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 Data Structures
and Algorithms
in C++

Fourth Edition

Adam Drozdek

Australia • Brazil • Japan • Korea • Mexico • Singapore • Spain • United Kingdom • United States

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 This is an electronic version of the print textbook. Due to electronic rights restrictions,
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 Data Structures and © 2013 Cengage Learning
Algorithms in C++,
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this work covered by the copyright herein
Fourth Edition
may be reproduced, transmitted, stored or used in any form or by any means
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 To my daughters, Justyna and Kasia

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 Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
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 Contents

1 Object-Oriented Programming Using C++ 1

1.1 Abstract Data Types 1
1.2 Encapsulation 1
1.3 Inheritance 6
1.4 Pointers 9
1.4.1 Pointers and Arrays 12
1.4.2 Pointers and Copy Constructors 14
1.4.3 Pointers and Destructors 16
1.4.4 Pointers and Reference Variables 17
1.4.5 Pointers to Functions 20
1.5 Polymorphism 21
1.6 C++ and Object-Oriented Programming 23
1.7 The Standard Template Library 24
1.7.1 Containers 24
1.7.2 Iterators 25
1.7.3 Algorithms 25
1.7.4 Function Objects 26
1.8 Vectors in the Standard Template Library 28
1.9 Data Structures and Object-Oriented Programming 35
1.10 Case Study: Random Access File 35
1.11 Exercises   46
1.12 Programming Assignments   48
Bibliography   50

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 vi ■ Contents

2 Complexity Analysis 51
2.1 Computational and Asymptotic Complexity 51
2.2 Big-O Notation 52
2.3 Properties of Big-O Notation 54
2.4 Ω and Θ Notations 56
2.5 Possible Problems 57
2.6 Examples of Complexities 57
2.7 Finding Asymptotic Complexity: Examples 59
2.8 The Best, Average, and Worst Cases 61
2.9 Amortized Complexity 64
2.10 NP-Completeness 68
2.11 Exercises   71
Bibliography   74

3 Linked Lists 75
3.1 Singly Linked Lists 75
3.1.1 Insertion 81
3.1.2 Deletion 83
3.1.3 Search 89
3.2 Doubly Linked Lists 90
3.3 Circular Lists 94
3.4 Skip Lists 96
3.5 Self-Organizing Lists 101
3.6 Sparse Tables 106
3.7 Lists in the Standard Template Library 109
3.8 Concluding Remarks 113
3.9 Case Study: A Library 114
3.10 Exercises   125
3.11 Programming Assignments   127
Bibliography   130

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 Contents ■ vii

4 Stacks and Queues 131

4.1 Stacks 131
4.2 Queues 139
4.3 Priority Queues 148
4.4 Stacks in the Standard Template Library 149
4.5 Queues in the Standard Template Library 149
4.6 Priority Queues in the Standard Template Library 151
4.7 Deques in the Standard Template Library 153
4.8 Case Study: Exiting a Maze 158
4.9 Exercises   165
4.10 Programming Assignments   166
Bibliography   168

5 Recursion 169
5.1 Recursive Definitions 169
5.2 Function Calls and Recursion Implementation 172
5.3 Anatomy of a Recursive Call 174
5.4 Tail Recursion 177
5.5 Nontail Recursion 178
5.6 Indirect Recursion 184
5.7 Nested Recursion 186
5.8 Excessive Recursion 186
5.9 Backtracking 190
5.10 Concluding Remarks 197
5.11 Case Study: A Recursive Descent Interpreter 198
5.12 Exercises   207
5.13 Programming Assignments   210
Bibliography   213

6 Binary Trees 214

6.1 Trees, Binary Trees, and Binary Search Trees 214
6.2 Implementing Binary Trees 219
6.3 Searching a Binary Search Tree 222
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 viii ■ Contents

6.4 Tree Traversal 224

6.4.1 Breadth-First Traversal 225
6.4.2 Depth-First Traversal 226
6.4.3 Stackless Depth-First Traversal 233
6.5 Insertion 240
6.6 Deletion 243
6.6.1 Deletion by Merging 244
6.6.2 Deletion by Copying 246
6.7 Balancing a Tree 250
6.7.1 The DSW Algorithm 253
6.7.2 AVL Trees 256
6.8 Self-Adjusting Trees 261
6.8.1 Self-Restructuring Trees 262
6.8.2 Splaying 263
6.9 Heaps 268
6.9.1 Heaps as Priority Queues 270
6.9.2 Organizing Arrays as Heaps 271
6.10 Treaps 276
6.11 k-d Trees 280
6.12 Polish Notation and Expression Trees 286
6.12.1 Operations on Expression Trees 287
6.13 Case Study: Computing Word Frequencies 290
6.14 Exercises   298
6.15 Programming Assignments   302
Bibliography   306

7 Multiway Trees 309

7.1 The Family of B-Trees 310
7.1.1 B-Trees 311
7.1.2 B*-Trees 321
7.1.3 B+-Trees 323
7.1.4 Prefix B+-Trees 326
7.1.5 K‑d B-trees 327
7.1.6 Bit-Trees 334
7.1.7 R-Trees 336
7.1.8 2–4 Trees 337
7.1.9 Sets and Multisets in the Standard Template Library 353
7.1.10 Maps and Multimaps in the Standard Template Library 359

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 Contents ■ ix

7.2 Tries 364

7.3 Concluding Remarks 373
7.4 Case Study: Spell Checker 373
7.5 Exercises   384
7.6 Programming Assignments   385
Bibliography   389

8 Graphs 391
8.1 Graph Representation 393
8.2 Graph Traversals 395
8.3 Shortest Paths 398
8.3.1 All-to-All Shortest Path Problem 405
8.4 Cycle Detection 408
8.4.1 Union-Find Problem 409
8.5 Spanning Trees 411
8.6 Connectivity 415
8.6.1 Connectivity in Undirected Graphs 415
8.6.2 Connectivity in Directed Graphs 418
8.7 Topological Sort 421
8.8 Networks 423
8.8.1 Maximum Flows 423
8.8.2 Maximum Flows of Minimum Cost 433
8.9 Matching 438
8.9.1 Stable Matching Problem 442
8.9.2 Assignment Problem 445
8.9.3 Matching in Nonbipartite Graphs 447
8.10 Eulerian and Hamiltonian Graphs 449
8.10.1 Eulerian Graphs 449
8.10.2 Hamiltonian Graphs 453
8.11 Graph Coloring 459
8.12 NP-Complete Problems in Graph Theory 462
8.12.1 The Clique Problem 462
8.12.2 The 3-Colorability Problem 463
8.12.3 The Vertex Cover Problem 465
8.12.4 The Hamiltonian Cycle Problem 466
8.13 Case Study: Distinct Representatives 467

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 x ■ Contents

8.14 Exercises   480
8.15 Programming Assignments   486
Bibliography   487

9 Sorting 491
9.1 Elementary Sorting Algorithms 492
9.1.1 Insertion Sort 492
9.1.2 Selection Sort 495
9.1.3 Bubble Sort 497
9.1.4 Comb Sort 500
9.2 Decision Trees 501
9.3 Efficient Sorting Algorithms 505
9.3.1 Shell Sort 505
9.3.2 Heap Sort 508
9.3.3 Quicksort 512
9.3.4 Mergesort 518
9.3.5 Radix Sort 521
9.3.6 Counting Sort 527
9.4 Sorting in the Standard Template Library 528
9.5 Concluding Remarks 532
9.6 Case Study: Adding Polynomials 534
9.7 Exercises   542
9.8 Programming Assignments   543
Bibliography   545

10 Hashing 548
10.1 Hash Functions 549
10.1.1 Division 549
10.1.2 Folding 549
10.1.3 Mid-Square Function 550
10.1.4 Extraction 550
10.1.5 Radix Transformation 551
10.1.6 Universal Hash Functions 551
10.2 Collision Resolution 551
10.2.1 Open Addressing 552
10.2.2 Chaining 558
10.2.3 Bucket Addressing 560
10.3 Deletion 561
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 Contents ■ xi

10.4 Perfect Hash Functions 562

10.4.1 Cichelli’s Method 563
10.4.2 The FHCD Algorithm 566
10.5 Rehashing 568
10.5.1 The Cuckoo Hashing 568
10.6 Hash Functions for Extendible Files 571
10.6.1 Extendible Hashing 571
10.6.2 Linear Hashing 574
10.7 Case Study: Hashing with Buckets 576
10.8 Exercises   586
10.9 Programming Assignments   587
Bibliography   588

11 Data Compression 590

11.1 Conditions for Data Compression 590
11.2 Huffman Coding 592
11.2.1 Adaptive Huffman Coding 601
11.3 Run-Length Encoding 606
11.4 Ziv-Lempel Code 607
11.5 Case Study: Huffman Method with Run-Length Encoding 610
11.6 Exercises   622
11.7 Programming Assignments   622
Bibliography   624

12 Memory Management 625

12.1 The Sequential-Fit Methods 626
12.2 The Nonsequential-Fit Methods 627
12.2.1 Buddy Systems 629
12.3 Garbage Collection 636
12.3.1 Mark-and-Sweep 637
12.3.2 Copying Methods 644
12.3.3 Incremental Garbage Collection 646
12.3.4 Generational Garbage Collection 653
12.4 Concluding Remarks 657
12.5 Case Study: An In-Place Garbage Collector 658

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 xii ■ Contents

12.6 Exercises   667
12.7 Programming Assignments   668
Bibliography   671

13 String Matching 674

13.1 Exact String Matching 674
13.1.1 Straightforward Algorithms 674
13.1.2 The Knuth-Morris-Pratt Algorithm 677
13.1.3 The Boyer-Moore Algorithm 685
13.1.4 Multiple Searches 695
13.1.5 Bit-Oriented Approach 697
13.1.6 Matching Sets of Words 700
13.1.7 Regular Expression Matching 707
13.1.8 Suffix Tries and Trees 711
13.1.9 Suffix Arrays 717
13.2 Approximate String Matching 719
13.2.1 String Similarity 720
13.2.2 String Matching with k Errors 726
13.3 Case Study: Longest Common Substring 729
13.4 Exercises   738
13.5 Programming Assignments   740
Bibliography   741

Appendixes
A Computing Big-O 743
A.1 Harmonic Series 743
A.2 Approximation of the Function lg(n!) 743
A.3 Big-O for Average Case of Quicksort 745
A.4 Average Path Length in a Random Binary Tree 747
A.5 The Number of Nodes in an AVL Tree 748
B Algorithms in the Standard Template Library 749
B.1 Standard Algorithms 749
C NP-Completeness 758
C.1 Cook’s Theorem 758

Index 771

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 Preface

The study of data structures, a fundamental component of a computer science edu-

cation, serves as the foundation upon which many other computer science fields are
built. Some knowledge of data structures is a must for students who wish to do work
in design, implementation, testing, or maintenance of virtually any software system.
The scope and presentation of material in Data Structures and Algorithms in C++
provide students with the necessary knowledge to perform such work.
This book highlights three important aspects of data structures. First, a very
strong emphasis is placed on the connection between data structures and their al-
gorithms, including analyzing algorithms’ complexity. Second, data structures are
presented in an object-oriented setting in accordance with the current design and
implementation paradigm. In particular, the information-hiding principle to ad-
vance encapsulation and decomposition is stressed. Finally, an important compo-
nent of the book is data structure implementation, which leads to the choice of C++
as the programming language.
The C++ language, an object-oriented descendant of C, is widespread in indus-
try and academia as an excellent programming language. It is also useful and natural
for introducing data structures. Therefore, because of the wide use of C++ in applica-
tion programming and the object-oriented characteristics of the language, using C++
to teach a data structures and algorithms course, even on the introductory level, is well
justified.
This book provides the material for an introductory data structures course,
as well as for an advanced data structures and algorithms course. It also meets the
requirements for the following units specified in the Computer Science Curriculum
2008: DS/GraphsAndTrees, PF/DataStructures, PF/Recursion, PF/ObjectOriented,
AL/BasicAnalysis, AL/AlgorithmicStrategies, AL/FundamentalAlgorithms,
AL/ PversusNP, PL/DeclarationsAndTypes, PL/AbstractionMechanisms, PL/
ObjectOrientedProgramming.
Most chapters include a case study that illustrates a complete context in which
certain algorithms and data structures can be used. These case studies were chosen
from different areas of computer science such as interpreters, symbolic computation,
and file processing, to indicate the wide range of applications to which topics under
discussion may apply.

xiii
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stumbled back, his hand crashing against a rheostat. A thunderous
surge of high voltage crackled suddenly, kniving along the glassite,
and the motors from the lower decks sang a mounting, thunderous
song.
At the same time, everything shifted. Something had dealt the mud-
submarine a tremendous blow from above. They were sent
careening against the hull and then to the floor, which began to tilt.
Link Raeburn had been thrown to his hands and knees. Now his eyes
goggled up at the instrument panel. Lonny Higgens sat sprawled out
with the girl a tumbled heap in his arms.
"Good going, Lonny!" cried Raeburn incredulously. "We're sinking
again. How did you manage to do it?"
Lonny blinked through a cascade of tumbling russet curls and looked
up wonderingly.
"I suppose the electrolysis worked after all," he answered weakly.
"Under the pressure, the high voltage must have produced liquid
oxygen, and then ignited it. And if the propellers are working we
ought to be able to wriggle out into the clear some way."
"That puts a different light on the entire matter," said Raeburn,
getting to his feet and drawing a ray pistol from his pocket. "I told
you I would do you in for good the next time I made a try. Get up,
Lonny, and start saying your prayers."
"My goodness," gasped Baron Munchy, crawling up over the edge of
the control chair and looking on with glittering, faceted eyes.

VI

Lonny Higgens got up slowly, then glanced lazily toward the control
instruments, where the depth indicator had dipped down noticeably.
"That's all very well in due time," he said, "but we're still under the
ledge, and not out of danger by any means. If we don't shove from
under it we'll land back in the same shape."
"Get over to those controls then," ordered Raeburn.
Lonny grinned and went to the familiar seat. The craft was making
larger circles as it descended, indicating that his guess must have
been correct, that they were in a pocket, and that the pocket was
broadening. Somewhere at the bottom of that pocket was a tunnel
opening upon the outer ocean and it was up to him to find that
opening—blindfold. If they could only keep descending until the
vessel entered the channel their main problem would be solved. But
if the pressure generated from the explosion was dissipated too
suddenly, his mud-ship would ascend into the trap and stay forever
there on the muddy ocean floor.
He felt a lurch. The ship had paused and was sinking no longer. This
then, was the limit. It would not go low enough. He saw the horror
in Raeburn's eyes.
They would die from starvation here. The gun in Raeburn's hands
would be merciful, if it relieved them from the more hideous death
that was certain to come.
The hull shuddered, slipped against a rocky outer substance that
seemed to give way suddenly. He felt the relaxation of the outer
barrier through the controls, knew that the propellers were driving it
out and into the true bed of the Uranusian ocean. The needle
indicator paused uncertainly, started to rise. By the expression on
Raeburn's face he knew that the other had not guessed that their
trap was behind them.
It was his chance. Lonny's hands moved swiftly on the controls. A
surge of power sent the rear-drive mud-propellers spinning. Too
much power. The ship tilted swiftly and Raeburn lost his balance.
The man at the controls left them in a flash.
Lonny seized the wrist that held the gun, wrenched it away. It went
skidding across the floor. Then he stuck out fiercely at the sardonic
features so close to him. Raeburn rocked backward, flailing out with
both hands, as Lonny came in again, both fists landing solidly. His
antagonist spun backward, then fell helplessly to the decking. Baron
Munchy was jumping up and down in ecstacy.
"Hit'm, Boss! Sock 'im again!" he piped, but Lonny picked up the
gun, slipped it into his pocket, and shook his head in the negative.

"Hit'm, Boss. Sock 'im again!" Baron Munchy piped, jumping up and
down in ecstacy. "Him all bad. Say Boss no good."
"There's to be no more fighting, Raeburn," he said. "I'll pick you off
with the gun if you start anything. When we break the surface you
can get your mud-shoes and go."
Four thousand feet. Three thousand. The mud-submarine was rising
rapidly now, had passed the two thousand mark.
"You've really hurt the little fellow's feelings," said Lana Hilton,
evading his eyes and gesturing toward Baron Munchy, who was
beating his fists against the wall in sheer frustration. "He must have
been praying for blood and thunder."
"I'll plaster 'im!" Munchy was squeaking. "I'll do him in!"
One thousand.
"He's a misfit here," said Lonny slowly. "He comes from Umbriel, or
one of the other moons. On his own world he was used to great
activity. Uranus hasn't affected him—acting upon his nerves—as it
has the rest of us. But he's a misfit here. He expects the normal
activity of his own satellite upon Uranus. That just isn't possible. I
think he'd like it on earth."
"You mean—" began Lana, just as the mud-submarine broke the
surface and began bobbing to a rest. Lonny followed Raeburn up the
hatchway, watched him open it. The upper mists broke in damply,
sending heavy white furlers about their faces. Link Raeburn looked
glum and defeated as he donned the heavy mud-shoes and slogged
away into the mist.
Lonny Higgens closed the hatchway and yawned. He was beginning
to feel dog-tired again—a normal sensation on Uranus—but a grim
decision had taken shape in his mind.
"Sure," he said, in answer to the question in her gleaming eyes. "I'm
going to get out of here. I'm going to send an S. O. S. If that doesn't
work I'll get a straight call through to earth, charter a space yacht,
and have it sent to pick us up."
"Lonny, you mean, that—" began Lana, moving toward him with her
lips invitingly close.
But Lonny Higgens evaded her. He turned his back and sat down in a
chair, then yawned again. Uranus had him! Old rocking chair had
him! Something had him, as long as he was on this blasted planet.
Lovely as Lana was, it would take more energy than he could
assimilate to make love to her on this muddy world.
"I guess you'll have to save it," he sighed regretfully. "But you'd not
be safe to try those tactics again—once we get back on earth."
 *** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DERELICTS OF
URANUS ***

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