Unit 2

Software Development Life Cycle (SDLC)

A software life cycle model (also termed process model) is a pictorial and
diagrammatic representation of the software life cycle. A life cycle model represents
all the methods required to make a software product transit through its life cycle
stages. It also captures the structure in which these methods are to be undertaken.

Software Development Life Cycle, SDLC for short, is a well-defined, structured

sequence of stages in software engineering to develop the intended software

product.

SDLC Activities

SDLC provides a series of steps to be followed to design and develop a software product efficiently. SDLC framework
includes the following stepssteps.

Communication

This is the first step where the user initiates the request for a desired software

product. The user contacts the service provider and tries to negotiate the terms,

submits the request to the service providing organization in writing.

Requirement Gathering

This step onwards the software development team works to carry on the project.

The team holds discussions with various stakeholders from problem domain and

tries to bring out as much information as possible on their requirements. The

requirements are contemplated and segregated into user requirements, system

requirements and functional requirements. The requirements are collected using

a number of practices as given –

studying the existing or obsolete system and software,

 conducting interviews of users and developers,

 referring to the database or

 collecting answers from the questionnaires.

Feasibility Study

After requirement gathering, the team comes up with a rough plan of software

process. At this step the team analyzes if a software can be designed to fulfill all

requirements of the user, and if there is any possibility of software being no more

useful. It is also analyzed if the project is financially, practically, and

technologically feasible for the organization to take up. There are many algorithms

available, which help the developers to conclude the feasibility of a software

project.

System Analysis

At this step the developers decide a roadmap of their plan and try to bring up the

best software model suitable for the project. System analysis includes

understanding of software product limitations, learning system related problems

or changes to be done in existing systems beforehand, identifying and addressing

the impact of project on organization and personnel etc. The project team analyzes

the scope of the project and plans the schedule and resources accordingly.

Software Design

Next step is to bring down whole knowledge of requirements and analysis on the

desk and design the software product. The inputs from users and information

gathered in requirement gathering phase are the inputs of this step. The output

of this step comes in the form of two designs; logical design, and physical design.

Engineers produce meta-data and data dictionaries, logical diagrams, data-flow

diagrams, and in some cases pseudo codes.

Coding

This step is also known as programming phase. The implementation of software

design starts in terms of writing program code in the suitable programming

language and developing error-free executable programs efficiently.

Testing

An estimate says that 50% of whole software development process should be

tested. Errors may ruin the software from critical level to its own removal.
Software testing is done while coding by the developers and thorough testing is

conducted by testing experts at various levels of code such as module testing,

program testing, product testing, in-house testing, and testing the product at

user’s end. Early discovery of errors and their remedy is the key to reliable

software.

Integration

Software may need to be integrated with the libraries, databases, and other

program(s). This stage of SDLC is involved in the integration of software with

outer world entities.

Implementation

This means installing the software on user machines. At times, software needs

post-installation configurations at user end. Software is tested for portability and

adaptability and integration related issues are solved during implementation.

Operation and Maintenance

This phase confirms the software operation in terms of more efficiency and less

errors. If required, the users are trained on, or aided with the documentation on

how to operate the software and how to keep the software operational. The

software is maintained timely by updating the code according to the changes

taking place in user end environment or technology. This phase may face

challenges from hidden bugs and real-world unidentified problems.

SDLC Models and Method

Software Development Paradigm

The software development paradigm helps a developer to select a strategy to

develop the software. A software development paradigm has its own set of tools,

methods, and procedures, which are expressed clearly and defines software

development life cycle. A few of software development paradigms or process

models are defined as follows:

Waterfall Model

Waterfall model is the simplest model of software development paradigm. All the

phases of SDLC will function one after another in linear manner. That is, when the

first phase is finished then only the second phase will start and so on.
This model assumes that everything is carried out and taken place perfectly as

planned in the previous stage and there is no need to think about the past issues

that may arise in the next phase. This model does not work smoothly if there are

some issues left at the previous step. The sequential nature of model does not

allow us to go back and undo or redo our actions.

This model is best suited when developers already have designed and developed

similar software in the past and are aware of all its domains.

Iterative Model

This model leads the software development process in iterations. It projects the

process of development in cyclic manner repeating every step after every cycle of

SDLC process.

The software is first developed on very small scale and all the steps are followed

which are taken into consideration. Then, on every next iteration, more features
and modules are designed, coded, tested, and added to the software. Every cycle

produces a software, which is complete in itself and has more features and

capabilities than that of the previous one.

After each iteration, the management team can do work on risk management and

prepare for the next iteration. Because a cycle includes small portion of whole

software process, it is easier to manage the development process but it consumes

more resources.

Spiral Model

Spiral model is a combination of both, iterative model and one of the SDLC model.

It can be seen as if you choose one SDLC model and combined it with cyclic

process (iterative model).

This model considers risk, which often goes un-noticed by most other models. The

model starts with determining objectives and constraints of the software at the

start of one iteration. Next phase is of prototyping the software. This includes risk

analysis. Then one standard SDLC model is used to build the software. In the

fourth phase of the plan of next iteration is prepared.

V – model

The major drawback of waterfall model is we move to the next stage only when

the previous one is finished and there was no chance to go back if something is

found wrong in later stages. V-Model provides means of testing of software at

each stage in reverse manner.

At every stage, test plans and test cases are created to verify and validate the

product according to the requirement of that stage. For example, in requirement

gathering stage the test team prepares all the test cases in correspondence to the

requirements. Later, when the product is developed and is ready for testing, test

cases of this stage verify the software against its validity towards requirements at

this stage.

This makes both verification and validation go in parallel. This model is also known

as verification and validation model.

Big Bang Model

This model is the simplest model in its form. It requires little planning, lots of

programming and lots of funds. This model is conceptualized around the big bang

of universe. As scientists say that after big bang lots of galaxies, planets, and

stars evolved just as an event. Likewise, if we put together lots of programming

and funds, you may achieve the best software product.

For this model, very small amount of planning is required. It does not follow any

process, or at times the customer is not sure about the requirements and future

needs. So the input requirements are arbitrary.

This model is not suitable for large software projects but good one for learning

and experimenting.

Software Project Management:-

Software Project
A Software Project is the complete procedure of software
development from
requirement gathering to testing and maintenance, carried out
according to the
execution methodologies, in a specified period of time to
achieve intended
software product.
What is software project management?
Software project management is an art and discipline of planning and supervising
software projects. It is a sub-discipline of software project management in which
software projects planned, implemented, monitored and controlled.

It is a procedure of managing, allocating and timing resources to develop computer

software that fulfills requirements.

In software Project Management, the client and the developers need to know the
length, period and cost of the project.

Project Estimation
For an effective management, accurate estimation of various measures is a
must.
With the correct estimation, managers can manage and control the project more
efficiently and effectively.
Project estimation may involve the following:
 Software size estimation
Software size may be estimated either in terms of KLOC (Kilo Line of Code)
or by calculating number of function points in the software. Lines of code
depend upon coding practices. Function points vary according to the user
or software requirement.
 Effort estimation
The manager estimates efforts in terms of personnel requirement and
man-hour required to produce the software. For effort estimation software
size should be known. This can either be derived by manager’s experience,
historical data of organization, or software size can be converted into
efforts by using some standard formulae.
 Time estimation
Once size and efforts are estimated, the time required to produce the
software can be estimated. Efforts required is segregated into sub
categories as per the requirement specifications and interdependency of
various components of software. Software tasks are divided into smaller
tasks, activities or events by Work Breakthrough Structure (WBS). The
tasks are scheduled on day-to-day basis or in calendar months.
The sum of time required to complete all tasks in hours or days is the total
time invested to complete the project.
 Cost estimation
This might be considered as the most difficult of all because it depends on
more elements than any of the previous ones. For estimating project cost,
it is required to consider -
 Size of the software
 Software quality
 Hardware
 Additional software or tools, licenses etc.
 Skilled personnel with task-specific skills
 Travel involved
 Communication
 Training and support
Project Estimation Techniques
We discussed various parameters involving project estimation such as size,
effort,
time and cost.
Project manager can estimate the listed factors using two broadly recognized
techniques –
Decomposition Technique
This technique assumes the software as a product of various compositions.
There are two main models -
 Line of Code: Here the estimation is done on behalf of number of line of
codes in the software product.
 Function Points: Here the estimation is done on behalf of number of
function points in the software product.
Empirical Estimation Technique
This technique uses empirically derived formulae to make estimation.These
formulae are based on LOC or FPs.
 Putnam Model
This model is made by Lawrence H. Putnam, which is based on Norden’s
frequency distribution (Rayleigh curve). Putnam model maps time and
efforts required with software size.
 COCOMO
COCOMO stands for Constructive Cost Model, developed by Barry W.
Boehm. It divides the software product into three categories of software:
organic, semi-detached, and embedded.