Lesson 2

LEARNING OUTCOME(S):
At the end of lesson, the students are expected to:
∙ Identify different sampling technique
∙ Apply the different sampling technique in real life situations

2.1 SAMPLING
Sampling is the process of selecting units (e.g., people,
organizations) from a population of interest so that by studying
the sample we may fairly generalize our results back to the
population from which they were chosen.

Statistical Terms in Sampling

When we sample, the units that we sample, usually people --
supply us with one or more responses. In this sense,
a response is a specific measurement value that a sampling
unit supplies.

In the first figure, the person is responding to a survey

instrument and gives a response of '4'. When we look across
the responses that we get for our entire sample, we use a
statistic (2nd picture)

Sampling is done to get an estimate for the population we

sampled from. If we could, we would much prefer to measure
the entire population. If you measure the entire population and
calculate a value like a mean or average, we don't refer to this
as a statistic, we call it a parameter of the population (3rd picture).

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 Probability Sampling
A probability sampling method is any method of sampling that utilizes some
form of random selection. In order to have a random selection method, you must
set up some process or procedure that assures that the different units in your
population have equal probabilities of being chosen. Humans have long practiced
various forms of random selection, such as picking a name out of a hat, or choosing
the short straw. These days, we tend to use computers as the mechanism for
generating random numbers as the basis for random selection.

Simple Random Sampling

The simplest form of random sampling is called simple random sampling.

Objective: To select n units out of N such that each sample has an equal
chance of being selected.

Procedure: Use a table of random numbers,

a computer random
number generator, or a
mechanical device to
select the sample.

How do we select a simple random sample?

Let's assume that we are doing

some research with a small
service agency that wishes to
assess clients' views of quality
of service over the past year.
First, we have to get the
sampling frame organized. To accomplish this, we'll go through agency records to
identify every client over the past 12 months. If we're lucky, the agency has good
accurate computerized records and can quickly produce such a list. Then, we have
to actually draw the sample.

You could print off the list of 1000 clients, tear then into separate strips, put
the strips in a hat, mix them up real good, close your eyes and pull out the first
100. But this mechanical procedure would be tedious and the quality of the sample
would depend on how thoroughly you mixed them up and how randomly you
reached in. Perhaps a better procedure would be to use the kind of ball machine
that is popular with many of the state lotteries.

Simple random sampling is simple to accomplish and is easy to explain to

others. Because simple random sampling is a fair way to select a sample, it is
reasonable to generalize the results from the sample back to the population. Simple
random sampling is not the most statistically efficient method of sampling and you

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 may, just because of the luck of the draw, not get good representation of subgroups
in a population. To deal with these issues, we have to turn to other sampling
methods.

Stratified Random Sampling

Stratified Random Sampling, also sometimes called proportional or quota

random sampling, involves dividing your population into homogeneous subgroups
and then taking a simple random sample in each subgroup. In more formal terms:

One of the major reasons why you might prefer stratified sampling over
simple random sampling is it assures that you will be able to represent not only the
overall population, but also key subgroups of the population, especially small
minority groups.

Example, let's say that the population of clients for our agency can be divided into three groups:
Caucasian, African-American and Hispanic-American. Assuming that both the African-
Americans and Hispanic-Americans are relatively small minorities of the clientele (10%
and 5% respectively).

Procedure. First, determine the sample size. Suppose we will take a sample of 100
from the population of 1000 clients over the past year. We have a within-
stratum sampling fraction of 25/100 = 25%. Similarly, we know that 5% or 50
clients are Hispanic-American. So, our within-stratum sampling fraction will be
25/50 = 50%. Finally, by subtraction we know that there are 850 Caucasian
clients. Our within
stratum sampling fraction for them is 50/850 = about 5.88%. Because the
groups are more homogeneous within-group than across the population as a
whole, we can expect greater
statistical
precision (less variance).
And,
because we stratified, we
know we
will have enough cases from
each
group to make meaningful
subgroup
inferences.

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 Systematic Random Sampling

Here are the steps you need to follow in order to achieve a systematic random sample:
∙ number the units in the population from 1 to N
∙ decide on the n (sample size) that you want or need
∙ k = N/n = the interval size
∙ randomly select an integer between 1 to k∙ then take every kth unit

EXAMPLE

Assuming a
population that
only has N=100
people in it and
that you want to
take a sample of
n=20.

To use
systematic
sampling, the
population must
be listed in a
random order.
The sampling
fraction would be
f = 20/100 =
20%. in this
case, the interval
size, k, is equal to N/n = 100/20 = 5. Now, select a random integer from 1 to 5. In our example,
imagine that you chose 4. Now, to select the sample, start with the 4th unit in the list and take
every k-th unit (every 5th, because k=5). You would be sampling units 4, 9, 14, 19, and so on to
100 and you would wind up with 20 units in your sample.

For this to work, it is essential that the units in the population are randomly
ordered, at least with respect to the characteristics you are measuring.

Cluster (Area) Random Sampling

One of the difficulties with random sampling methods when we have to

sample a population that's disbursed across a wide geographic region is that you
will have to cover a lot of ground geographically in order to get to each of the units
you sampled. Imagine taking a simple random sample of all the residents of
Malaybalay City in order to conduct personal interviews. Your interviewers are going
to have a lot of traveling to do. It is for precisely this problem that cluster or area
random sampling was invented.

In cluster sampling, we follow these steps:

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 ∙ divide population into clusters (usually along geographic
boundaries) ∙ randomly sample clusters
∙ measure all units within sampled clusters

For instance, in the figure we see a map of Bukidnon. Let's say that we have to do a
survey of town governments that will require us going to the towns personally. If we do a simple
random sample, we'll have to cover the entire province geographically. Instead, we decide to
do a cluster sampling. Once these are selected, we go to every town government in the Bukidnon
wherein the towns are the clusters. Clearly this strategy will help us to economize on our
mileage.

Multi-Stage Sampling

The four methods -- simple, stratified, systematic and cluster -- are the
simplest random sampling strategies. In most real applied social research, we would
use sampling methods that are considerably more complex than these simple
variations. The most important principle in this sampling is that it is the combination
of all the simple methods described earlier in a variety of useful ways that help us
address our sampling needs in the most efficient and effective manner possible. This
combination of sampling is called multi-stage sampling.

For example, consider the idea of sampling Bukidnon residents for face-to-face
interviews. Clearly, we would want to do some type of cluster sampling as the first stage of the

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 process. We might sample each town throughout the province. But in cluster sampling we would
then go on to measure everyone in the clusters we select. Even if we are sampling census tracts,
we may not be able to measure everyone who is in the census tract. So, we might set up a
stratified sampling process within the clusters. In this case, we would have a two-stage sampling
process with stratified samples within cluster samples.

Another example, consider the problem of sampling students in grade schools. We

begin with a national sample of school districts stratified by educational level. Within selected
districts, we might do a simple random sample of schools. Within schools, we might do a simple
random sample of classes or grades. And, within classes, we might even do a simple random
sample of students. In this case, we have three or four stages in the sampling process and we
use both stratified and simple random sampling.

By combining different sampling methods, we are able to achieve a rich

variety of probabilistic sampling methods that can be used in a wide range of social
research contexts.

Nonprobability Sampling
The difference between nonprobability and probability sampling is that
nonprobability sampling does not involve random selection and probability sampling
does.

Does that mean that nonprobability samples aren't representative of the

population? Not necessarily. But it does mean that nonprobability samples cannot
depend upon the rationale of probability theory.

In general, researchers prefer probabilistic or random sampling methods over

nonprobabilistic ones, and consider them to be more accurate and rigorous.
However, in applied social research there may be circumstances where it is not
feasible, practical or theoretically sensible to do random sampling. Here, we
consider a wide range of nonprobabilistic alternatives.

We can divide nonprobability sampling methods into two broad types:

accidental or purposive. Most sampling methods are purposive in nature because
we usually approach the sampling problem with a specific plan in mind. The most
important distinctions among these types of sampling methods are the ones
between the different types of purposive sampling approaches.

Accidental, Haphazard or Convenience Sampling

One of the most common methods of sampling. It is sometimes called the

"man on the street" (or, the "person on the street"). Interviews conducted
frequently by television news programs to get a quick (although non representative)
reading of public opinion. In clinical practice, we might use clients who are available
to us as our sample.
In many research contexts, we sample simply by asking for volunteers. Clearly, the

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 main problem of this sampling is that we have no evidence that they are
representative of the populations we're interested in generalizing to.

Purposive Sampling

In purposive sampling, we sample with a purpose in mind. We usually

would have one or more specific predefined groups we are seeking.

For instance, we select sample who we run into a mall or on the street or stopping various
people and asking if they could interview them. Most likely if we are engaged in market research,
we use purposive sampling. Another example, we might be looking for female between 30-40
years old. They size up the people passing by and anyone who looks to be in that category they
stop to ask if they will participate. One of the first things they're likely to do is verify that the
respondent does in fact meet the criteria for being in the sample.

Purposive sampling can be very useful for situations where you need to reach
a targeted sample quickly and where sampling for proportionality is not the primary
concern. With a purposive sample, you are likely to get the opinions of your target
population, but you are also likely to overweight subgroups in your population that
are more readily accessible.

Quota Sampling

In quota sampling, you select people nonrandomly according to some fixed

quota. There are two types of quota sampling: proportional and non-proportional.

In proportional quota sampling you want to represent the major

characteristics of the population by sampling a proportional amount of each.

For instance, if you know the population has 40% women and 60% men, and that you
want a total sample size of 100, you will continue sampling until you get those percentages and
then you will stop. So, if you've already got the 40 women for your sample, but not the sixty
men, you will continue to sample men but even if legitimate women respondents come along,
you will not sample them because you have already "met your quota." The problem here (as in
much purposive sampling) is that you have to decide the specific characteristics on which you
will base the quota. Will it be by gender, age, education race, religion, etc.

Nonproportional quota sampling is a bit less restrictive. In this method, you

specify the minimum number of sampled units you want in each category. Here,
you're not concerned with having numbers that match the proportions in the
population. Instead, you simply want to have enough to assure that you will be
able to talk about even small groups in the population. This method is the
nonprobabilistic analogue of stratified random sampling in that it is typically used
to assure that smaller groups are adequately represented in your sample.
Snowball Sampling

In snowball sampling, you begin by identifying someone who meets the

criteria for inclusion in your study. You then ask them to recommend others who

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 they may know who also meet the criteria. Although this method would hardly lead
to representative samples, there are times when it may be the best method
available. Snowball sampling is especially useful when you are trying to reach
populations that are inaccessible or hard to find.

For instance, if you are studying the homeless, you are not likely to be able to find good
lists of homeless people within a specific geographical area. However, if you go to that area and
identify one or two, you may find that they know very well who the other homeless people in
their vicinity are and how you can find them.

Let’s DO this

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