Add your PROJECT FULL TITLE in

capital only

A PROJECT REPORT

Submitted in partial fulfillment of requirement

for the degree of

Bachelor of Engineering
in
Electronics & Telecommunication

Submitted by

STUDENT NAME (EXAM SEAT NO.)

STUDENT NAME (EXAM SEAT NO.)
STUDENT NAME (EXAM SEAT NO.)

Under the Guidance of

PROF. GUIDE NAME (in capital only)

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND TELECOMMUNICATION

HOPE FOUNDATION’S
INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY,
HINJAWADI, PUNE(MH)-411057
SAVITRIBAI PHULE PUNE UNIVERSITY
A.Y. 2024-25
Sponsorship Letter
Add your sponsorship letter here

i
 CERTIFICATE
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND TELECOMMUNICATION
HOPE FOUNDATION’S
INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY,
HINJAWADI, PUNE-411057

This is to certify that

Name of student (Exam seat no)

Name of student (Exam seat no)
Name of student (Exam seat no)

Class: BE(E&TC) have satisfactorily completed a project titled ‘Project Name’

under my supervision as a part of the Bachelor of Engineering in Electronics and
Telecommunication (A.Y. 2024-25) of Savitribai Phule Pune University.

Prof. Name of Guide Dr. S. M. M. Naidu

Project Guide HoD (E&TC)

Dr. Vaishali V. Patil

Principal

Place : Pune External Examiner

Date :

ii
 CERTIFICATE
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND TELECOMMUNICATION
HOPE FOUNDATION’S
INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY,
HINJAWADI, PUNE-411057

This is to certify that Name of the student (Exam seat no) Class: BE(E&TC) has
satisfactorily completed a Project titled, ‘Project Name’ under my supervision as
a part of Bachelor of Engineering in Electronics and Telecommunication (A.Y.
2024-25) of Savitribai Phule Pune University.

Prof. Name of Guide Dr. S. M. M. Naidu

Project Guide HoD (E&TC)

Dr. Vaishali V. Patil

Principal

Place : Pune External Examiner

Date :

iii
 Declaration
We declare that this written submission represents our ideas in our own words and
where others’ ideas or words have been included, we have adequately cited and refer-
enced the original sources. We also declare that We have adhered to all principles of
academic honesty and integrity and have not misrepresented or fabricated or falsified
any idea/data/fact/source in our submission. We understand that any violation of the
above will be cause for disciplinary action by the Institute and can also evoke penal
action from the sources which have thus not been properly cited or from whom proper
permission has not been taken when needed. We take sole responsibility for the work
presented by us in this report. We also declare that we will submit our completed
project along with all necessary hardware and software to the department at the end
of the 2nd semester.

Signature...............
STUDENT NAME .......................
Signature...............
STUDENT NAME ......................................
Signature...............
STUDENT NAME ......................................

Place : Pune
Date :

iv
 Abstract

The Abstract in the project report shall have three parts:

The first part with 500-words highlighting the important features of the project done.
The second part with the layout of the report giving a brief chapter-wise description
of the work and
The Third part with the keywords.
Sample Abstract:
Over the last era the world of wireless communication has been undergoing tremendous
changes. This has resulted in the advent of a whole range of innovative technologies
such as Wi-Fi, WiMax, 802.22, wireless mesh networks and Software Defined Radio.
In wireless communication domain, with increasing demand for radio spectrum, man-
agement of the valuable but natural resource of radio spectrum is a herculean task.
The available static allocation techniques result in underutilised spectrum bands. To
handle this problem, an efficient and emerging technology, aimed towards Dynamic
Spectrum Allocation is Cognitive Radio.
A Cognitive Radio (CR) can alter its communication process in line with its under-
standing of the context in which it is present. The intelligence and smartness of the
Cognitive Radio is mainly due to the presence of Cognitive Engine. This Cognitive
Engine primarily consists of knowledge base, reasoning block and learning phase. As
part of cognitive process, the radio observes, orients, takes decisions and evaluates the
outcomes of decisions taken which is part of the learning phase. There are a variety of
learning techniques enabling prediction of various operating and functional parameters
of Cognitive Radio.
The proposed work in this report contributes in this direction, towards building predic-
tive learning schemes based on soft computing techniques for Cognitive Radio. Predic-
tive schemes towards forecast of key functional parameters of data rates and through-

v
put is built. The different learning schemes used in the proposed work range from
basic supervised algorithms like Feed Forward Network, Focussed Time Delay Neu-
ral Networks, recurrent networks to unsupervised algorithms based on Self-Organising
Maps.
Hybrid network of Adaptive Neuro Fuzzy Interference is developed towards improve-
ment of prediction accuracy. It has been found that ANFIS approaches have high
prediction accuracy up to 97%. Subsequently Self-Organised Maps based learning
scheme is used to investigate improvement in design flexibility. It has been found that
these learning schemes aid in adding more input parameters without altering the net-
work design with prediction accuracy up to 85%. Stochastic time series model based
learning schemes have also been built to find if there are alternative approaches to soft
computing methods. It has been found that stochastic time series Auto-Regressive
and Auto-Regressive Moving Average models are able to perform accurate predictions
based on input-output relationships.
Finally, Dynamic spectrum allocation has been performed incorporating the learning
accomplished through the learning schemes. These learning schemes form useful inputs
which results in improved Cognitive Engine, leading to enhanced Dynamic Spectrum
Allocation in Cognitive Radio. In future, these algorithms are to be integral part of
Cognitive Engine in large scale, leading to intelligent spectrum management and allo-
cation and hence a smart radio.

Keywords:
Cognitive Radio, soft computing techniques, Feed Forward Network.

vi
Contents

SponsorshipLetter i

Certificate ii

Declaration iv

Abstract v

Contents vii

List of Figures ix

List of Tables x

1 Introduction 1
1.1 Overview of the Monitoring System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

2 Literature Survey 6
2.1 Satellite Navigation Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

3 Proposed Methodology 8
3.1 Start sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.1.1 Table creation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.2 Requirement analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.2.1 Hardware Requirement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.2.2 Software Requirement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

vii
 3.2.3 Modern Engineering Tools Requirement . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.2.4 Techniques Requirement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.2.5 Resources Requirement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.3 Impact analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.3.1 Impact of project on society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.3.2 Impact of project on environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3.4 Professional ethical practices to be followed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

4 Project Implementation 11
4.1 Hardware Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
4.1.1 System Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
4.1.2 Design Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
4.1.3 Circuit Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
4.2 Software Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
4.2.1 Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
4.2.2 Flow Chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

5 Results and Discussion 14

5.1 Simulation Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
5.2 Hardware Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

6 Conclusions and Future Scope 16

6.1 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
6.2 Future Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

References 16

viii
List of Figures

2.1 Basic block diagram for gait based human identity recognition . . . . . 7

5.1 Differences obtained between Neural Network output and target or de-
sired values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

ix
List of Tables

3.1 Cost of fruits in India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

x
Chapter 1

Introduction

The goal of this chapter is to create the research background for learning schemes
for Cognitive Radio using soft computing. Initially, the existing scenario in wireless
networks is introduced to illustrate the need for development of Cognitive Radio.
This is followed by the fundamental concept of Cognitive Radio. The heart of the
Cognitive Radio is the Cognitive Cycle. The importance and role of Cognitive Cycle
is detailed. The intelligence in Cognitive Cycle is incorporated through Artificial
Intelligence and soft computing techniques. Hence the next section introduces the
significance of Artificial Intelligence and various soft computing techniques that can
be part of Cognitive Engine.

1.1 Overview of the Monitoring System

IoT or Internet Things refers to the network of connected physical objects that can
communicate and exchange data among themselves without the desideratum of any
human intervention. It has been formally defined as an “Infrastructure of Information
Society” because IoT sanctions us to amass information from all kind of mediums such
as humans, animals, conveyances, kitchen appliances. Thus, any object in the physical
world which can be provided with an IP address to enable data transmission over a
network can be made part of IoT system by embedding them with electronic hardware
such as sensors, software and networking gear.

1
 IoT is different than Internet as in a way it transcends Internet connectivity by
enabling everyday objects that utilizes embedded circuits to interact and communicate
with each other utilizing the current Internet infrastructure Since then the scope of
IoT has grown tremendously as currently it consists of more than 12 billion connected
devices and according to the experts it will increase to 50 billion by the end of 2020.
With the advent of IoT both manufacturers and consumers have benefited. Manufac-
turers have gained insight into how their products are used and how they perform out
in the real world and increase their revenues by providing value added services which
enhances and elongates the lifecycle of their products or services. Consumers on the
other hand have the ability to integrate and control more than one devices for a more
customized and improved user experience.

In this paper, we are going to propose a system for the immediate cleaning of the
dustbins. As dustbin is considered as a basic need to maintain the level of cleanliness
in the city, so it is very important to clean all the dustbins as soon as they get filled.
We will use ultrasonic sensors for this system. The sensor will be placed on top of bin
which will help in sending the information to the office that the level of garbage has
reached its maximum level. After this the bin should be emptied as soon as possible.
The concept of IoT when used in this field will result in a better environment for the
people to live in. No more unsanitary conditions will be formed in the city. With the
help of this system minimal number of smart bins can be used around the whole city
and the city will still be much cleaner.

There has been an unprecedented growth in the number of devices being connected
to the Internet since past few years. All these devices connected to the internet are
part of the IoT infrastructure which can communicate with each other. The IoT net-
work consists of embedded electronics, sensors and software that allows these devices
to send and receive data among each other. This is why it is beneficial to use such an

2
existing infrastructure for designing the proposed security system. The disadvantages
of the existing system are that the employees have to go and check the bins daily
whether they are filled or not, it results in high cost. If the bin doesn’t get emptied on
time then the environment becomes unhygienic and illness could be spread. The pro-
posed system will help in removing all these disadvantages. The real-time information
can be gained regarding the level of the dustbin filled on the system itself. It will also
help in reducing the cost as the employees will have to go only at that time when the
bin is full. This will also help in resource optimization and if the bins will be emptied
at time then the environment will remain safe and free from all kinds of diseases. The
cities will become more cleaner and the smells of the garbage will be much less. We
are living in an age where tasks and systems are fusing together with the power of
IOT to have a more efficient system of working and to execute jobs quickly! With all
the power at our finger tips this is what we have come up with.

The Internet of Things (IoT) shall be able to incorporate transparently and seam-
lessly a large number of different systems, while providing data for millions of people to
use and capitalize. Building a general architecture for the IoT is hence a very complex
task, mainly because of the extremely large variety of devices, link layer technologies,
and services that may be involved in such a system.

One of the main concerns with our environment has been solid waste management
which impacts the health and environment of our society. The detection, monitoring
and management of wastes is one of the primary problems of the present era. The
traditional way of manually monitoring the wastes in waste bins is a cumbersome pro-
cess and utilizes more human effort, time and cost which can easily be avoided with
our present technologies. This is our solution, a method in which waste management
is automated. This is our IoT Garbage Monitoring system, an innovative way that
will help to keep the cities clean and healthy. Follow on to see how you could make
an impact to help clean your community, home or even surroundings, taking us a step

3
closer to a better way of living.

The idea struck us when we observed that the garbage truck use to go around the
town to collect solid waste twice a day. Although this system was thorough it was very
inefficient. For example let’s say street A is a busy street and we see that the garbage
fills up really fast whereas maybe street B even after two days the bin isn’t even half
full. This example is something that actually happens thus it lead us to the ”Eureka”
moment!

What our system does is it gives a real time indicator of the garbage level in a
trashcan at any given time. Using that data we can then optimize waste collected is
either dry or liquid using sensor. It allows trash collectors to plan their daily/weekly
pick up schedule. An Ultrasonic Sensor is used for detecting whether the trash can is
filled with garbage or not. Here Ultrasonic Sensor is installed at the top of Trash Can
and will measure the distance of garbage from the top of Trash can and we can set
a threshold value according to the size of trash can. If the distance will be less than
this threshold value, means that the Trash can is full of garbage and we will print the
message “value of moisture sensor” on the message and if the value is less than 300 the
motar will rotate towards the dry side and when it is greater than 300 it will rotate
towards the liquid side.

The mixing waste management is a big challenge in the any country. The smart
garbage collection system is used of the smart home and smart city. The system is
used of the separate garbage such as dry garbage is separate container and the wet
garbage is separate container with the help of a motor mechanism and the IR sensor
though. The garbage is place of motor mechanism then the IR sensor detects and
the moisture sensor is the find out the garbage is wet or dry. Suppose the garbage is
wet then the motor mechanism is rotated to left side and if the garbage is dry then
motor mechanism is rotated of right side and the garbage is collected in the container.

4
When the garbage container is full then it will display to the nearest municipal office
that the container is full and send the code or address. And the municipal office will
inform of the garbage collector driver via sms through GSM module .The total process
is wireless through and IOT based through.

An efficient waste management is a pre requisition for maintain a safe and green
environment as there are increasing all kinds of waste disposal. There are many tech-
nologies are used for waste collection as well as for well managed recycling. The In-
formation gathering is big and cumbersome. The concurrent effects of a fast national
growth rate, of a large and dense residential area and a pressing demand for urban
environmental protection create a challenging framework for waste management. The
complexity of context and procedures is indeed a primary concern of local municipal
authorities due to problems related to the collection, transportation and processing
of residential solid waste today the garbage collection is manual which takes a lot of
efforts and is time consuming.

In this project humans and vehicles were used to do that work and here we are us-
ing automatic technique to detect garbage level in Garbage Can. For that, ID number
is given to each can. Also as soon as the Garbage Can is full / over flowing then a
SMS is sent to the server from where all the garbage collection vehicles are allotted.

5
Chapter 2

Literature Survey

This chapter presents a review of the literature relevant to the proposed research work.
The primary aim of this section is to establish the motivation, need, and relevance of
this research work through an exhaustive literature survey.

2.1 Satellite Navigation Technology

In satellite navigation technology, dramatic changes have been taking place due to
the rapid development of multi-constellation GNSS to provide services for precise po-
sitioning applications [1]. However, radio signals transmitted by GNSS satellites are
vulnerable to space weather effects, including solar radio bursts and ionospheric per-
turbations. Intense solar radio bursts are potential threats to the tracking performance
of L-band-based GNSS receivers and safety-critical systems based on GNSS [2].
Large gradients have been observed in the ionospheric TEC during different intense
geomagnetic storm events at various geographical locations over low-latitude regions
[3,4]. The random ionospheric electron density irregularities cause L-band signal scin-
tillations [5]. Aarons and Kintner et al. [6] have suggested that the post-sunset scin-
tillation phenomenon seriously inhibits reliable operations of GNSS systems. Conker
et al. [1,4] have reported that amplitude and phase scintillations of radio signals
could be attributed to the ionosphere’s diffractive or refractive mechanisms. The
signal availability and positioning accuracy of Space-Based Augmentation Systems

6
(SBAS), Aircraft-Based Augmentation Systems (ABAS) and Ground-Based Augmen-
tation Systems (GBAS) have been affected due to extreme ionospheric scintillations
over equatorial regions, such as the Ascension Island [2].

Figure 2.1: Basic block diagram for gait based human identity recognition

The general framework for segmentation and pre-processing of the video sequence
is shown in Figure 2.1.

7
Chapter 3

Proposed Methodology

This chapter begins with the problem statement and research objectives formulated
for the proposed work. This is followed by Work Flow Diagram depicting the various
activities in the proposed work. Following this, a complete elucidation of the various
stages in the proposed methodology is discussed in detail in line with the Work Flow
Diagram. A brief overview of the methodologies and techniques as well as simulation
platforms used in the methodology is detailed subsequently.

3.1 Start sections

3.1.1 Table creation

Write here [4]

Table 3.1: Cost of fruits in India

Fruit details Cost calculations

Fruit Type No. of units cost/unit cost (Rs.)

Mango Malgoa 18 50
Alfonso 2 300 1,500

Jackfruit Kolli Hills 10 50 500

Banana Green 10 20 200

Total cost (Rs.) 2,200

8
3.2 Requirement analysis

3.2.1 Hardware Requirement

Explain about the appropriate Hardware Requirement with proper reasoning. (This
is mandatory section)

3.2.2 Software Requirement

Explain about the appropriate Software Requirement with proper reasoning. (This is
mandatory section)

3.2.3 Modern Engineering Tools Requirement

Explain about the appropriate Modern Engineering Tools Requirement with proper
reasoning. (This is mandatory section)

3.2.4 Techniques Requirement

Explain about the appropriate techniques Requirement. (This is mandatory section)

3.2.5 Resources Requirement

Explain about the appropriate resources Requirement. (This is mandatory section)

3.3 Impact analysis

3.3.1 Impact of project on society

Positive Impact of project on society:

(This is mandatory section)
Negative Impact of project on society:
(This is mandatory section)

9
3.3.2 Impact of project on environment

Positive Impact of project on environment:

(This is mandatory section)
Negative Impact of project on environment:
(This is mandatory section)

3.4 Professional ethical practices to be followed

Please mention about the professional ethics and responsibilities and norms of engi-
neering practices to be followed. (This is mandatory section)

10
Chapter 4

Project Implementation

This chapter commences with the details on how the proposed system has been devel-
oped with insights on the environment. Following this, description of all techniques
and their implementations, simulations have been covered comprehensively.

4.1 Hardware Implementation

Applicable if the project is hardware project.

4.1.1 System Specifications

Write here

4.1.2 Design Calculations

Write here.
We will demonstrate the creation of equations with some samples. Let us start with

11
the model of an inverted pendulum:

      
x1  0 0 1 0 x1   0 
      
d x2  0 0 0 1 x2   0 
     
 =    +   ∆µ (4.1)
dt x  0 −γ 0 0 x3   −δ 
   
 3 
      
x4 0 α 0 0 x4 −β

Proportional, integral, derivative controller is most popular in industry. It has three

Rt
tuning parameters: K, τi and τd . The integral mode includes the term 0 ()dt.

1 t
 Z 
de(t)
u(t) = K e(t) + e(t)dt + τd (4.2)
τi 0 dt

Let us go through the discrete equivalent of equation 4.2


Ts
u(n) − u(n − 1) = K e(n) − e(n − 1) + {e(n) + e(n − 1)}
2τi

τd
+ {e(n) − 2e(n − 1) + e(n − 2)} (4.3)
Ts

Section 4.1.2 shows how to write equations.

4.1.3 Circuit Diagram

Circuit diagram with all component values and proper discription.

4.2 Software Implementation

Applicable for both hardware and software based projects.

4.2.1 Algorithm

Detail algorithm.

12
4.2.2 Flow Chart

Clear flow chart.

13
Chapter 5

Results and Discussion

This chapter begins with detailed tabulation of results obtained through implemen-
tation of various techniques. Further, observations and analysis of the results is also
done along with the results in this chapter. From the analysis of the results, inferences
have been made.

5.1 Simulation Results

Commonly, for all settings the difference between the neural network outputs and
desired outputs has been found. Based on this Root Mean Square Error has been
calculated. The major aim is towards minimization of this RMSE. Fig.5.1 show the
differences obtained between the neural network outputs and the desired or actual
outputs for reference bit rate or the data rate over the training data set. Further irre-
spective of the setting as the numbers of epochs are increased, the major performance
parameter RMSE reduces steeply as it has been observed in Fig. 2.1.

14
Figure 5.1: Differences obtained between Neural Network output and target or desired
values

5.2 Hardware Results

Please mention all the results with proper and clear images with detail explanation of
results.

15
Chapter 6

Conclusions and Future Scope

6.1 Conclusions

Write here

6.2 Future Scope

Write here

16
References

[1] Linda Doyle, Essentials of Cognitive Radio, Cambridge Wireless Essential Series,
May 2009

[2] Kwang-Cheng Chen, Ramjee Prasad , Cognitive Radio Networks, Wiley Publica-
tions, April 2009.

[3] Simon Haykins, “Cognitive Radio: Brain-Empowered Wireless Communications”,

IEEE Journal on Selected Areas in Communications, Vo. 23, No.2, February 2005.

[4] Simon Haykin, “Cognitive Dynamic Systems”, Proceedings of the IEEE , Vol. 94,
No. 11, November 2006, 1910-1911.

[5] Carlos Cordeiro, Kiran Challapali, and Dagnachew Birru, “IEEE 802.22: An
Introduction to the First Wireless Standard based on Cognitive Radios”, Journal
of Communications, vol. 1, no. 1, April 2006.

[6] Charles Clancy, Erich Stuntebeck, “Applications of machine learning to Cognitive

Radio Networks”, IEEE Wireless Communications , August 2007.

17