follows the FROM clause. Condition: is composed of column
names, expressions, constants, and a comparison operator

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 Common Query in SQL
Example 1: Listing all employees whose salary exceed at 50000

◼ Example 2: Listing name and salary of all employees whose income

exceed 50000

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 Projection in SQL
Using alias name in select clause
Example 3:
◦ Listing full name and salary of all employees
whose income exceed 50000

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 Selection in SQL
Example 4
◦ List all under 40 year-old female or under 50
year-old male employees

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 Ordering the Output
Presenting the tuples produced by a query in sorted order
The order may be based on the value of any attribute
Syntax
SELECT <list of attributes>
FROM <list of tables>
WHERE <conditions>
ORDER BY <list of attributes>
Order by clause follows Where and any other clauses.
The ordering is performed on the result of the From,
Where, and other clauses, just before Select clause
Using keyword ASC for ascending order and DESC for
descending order

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 Ordering the Output
Example 6:
◦ Listing all employee by department number
ascreasingly, then by salary descreasingly

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6.2 QUERIES INVOLVING MORE THAN
ONE RELATION

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 Queries Involving More Than One
Relation
SQL allows we combine two or more relations
through joins, products, unions, intersections, and
differences

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 Products and Joins in SQL
When data from more than one table in the
database is required, a join condition is used.
Simple way to couple relations: list each relation
in the From clause
Other clauses in query can refer to the attributes
of any of the relations in the From clause

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 Products and Joins in SQL
Example 7:
◦ List all employees who work on ‘Phòng Phần
mềm trong nước’ department

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 What we do if …
… a query involves several relations, and there
are two or more attributes with the same name?

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 Tuple Variables
We may list a relation R as many times as we
need
We use tuple variables to refer to each
occurrence of R

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 Disambiguating Attributes
Example 8:
◦ Find all cities in which our company is

THE DATABASE LANGUAGE SQL 38

 What we do if …
… a query involves two or more tuples from the
same relation?
Example 9:
◦ Find all those project numbers which have
more than two members

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 Union, Intersection, Difference of
Queries
We combine relations using the set operations of
relational algebra: union, intersection, and
difference
SQL provides corresponding operators with
UNION, INTERSECT, and EXCEPT for ∪, ∩, and
-, respectively

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 Union, Intersection, Difference of
Queries
Example 10.1
◦ Find all those employees whose name is begun
by ‘H’ or salary exceed 80000

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 Union, Intersection, Difference of
Queries
Example 10.2
◦ Find all those normal employees, that is who do
not supervise any other employees

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 Union, Intersection, Difference of
Queries
Example 10.3
◦ Find all employees who work on projectB and
projectC

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6.3 SUB QUERIES

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 Sub-queries
One query can be used to help in the evaluation
of another
A query that is part of another is called a sub-
query
◦ Sub-queries return a single constant, this
constant can be compared with another value
in a WHERE clause
◦ Sub-queries return relations, that can be used
in WHERE clause
◦ Sub-queries can appear in FROM clauses,
followed by a tuple variable

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 Sub-queries that Produce Scalar
Values
An atomic value that can appear as one
component of a tuple is referred to as a scalar
Let’s compare two queries for the same request

THE DATABASE LANGUAGE SQL 46

 Sub-queries that Produce Scalar
Values
Example 7: Find the employees of Phòng Phần
mềm trong nước department

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 Sub-queries that Produce Scalar
Values
Example 11:
◦ Find the employees of Phòng Phần mềm trong
nước department

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 Sub-queries that Produce Scalar
Values
Example 11:
◦ Find the employees of Phòng Phần mềm trong
nước department

THE DATABASE LANGUAGE SQL 49

 Sub-queries that Produce Scalar
Values
Example 11:
◦ Find the employees of Phòng Phần mềm trong
nước department

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 Conditions Involving Relations
Some SQL operators can be applied to a relation
R and produce a bool result
◦ (EXISTS R = True) ⇔ R is not empty
◦ (s IN R = True) ⇔ s is equal to one of the
values of R
◦ (s > ALL R = True) ⇔ s is greater than every
values in unary R
◦ (s > ANY R = True) ⇔ s is greater than at least
one value in unary R

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 Conditions Involving Tuples
A tuple in SQL is represented by a list of scalar
values between ()
If a tuple t has the same number of components
as a relation R, then we may compare t and R
with IN, ANY, ALL

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 Sub-queries that Produce Scalar
Values
Example 12:
◦ Find the dependents of all employees of
department number 1

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 Correlated Sub-queries
To now, sub-queries can be evaluated once and
for all, the result used in a higher-level query
But, some sub-queries are required to be
evaluated many times
That kind of sub-queries is called correlated sub-
query
Note: Scoping rules for names

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 Correlated Sub-queries
Example 13:
◦ Find all those projects have the same location
with projectA

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 Correlated Sub-queries
Another example:
◦ Find the titles that have been used for two or
movies
SELECT title
FROM Movies Old
WHERE year < ANY
(SELECT year
FROM Movies
WHERE title =Old.title)

THE DATABASE LANGUAGE SQL 56

 Sub-queries in FROM Clauses
In a FROM list we can use a parenthesized sub-
query
We must give it a tuple-variable alias
Example: Find the employees of Phòng Phần mềm
trong nước
SELECT *
FROM tblEmployee e,
(SELECT depNum
FROM tblDepartment
WHERE depName=N'Phòng phần mềm trong
nước') d
WHERE e.depNum=d.depNum

THE DATABASE LANGUAGE SQL 57

 SQL Join Expressions
SQL Join Expressions can be stand as a query
itself or can be used as sub-queries in FROM
clauses
Cross Join in SQL= Cartesian Product
◦ Syntax: R CROSS JOIN S;
◦ Meaning: Each tuple of R connects to each
tuple of S
Theta Join with ON keyword
◦ Systax: R JOIN S ON R.A=S.A;
◦ Meaning: Each tuple of R connects to those
tuples of S, which satisfy the condition after ON
keyword

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 SQL Join Expression
Example 15.1
◦ Product two relations Department and
Employee
Example 15.2
◦ Find departments and employees who work in
those departments, respectively

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 SQL Join Expression
More Example

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 Natural Joins
A natural join differs from a theta-join in that:
◦ The join condition: all pairs of attributes from
the two relations having a common name are
equated, and there are no other condition
◦ One of each pair of equated attributes is
projected out
◦ Syntax : Table1 NATURAL JOIN Table2
◦ Microsoft SQL SERVER DONOT SUPPORT
NATURAL JOINS AT ALL

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 Outer Joins
The outer join is a way to augment the result of
join by the dangling tuples, padded with null
values
When padding dangling tuples from both of its
arguments, we use full outer join
When padding from left/right side, we use left
outer join/right outer join

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 Outer joins
Example 17.1:
◦ For each location, listing the projects that are
processed in it

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 Outer joins
Example 17.2:
◦ For each department, listing the projects that it
controls

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 6.4 Full-Relation Operations
Study some operations that acts on relations as
whole, rather than on tuples individually

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 Eliminating Duplicates
A relation, being a set, cannot have more than
one copy of any given tuple
But, the SQL response to a query may list the
same tuple several times, that is, SELECT
preserves duplicates as a default
So, by DISTINCT we can eliminate a duplicates
from SQL relations

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 Eliminating Duplicates
Example 17.3: List all location in which the
projects are processed.
◦ Location name is repeated many times
SELECT DISTINCT l.locNum, l.locName
FROM tblLocation l JOIN tblProject p ON l.locNum=p.locNum

SELECT DISTINCT l.locNum, l.locName

FROM tblLocation l JOIN tblProject p ON l.locNum=p.locNum

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 Duplicates in Unions, Intersections,
and Differences
Set operations on relations will eliminate
duplicates automatically
Use ALL keyword after Union, Intersect, and
Except to prevent elimination of duplicates
Syntax:
R UNION ALL S;
R INTERSECT ALL S;
R EXCEPT ALL S;

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 Grouping and Aggregation in SQL
Grouping operator partitions the tuples of relation
into groups, based on the values of tuples in one
or more attributes
After grouping the tuples of relation, we are able
to aggregate certain other columns of relation
We use GROUP BY clause in SELECT
statement

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 Aggregation Operators
Five aggregation operators
◦ SUM acts on single numeric column
◦ AVG acts on single numeric column
◦ MIN acts on single numeric column
◦ MAX acts on single numeric column
◦ COUNT act on one or more columns or all of
columns
Eliminating duplicates from the column before
applying the aggregation by DISTINCT keyword

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 Aggregation Operators
Example 18.1
◦ Find average salary of all employees
Example 18.2
◦ Find number of employees

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 Grouping
To partition the tuples of relation into groups
Syntax

SELECT <list of attributes>

FROM <list of tables>
WHERE <condition>
GROUP BY <list of attributes>

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 Grouping
Example 19.1:
◦ Group employees by department number
Example 19.2
◦ List number of employees for each department
number

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 Grouping
There are two kinds of terms in SELECT clause
◦ Aggregations, that applied to an attribute or
expression involving attributes
◦ Grouping Attributes, that appear in GROUP BY
clause
A query with GROUP BY is interpreted as follow:
◦ Evaluate the relation R expressed by the
FROM and WHERE clauses
◦ Group the tuples of R according to the
attributes in GROUP BY clause
◦ Produce as a result the attributes and
aggregation of the SELECT clause

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 Grouping
Example 20
◦ Compute the number of employees for each
project

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Grouping, Aggregation, and Nulls
When tuples have nulls, there are some rules:
◦ The value NULL is ignored in any aggregation
◦ Count(*): a number of tuples in a relation
◦ Count(A): a number of tuples with non-NULL values
for A attribute
◦ NULL is treated as an ordinary value when
forming groups
◦ The count of empty bag is 0, other aggregation
of empty bag is NULL

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Grouping, Aggregation, and Nulls
Example: Suppose R(A,B) as followed

A B
NULL NULL

The result of query The result of query

SELECT A, count(B) SELECT A, sum(B)
FROM R FROM R
GROUP BY A; GROUP BY A;
is one tuple (NULL,0) is one tuple (NULL,NULL)

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 Considerations …
If we want to apply conditions to tuples of
relations, we put those conditions in WHERE
clause
If we want to apply conditions to groups of tuples
after grouping, those conditions are based on
some aggregations, how can we do?
In that case, we follow the GROUP BY clause
with a HAVING clause

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 HAVING clause
Syntax:

SELECT <list of attributes>

FROM <list of tables>
WHERE <conditions on tuples>
GROUP BY <list of attributes>
HAVING <conditions on groups>

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 HAVING clause
Example 21:
◦ Print the number of employees for each those
department, whose average salary exceeds
80000

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 HAVING clause
Some rules about HAVING clause
◦ An aggregation in a HAVING clause applies
only to the tuples of the group being tested
◦ Any attribute of relations in the FROM clause
may be aggregated in the HAVING clause, but
only those attributes that are in the GROUP BY
list may appear un-aggregated in the HAVING
clause (the same rule as for the SELECT
clause)

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 HAVING clause
Example:
SELECT proNum, COUNT(empSSN) AS Number_Of_Employees,
FROM tblWorksOn
GROUP BY proNum
HAVING AVG(workHours)>20

SELECT proNum, COUNT(empSSN) AS Number_Of_Employees,

FROM tblWorksOn
GROUP BY proNum
HAVING proNum=4

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