Unit 2

LASERS AND OPTICAL FIBERS

Introduction

LASER is an abbreviation for “Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation” and

symbolically suggests that the process of stimulated emission of radiation is used to amplify light.

➢ Theoretical idea given in 1958 by Charles Townes (Nobel prize in Physics 1964) and Arthur
Schawlow of Bell Laboratories
➢ The first laser was built by T.H. Maiman in 1960 by using Ruby crystal
➢ Was based on Einstein’s idea of “particle-wave duality” of light, more than 40 years earlier
➢ The output power of laser can be from 10-9 to 1020 Watt with frequencies from 1011 to 1017 Hz
➢ The pulse energy of laser can be as high as 1017 Joule having pulse duration as short as 6x10-15
seconds

Basic Properties of Laser Beam

A laser beam has following extraordinary characteristics or properties:

1) Coherent
2) Monochromatic
3) Directional (Collimated)
4) Focussable
5) Intense
1) Coherent: Coherent word comes from cohere which means stick together and in simple word
we can say that coherent means highly consistent or ordered.
Ordinary light is not coherent because it comes from independent atoms which emit on the time scale
of 10-8 seconds. A train of incoherent photons is shown in the figure 1 from which it is clear that these
photons are not in order i.e., they do not have definite phase relationship with each other.
On the other hand, photons which are producing a LASER beam have a definite phase relationship with
each other as shown in figure 2.
 Fig. 1 In coherent light

Fig. 2 Coherent light (LASER)

2) Monochromatic: Mono means single, chrome means color, together it means single color or
wavelength. The light from laser typically comes from one atomic transition with a single precise
wavelength. So, the laser light has a single spectral color and is almost the purest monochromatic light
available.
3) Directional (Collimated):
Collimated means it does not spread out much. The light from a typical laser emerges an extremely
thin beam with a very little divergence i.e., the beam is highly collimated. The high degree of collimated
or directionality is due to the geometrical design of the laser cavity. (refer figure 7 given in requisites
of laser) and due to the fact that stimulated emission process produces twin photons. Laser cavity
consists of nearly parallel front and back mirrors. Because of this the light attains a parallel path after
reflection from the mirrors.
4) Focussable:
Since laser light is highly monochromatic and also highly collimated beam, it can be brought to a sharp
focus by a lens. The diameter of the focussed spot is comparable with the wavelength of the laser.
5) Intense:
The intensity of the laser beam is so much high that the light from a 1mW He-Ne laser is hundred times
more intense than that of light starting from an equal area on the surface of the sun. The output power
of laser beam can be from 10-9 Watt to 1020 Watt.

Basic principle of LASER (Interaction of radiation with matter)

Radiation interacts with matter under appropriate conditions. A material medium is composed of
identical atoms or molecules each of which is characterized by a set of discrete allowed energy states.
An electron (belonging to these atoms/molecules) can move from one energy state to another when it
receives or releases an amount of energy equal to the energy difference between these two states. If the
transition is from a higher state to a lower one, the system gives out a part of its energy and if the
transition is in the reverse direction, then it absorbs the incident energy.

When a photon is incident on a system there are basically three transitions processes that can take place,
namely,

1) Induced absorption
2) Spontaneous Emission
3) Stimulated Emission

To understand above three transition process, consider a simple two-level system consisting of energy
levels E1 and E2, such that E2>E1.

1) Induced absorption:
At ordinary temperature, most of the atoms are in the ground state E1. If a photon of frequency ‫ =( ץ‬E2-
E1/h) is incident on the system, it will be absorbed by an atom in the ground sate E1 and will therefore
rise to the excited state E2. This process is called induced absorption, as shown in figure 3.
 Fig. 3 Induced absorption

Definition of Induced absorption: Induced absorption is the absorption of an incident photon by a

system (electron/atom/ molecule) as a result of which the system is elevated from a lower energy state
to a higher energy state, where in the difference in energy of two states is precisely the energy of the
photon.

The process can be represented as,

Atom +Photon Atom *

Atom * represents atom in the excited state.

The number of induced absorption transitions occurring in the material at any instant will be
proportional to the number density of atoms in the lower state and the photon density in the incident
beam.

Once the atom is in the excited state with higher energy it is inherently unstable because of a natural
tendency of atoms to seek put the lowest energy configuration, therefore it decays after a short time
typically 10-9 to 10-3 seconds by two different processes namely, Spontaneous Emission and Stimulated
Emission

2) Spontaneous Emission:

When an atom in the excited state E2 falls to the ground state E1 by spontaneously emitting a photon of
frequency ‫ =( ץ‬E2- E1/h), the process is known as spontaneous emission, as shown in the figure 4
 Fig. 4 Spontaneous emission

Definition of spontaneous emission: Spontaneous emission is the emission of a photon, when a system
transits from higher energy state to lower energy state without the aid of any external agency.

A photon of energy equal to the difference in the energy of the two states is released i.e., The energy
of the emitted photon is ∆E=E2 - E1.

The process can be represented as,

Atom* Atom + photon

The light generated by this process is incoherent. It contains a superposition of many waves of random
phases. The light sources giving such emission are also not monochromatic and nondirectional. Eg:
electric bulb.

3) Stimulated Emission:
When a photon of frequency exactly equal to ‫ =( ץ‬E2- E1/h) is incident on the system in the excited
state E2, then it induces (or stimulates) the atom to move to the ground state E1 by emitting a photon
of the same frequency ‫ץ‬. This process is known as stimulated emission as shown in figure 5.

Definition of Stimulated Emission: Stimulated Emission is the emission of a photon by a system, under
the influence of an incident photon of just the right energy, due to which the system transits from a
higher energy state to lower Energy State. The photon emitted is called the stimulated photon and will
have same phase, energy and direction of movement as that of the incident photon called stimulating
photon.
 Fig. 5 Stimulated emission

The process can be represented as:

Atom * + stimulating Atom + stimulating photon + stimulated photon

photon

The photons travel in exactly the same direction, same phase, same wavelength and same energy. The
electromagnetic waves associated with the two photons will have identical phase and thus they are
coherent. This is the kind of emission, responsible for laser action.

Thus, we see that stimulated emission in which one photon get multiplied to two photons, two photons
get multiplied to 4 photons and so on which are coherent, monochromatic and directional is considered
as principle behind laser.

Distinction between spontaneous and stimulated emission

Sl. No. Spontaneous emission stimulated emission

1 Random and probabilistic process Not a random process
2 Not controlled from outside Controlled from outside
3 Photons are emitted uniformly in all The photons emitted in the process travel
directions from an assembly of atoms as a in the same direction as that of the
result light is non-directional stimulating photon therefore the light
produced is directional
4 Photons of slightly different frequencies The spread of photons frequencies is
are generated as a result the light is non- relatively very narrow, as such the light is
monochromatic monochromatic
 5 Photons do not have any correlation in The photons emitted by this process are all
their phase, which fluctuate randomly. in phase and therefore the light is coherent
Therefore, the light is incoherent
6 In this process multiplication of photons One stimulating photon causes emission
does not take place. Hence there is no of two more photons. These two photons
amplification of light produce four photons which in turn
generate eight photons and so on. Thus, if
there are N excited atoms, 2N photons will
be produced. Light amplification occurs
due to such multiplication of photons
7 The planes of polarization of the photons The planes of polarization are identical for
are oriented randomly. Hence, light from all photons. Consequently, light is
source is unpolarized polarized

Einstein's Coefficients:
Einstein’s coefficients give the probability associated with the absorption and emission processes. In
order to understand theory, consider two atomic states of energies E1 and E2 of a system. Let N1 be the
number of atoms in the lower energy state E1, and N2 be the number of atoms in the higher energy state
E2 per unit volume of the system. Let radiations with a spectrum of frequencies be incident upon the
system. Let U d is the energy incident/unit volume of the system. According to Albert Einstein,
atomic transitions can be of three types. They are

1)Induced or stimulated absorption: In this process atom in the lower state E1 absorbs photon and get
excited to higher state E2. The number of such absorption's per unit time, per unit volume is called rate
of absorption.

The rate of absorption is proportional to,

(a) The number density of lower energy state, i.e., N1, and,

(b) The energy density i.e. energy incident/unit volume, Uγ

 Rate of absorption = B12N1Uγ (1)

Where B12 is the constant of proportionality called Einstein’s coefficient of induced absorption

2)Spontaneous emission: In this process atom in the higher energy state E2 suffer spontaneous transition
to the lower energy state E1 by emitting the radiation without any help from the external agency. The
emitted radiation is called spontaneous radiation and the phenomenon is called spontaneous emission.
The number of such spontaneous emissions per unit time, per unit volume is called rate of spontaneous
emission.

The rate of spontaneous emission is proportional to,

(a) The number density of higher energy state i.e., N1

 Rate of spontaneous emission = A21N2 (2)

Where, A21 is the constant of proportionality called the Einstein's coefficient of spontaneous emission.

3) Induced or stimulated emission: In this process an atom in the higher energy state E2 is induced by
the photon to stimulate the atom to make a down ward transition to the lower energy state E1

The number of stimulated emissions per unit time per unit volume called rate of stimulated emission

Rate of stimulated emission, is proportional to,

(a) The number density of the higher energy state i.e., N2, and
(b) The energy density i.e., Uγ

 Rate of stimulated emission = B21N2Uγ, (3)

Where, B21 is the constant of proportionality called Einstein’s coefficient of stimulated emission.

To get a relationship between these coefficients Einstein considered atoms to be in thermal equilibrium,
which means that the energy density Uγ is constant in spite of the interaction that is taking place
between itself and the incident radiation. This is possible only if the number of photons absorbed by
the system per sec is equal to the number of photons it emits by both the stimulated and spontaneous
emission processes.
At thermal equilibrium,

Rate of absorption = Rate of spontaneous emission + Rate of stimulated emission

B12N1Uγ = A21N2 + B21N2Uγ

Or Uγ (B12N1 – B21N2) = A21N2

A 21N 2
Or U =
B12 N1 − B 21N 2

By rearranging the above equation, we get

 
A 21  1 
U =   (4)
B 21  B12 N1 − 1 
B N 
 21 2 

But, by Boltzmann's law, we have,

 E 2 − E1  h
−
 

N 2 = N 1e  kT 
= N 1e − k T
h
N
 1 = ekT
N2

 Equation (4) becomes,

(5)

According to Planck's law, the equation for U  is,

……………………….. (6)
Now comparing the equation (5) and (6), term by term on the basis of positional identity, we have,

A 21 8h 3
=
B 21 c3

B12
Einstein has proved thermodynamically =1
B 21

This implies that the probability of induced absorption is equal to the probability of stimulated
emission. Because of the above identity, the subscripts could be dropped, and A21 and B21 can be simply
represented as A and B and equation (6) can be rewritten.

 At thermal equilibrium the equation for energy density is

………………….. (7)

Equation 7 is representing the equation for energy density of the incident radiation in terms of Einstein’s
coefficients A and B.

Conditions required for laser action:

Following three conditions are required to be achieved for the laser action to take place

1) Population inversion

2) Metastable state and

3) Stimulated emission

We know that stimulated emission is the basic principle behind production of laser, and rate of
stimulated emission is directly proportional to the number of atoms in the excited state i.e., N2, therefore
we need to have more atoms in the excited state than in the lower state i.e., N2>N1 and this constitutes
the very basic condition for laser production known as population inversion which is explained as
follows:
Population inversion (N2>N1): The state of a system at which the population of a particular higher
energy level is more than that of a specified lower energy state is known as population inversion. To
achieve population inversion, we need to have a minimum of three energy level system and special
kind of energy state called metastable state. They are different from the ordinary excited state and
assist in achieving population inversion. The process of achieving population inversion with the help
of metastable state using three energy level system is illustrated in figure 6.

As shown in fig. 6 by providing energy the atoms are excited to higher energy level E3 which is a short-
lived state, therefore they will reside in those levels for a period of 10-9s (short lived state) and then
drop back to the ground level E2 on their own. E3 to E2 is a fast decay. Once the atoms undergo
downward transitions to level E2 they tend to stay for a long interval of time as E2 is a metastable state,
because of which the population of E2 increases steadily under these conditions wherein the population
of E2 state becomes more than that of E1 which is known as population inversion.

Fig. 6 Process of achieving population inversion with the help of metastable state and hence to achieve laser
through stimulated emission

Once the population of E2 exceeds that of E1 the stimulated emissions is more when compared to
spontaneous emissions, and soon stimulated photons, all identical in respect of phase, wavelength and
direction grow to a very large number which build up the laser light.
Requisites of laser system (Components of Laser):

There are three requisites of a laser system:

1) An excitation source or pumping source

2) An active medium
3) A Laser cavity (Optical resonator or resonant cavity)
1) An excitation source or pumping source: For realizing and maintaining the condition of population
inversion, the atoms have to be raised continuously to excited state. It requires energy to be
supplied to the system. A source which supplies energy for achieving population inversion is called
an excitation source or pumping source and the process of exciting the atoms to higher state in
view of achieving population inversion is called pumping. There are a number of techniques for
pumping. Most commonly used are optical pumping, electrical discharge etc.
2) An Active medium: A active medium is a quantum system between whose energy levels, the
pumping and lasing action occurs. Active medium absorbs a part of input energy and gives rise to
the population inversion, at certain stage. After this stage the medium attains the capability to issue
laser light.
3) Laser Cavity:

Fig. 7 Laser Cavity

An active medium is bound between the two mirrors as shown in figure 7. Out of these two mirrors
one is fully silvered (100% reflecting) and one is partially silvered (99% reflecting).
The light photons are reflected to and fro inside. The mirrors are set normal to the optic axis of the
material. This structure is known as Fabry-Perot Resonator.

Thus, the two mirrors along with the active medium form a cavity inside which two types of waves
exists, one moving to right and other moving to left and hence called laser cavity. The two waves
interfere constructively if there is no phase difference between the two and they interfere destructively
if the phase difference is Л as shown in figure 8.

For constructive interference the distance L between the two mirrors should be equal to integral
multiple of half the wavelength

i.e., L=mλ/2

λ- Wavelength of light within the material m- Number of modes and L-Distance between the mirror

Fig. 8 Constructive and destructive interference

Thus, laser cavity provides the feedback necessary to tap certain permissible part of laser energy from
the active medium.
Neodymium-doped Yttrium Aluminium Garnet (Nd: YAG) laser:

➢ Nd: YAG laser is a four-level solid state laser, which means that four energy levels are involved
in laser action
➢ These lasers operate both in pulsed and continuous mode
➢ Here, Nd stands for neodymium and YAG stands for Yttrium Aluminium Garnet. YAG is an
optically isotropic crystal. In this crystal some of the Y3+ ions are replaced with Nd3+ ions. YAG
has nothing to do with lasing action it just acts as a host lattice.
➢ The most prominent wavelength emitted lies in the near infrared range having value 1064 nm.
Constructions: Figure 9 shows the construction set up of a Nd: YAG laser. Nd: YAG laser consists of
three important components.
1) Pumping Source: The energy source or pump source supplies energy to the active medium to
achieve population inversion. In Nd: YAG laser, light energy source such as flashtube (Krypton or
Xenon flashtube) or laser diodes are used as energy source to supply energy to the active medium.
In the past, flashtubes were mostly used as pump source because of its low cost. However,
nowadays laser diodes are preferred over flashtube because of its high energy efficiency and low
cost.

Fig. 9 Construction of Nd: YAG laser

2) Active medium: The active medium or laser medium of Nd: YAG laser is made up of optically
isotropic synthetic crystalline material Yttrium Aluminium Garnet (YAG) which is doped with a
chemical element neodymium (Nd)
3) Optical resonator: In this Laser system the Nd: YAG crystal is placed between two mirrors. These
two mirrors are silvered or coated differently. One mirror is fully silvered which will completely
reflect the light whereas, another mirror is partially silvered. It reflects most of the light falling on
it and allows a small portion of light to transmit through it to produce the laser beam.

Working: Figure 10 shows the energy level diagram for the Nd: YAG laser. These levels are those of
Neodymium ions.

Fig. 10 Working diagram of Nd: YAG laser

Working of Nd: YAG laser is explained in the following steps

1) When the Krypton flash lamp is switched on, by the absorption of light radiation Nd3+ ions are
raised from the ground level E1 to upper level E4.
2) The Nd3+ ions make a transition from these energy levels to E3 by non -radiative transitions.
3) The Nd3+ ions are collected in the level E3 as it is a metastable state and population inversion
is achieved between E3 and E2
4) At this stage stimulated emission process is triggered by earlier emitted photon, between E3 and
E2
5) The photons thus generated travel back and forth between the two mirrors and grow in
strength. After some time, the photon number multiplies more rapidly
 6) After enough strength is attained condition for laser being satisfied), an intense laser light of
wavelength 1064nm is emitted through the partial reflector.
7) The lifetime of energy state E2 is very small just like the energy state E4. Therefore, after a
short period, the electrons in the energy state E2 will fall back to the ground state E1 by
releasing radiation less energy.

Nd: YAG lasers are used in laser rangefinders where a laser light to determine the distance to an object.
In medical field Nd: YAG lasers are used to correct posterior capsular opacification (a condition that
may occur after a cataract surgery). In industry they are used for cutting and welding steel.

Applications of LASER:

1) Barcode Scanner (Laser Scanner)

Fig. 11 Working of Barcode scanner

A barcode scanner is a device which captures the information contained in the barcode. It consists of
laser light source, lenses and a sensor. Laser scanner use a laser beam as a light source and typically
employ oscillating mirror or rotating prism to scan the laser beam back and forth across the barcode. A
photodiode then measures the reflected light from the barcode. An analog signal is created from the
photodiode and is then converted in to digital signal.

Advantages: Laser scanners do not require an image processor. They are also fast, capable of
conducting up to 1,300 scans per second. Since, they use lasers—collimated beams of light that
essentially do not diverge no matter how far the light travels from the source—they can read 1D
barcodes from relatively long distances with the use of special optics.
A Laser Scanner does not need to be in contact with a barcode to read it. A standard range Laser
Barcode Scanner can read a barcode from about 6 to 24 inches away, and a long-range Scanner can
read one from about 2 to 8 feet away. Certain extra long-range Laser Barcode Scanner is capable of
reading a barcode from up to 30 feet away.

Limitation: The crucial limitation of barcode scanners is that they cannot read 2D codes, which are
becoming increasingly more prevalent. Laser scanners also have trouble with 1D barcodes that are
poorly printed, low-contrast, distorted, or damaged. Because the environment for code reading is rarely
perfect, the number of misreads and no-reads are typically too high. The combination of highly
reflective parts and light sources often create hotspots that confound laser scanners.

2) Laser Printer:

In a laser printer static electricity is the driving force. The term static electricity refers to the
accumulation of a charge on an on an insulating surface, such as balloon. Static electrical fields attract
items with opposing charges thus stick together. This phenomenon is used in laser printer as a
“temporary glue”. Working of Laser printer is illustrated in figure 12 and explained as follows.

1) A negative electric charge is applied uniformly across the surface of the photosensitive drum.
2) The photosensitive drum is exposed to laser beam immediate from the laser transmitter unit
which convey image data sent from the PC.
3) The areas of the photosensitive drum on which laser beams are emitted discharge negative
electricity.

Fig. 12 Block diagram showing working of Laser printer

4) Negatively charged toner affixes only those areas of the photosensitive drum that were exposed
to laser beam.
5) After paper is affixed to the photosensitive drum a positive charge is applied to attract toner.
6) Finally heat and pressure are applied to firmly fix the image or letter on the paper prior to final
output.
 OPTICAL FIBERS

Construction:
Optical fibers are tubular structure made up of glass or plastic which guides the light from one point to
another point through long distance. They are transparent dielectrics and able to guide visible and
infrared light over long distance. They are made up of two parts. Core the inner cylindrical material
made of glass or plastic and the cladding material the other part which envelops the inner core. The
cladding is also made of similar material but of lesser refractive index. Both the core and the cladding
materials are enclosed in a polyurethane jacket (as shown in fig. 1), which safeguards the fiber against
chemical reaction with surroundings, and also against abrasion and crushing.

Fig. 1 Different parts of optical fiber

If n1 is the core refractive index and n2 is the cladding refractive index then n1>n2

Principle of optical fiber:

The physical principle based on which optical fiber works is total internal reflection (T.I.R.). It is
illustrated in Figure 2. As shown in the figure when a ray travelling from denser medium (water having
R.I. n1) to rarer medium (air having R.I. n2 ) falls a angle of incidence ϴ1 it gets refracted at an angle
ϴ2. When angle of incidence reaches a specific value ϴc (known as critical angle), angle of
 Fig. 2 Total internal reflection

refraction becomes 90o. Any ray which falls on to the interface at an angle more than critical angle than
refracted ray seems to get reflected in the same medium as if interface is a mirror, this phenomenon is
known as total internal reflection (T.I.R.).

Definition of T.I.R: Thus T.I.R. can be defined as a phenomenon which occurs when a propagating
wave travelling from denser to rarer medium strikes a medium boundary at an angle larger than a
critical angle, the wave can not pass through and is entirely reflected in the same medium as if the
medium boundary is a reflecting mirror.
Applying Snell’s law at critical angle ϴc we get,
n1sin ϴc = n2sin90
n1sin ϴc = n2
ϴc = sin-1 (n2/n1)

Wave guides (propagation mechanism):

A wave guide is a tubular structure through which energy of some sort could be guided in the form of
waves. In optical fibers light waves can be guided through a fiber, it is called light guide. The cladding
in an optical fiber always has a lower refractive index (RI) than that of the core. The light signal which
enters into the core can strike the interface of the core and the cladding only at large angles of incidence
because of the ray geometry. The light signal undergoes reflection after reflection within the fiber core.
Since each reflection is a total internal reflection, the signal sustains its strength and also confines itself
completely within the core during propagation. Thus, the optical fiber functions as a wave guide. It is
illustrated in figure 3.
 Fig. 3 Fiber as wave guide

Numerical Aperture, acceptance angle and Condition for ray Propagation in the
Fiber:

Fig. 4 Condition for ray propagation in optical fiber

As shown in figure 4 let us consider the special case of ray which suffers critical incidence at the core
cladding interface. The ray, to begin with travels along AO entering into the core at an angle of o to
the fiber axis. Let it be refracted along OA’ at an angle 1 in the core and further proceed to fall at
critical angle of incidence (= 90-1) at A’ on the interface between core and cladding. Since it is critical
angle of incidence, the refracted ray grazes along boundary.

Now it is clear from the figure that any ray enters at an angle of incidence less than 0 at O, will
have to be incident at an angle greater than the critical angle at the interface, and gets total internal
reflection in the core material. Let OA is rotated around the fiber axis keeping 0 same, then it describes
a conical surface. We can say that it a beam converges at a wide angle into the core, then those rays
which are funneled into the fiber within this cone (like ray CC’) will only be totally internally reflected,
and thus confined within for propagation. Rest of the ray’s incident outside the conical surface (like
ray BB’) emerges from the sides of the fiber.
Acceptance angle:

The angle 0 is called the wave guide acceptance angle, or the acceptance cone half-angle, and sin 0
is called the numerical aperture (N.A.) of the fiber. The numerical aperture represents the light-
gathering capability of the optical fiber.

Condition for Propagation:

Let n0, n1and n2 be the RI of surrounding medium, core and cladding respectively.

Now, for refraction at the point of entry of the ray AO into the core, by applying the Snell’s law that,

n0 Sin 0 = n1 Sin 1 -----1)

At the point A’ on the interface,

The angle of incidence = 90 - 1

Again, applying Snell’s law, we have,

n1 sin (90-1) = n2 sin 90.

Or, n1 cos 1 = n2

Or, Cos 1 = n2/n1 -------------------------------(2)

Rewriting Eq (1), we have,

Substituting for Cos 1 from Eq. (2), we have,

n n22 n12 − n22

Sin 0 = 1 1− 2 =
n0 n1 n0

If the medium surrounding the fiber is air, then n0 = 1,

Or, NA = Sin 0 = n12 − n22

If I is the angle of incidence of an incident ray, then the ray will be able to propagate,

If, i < 0

Or if Sin i < Sin 0

Or, Sin i < N.A.

Fraction Index Changes ():

The fractional index change  is the ratio of the refractive index difference between the core and the
cladding to the refractive index of core of an optical fiber.

Therefore,

(n1 − n2 )
=
n1

Relation between N.A. and 

From above Equation (n1-n2) = n1 

N . A. = n12 − n22
We have, (n1 + n2 )(n1 − n2 )
(n1 + n2 )n1

Since n1~ n2 , (n1+ n2) = 2n1

N . A. = 2n12 
Therefore,
N . A. = n1 2

Though an increase in the value of  increase N.A., and thus enhances the light gathering capacity of
the fiver, we cannot increase  to a very large value, since it leads to what is called “intermodal
dispersion” which causes signal distortion.

Modes of Propagation
Light propagates as an electromagnetic wave through an optical fiber. Waves having ray directions
above critical angle will be trapped within the fiber due to total internal reflection. All such waves do
not propagate along the fiber. Only certain ray directions are allowed to propagate. The allowed
directions correspond to the mode of the fiber.
Modes can be visualized as the possible number of paths of light in an optical fiber. The number of
modes that a fiber will support depends on the core size, operating wavelength and the refractive index
of core and cladding. It is mathematically defined using normalized frequency parameter known as V
– parameter.

Where d is the core diameter.

λ wavelength of light propagating within the fiber.

The maximum number of modes supported by step index fiber is determined by N = V2/2

Types of Optical fibers:

Based on refractive index profile and Mode guiding:

In any optical fiber, the whole material of the cladding has a uniform RI value. But the RI of the
core material may either remain constant or subjected to variation in a particular way. The curve
which represents the variation of RI with respect to the radial distance from the axis of the fiber
is called the refractive index profile.

The optical fibers are classified under 3 categories, namely,

a) Step index Single mode fiber,

b) Step index multimode fiber and
c) Graded index multimode fiber.

This classification is done depending on the refractive index profile, and the number of modes that
the fiber can guide.

a) Step index Single mode fiber:

A single mode fiber has a core material of uniform RI value. Similarly cladding also has a material
of uniform RI but of lesser value. This results in a sudden increase in the value of RI from cladding
to core. Thus, its RI profile takes the shape of a step. The diameter value of the core is about 8 to 10
µm and external diameter of cladding is 60 to 70µm. Because of its narrow core, it can guide just a
single mode as shown in Fig. Hence it is called single mode fiber.
Single mode fibers are most extensively used one because it eliminates the effect of intermodal
dispersion and pulse broadening effects. They constitute 80% of all the fibers that are manufactured
in the world today. They need lasers as the source of light. Though less expensive, it is very difficult
to splice them. They find application in submarine cable system. Geometry, R.I. profile and ray
propagation in Step index Single mode fiber is shown in figure 5

Fig. 5 Step index Single mode fiber

b) Step –index Multimode fiber:

Fig. 6 Step –index Multimode fiber:

A step-index multimode fiber has a core material of uniform RI value. Similarly cladding alsohas
a material of uniform RI but of lesser value. This results in a sudden increase in the value of RI from
cladding to core. Thus, its RI profile takes the shape of a step like first type.
The diameter value of the core is about 50 to 100 µm and external diameter of cladding is 100 to
250µm. Because of its much larger diameter by the virtue of which it will be able to support
propagation of large number of modes as shown in the figure. Its refractive index profile is also like
that of a single mode fiber but with larger plane regions for the core. Light follows a zig zag path
inside the fiber in which the high angle modes travel a longer distance as compared to low angle
modes causing intermodal dispersion. Geometry, R.I. profile and ray propagation in Step index
multimode mode fiber is shown in figure 6
The step-index multimode fiber can accept either a laser or an LED as source of light. It
is the least expensive of all. Its typical application is in data links which has lower bandwidth
requirements.
d) Graded-Index Multimode Fiber

Fig. 7 Graded index multimode mode fiber

Graded index multimode fiber is also denoted as GRIN. The geometry of the GRIN multimode
fiber is same as that of step index multimode fiber. Its core material has a special feature that its
refractive index value decreases in the radially outward direction from the axis and becomes equal
to that of the cladding at the interface. But the RI of the cladding remains uniform. It RI profile is
also shown in Figure above. Either a laser or LED can be the source for the GRIN
multimode fiber. It is most expensive of all. Its splicing could be done with some difficult. Its
typical application is in the telephone trunk between central offices.
The modes travelling in high refractive index region take a straight path or possess less parabolic
nature as shown in figure 8. So, these light rays propagate slower than those in lower refractive index
regionor those following a highly parabolic path. The rays that propagate through the region away
fromthe axis or region of lower refractive index travels longer path but propagates faster. Hence all
the rays reach at the same time despite travelling through different paths. Hence, intermodal
dispersion can be minimized by using multimode fibers with a parabolic refractive index profile,
where intermodal dispersion is minimized. Geometry, R.I. profile and ray propagation in graded
index multimode mode fiber is shown in figure 7

Fig. 8 parabolic ray propagation in GRIN

Attenuation in optical fibers: The total power loss offered by the total length of the fiber in the
transmission of light is called attenuation. The important factors contributing to the attenuation in OF
are i) Absorption loss, ii) Scattering loss iii) Bending loss
The total losses in the fiber are due to the contribution of losses due to absorption, scattering of radiation
and bending of fibers. Losses that are wavelength dependent can be minimized by selecting the
operating wavelength.

Attenuation in fiber is defined as the ratio of power input and power output. It is denoted by symbol .
Mathematically attenuation of the fiber is given by,

− 10 X log( Pout / Pin )

= , dB/km
L
Where Pout and Pin are the power output and power input respectively, L is the length of the fiber in km.

1) Absorption loss:
There are two types of absorption; one is Absorption by impurities and the other Intrinsic absorption.
In the case of first type, the type of impurities is generally transition metal ions such as iron, chromium,
cobalt and copper. During signal propagation when photons interact with these impurities, the electron
absorbs the photons and get excited to higher energy level. Later these electrons give up their absorbed
energy either as heat energy or light energy. The reemission of light energy is of no use since it will
usually be in a different wavelength or at least in different phase with respect to the signal. The other
impurity which would cause significant absorption loss is the OH (Hydroxyl) ion, which enters into the
fiber constitution at the time of fiber fabrication. In the second type i.e., intrinsic absorption, the fiber
itself as a material, has a tendency to absorb light energy however small it may be. Absorption in a
fiber is the absorption that takes place in the material assuming that there are no impurities and the
material is free of all inhomogeneities, and hence it is called intrinsic absorption which sets the lowest
limit on absorption for a given material.

2) Scattering loss:
The power loss occurs due to the scattering of light energy due to the obstructions caused by
imperfections and defects, which are of molecular size, present in the body of the fiber itself. The
scattering of light by the obstructions is inversely proportional to the fourth power of the wavelength
of the light transmitted through the fiber. Such a scattering is called Rayleigh scattering. The loss due
to the scattering can be minimized by using the optical source of large wavelength. Figure 9 illustrates
scattering loss in optical fiber.

Fig. 9 Scattering loss

3) Bending losses
Bending losses occur due to the presence of macro bends and micro bends that are caused while
manufacturing and as well as due to the applied stress on the fiber. At the point of bend the light will
escape to the surrounding medium due to the fact that the angle of incidence at that point becomes
lesser than the critical angle. Hence it will not undergo total internal reflection. In order to avoid this
type of losses, the optical fiber has to be laid straight for long distances and they should be freed from
the external stresses by providing mechanical strength by external encasements. Figure 10 illustrates
bending losses.

Fig. 10 Bending losses

A collective illustration of absorption loss, scattering loss and bending losses in optical fiber is given
in figure 11.

Fig. 11 Collective illustration of absorption, scattering and bending losses in optical fiber
Applications of optical fiber:

Optical fibers find their applications in the fields of communication, medicine, industry and
domestic.

1) Communication applications: (Point to Point communication)

The block diagram of a typical fiber optic communication system is as shown in the figure 12.
Voice or any information is converted into electrical signals using the coder (photo multiplier) and
is connected to the optical transmitter (light source). The light signals from the optical transmitter
are connected to the photo detector through a channel. The channel is a medium through which the
message travels from the transmitter to the receiver. Example is an optical fiber. The photodetector
converts light signal into electrical signals. The electrical signals from the photodetector are
decoded by the decoder to the original state, which may be the voice or information. Thus, in
communication, conversion of original form (like sound) gets converted into electrical signals in
transmitter then, electrical signals are converted into optical signals and is propagated through
optical fibers to the receiver where light signal is converted back into electrical signal and then
back to original form.

Fig.12 Block diagram of point-to-point communication system using optical fiber

Advantages of optical fibers communication system

Optical fibers find very important, applications in communication because of the

following advantages they possess.

a. Transmission loss is low.

b. Fiber is lighter and compact than equivalent copper cables.

c. Fibers have large data rate compared to equivalent copper cables.

d. There is no interference in the transmission of light from electromagnetic waves
generated by electrical applications.
e. Fibers are free from corrosion effect caused by salt, pollution and radiation. Hence, they
are more reliable.
f. Tapping information from fiber is impossible. Hence, the transmission is more secured.
g. The cost of fiber optic communication system is lower than that of an equivalent cable
communication system.
h. Thinner - Optical fibers can be drawn to smaller diameters than copper wire.
i. Non-flammable - Because no electricity is passed through optical fibers, there is no fire
hazard.
j. Digital signals - Optical fibers are ideally suited for carrying digital information, which is
especially useful in computer networks.
k. Low power - Because signals in optical fibers degrade less, lower-power transmitters can
be used instead of the high-voltage electrical transmitters needed for copper wires.

Disadvantages of optical fibers communication system

a. Fiber loss is more at the joints if the joints do not match (the joining of the two ends of
the separate fibers is called splicing)
b. Attenuation loss is large as the length of the fiber increases.
c. Repeaters are required at regular interval of lengths to amplify the weak signal in long
distance communication.
d. Bends will increase the loss of the fiber. Hence, the fiber should be laid straight.
e. Fiber undergoes contraction and elongation due to changing weather (temperature).
2) Optical Fiber sensors:

The basic mechanism in any optical fiber-based sensor is sketched in the figure13. The
lightfed into an optical fiber reach a “zone” where the light, interacting with the parameter of
interest (temperature, pressure, strain, vibrations, displacements, rotations or concentration of
chemical species etc.), is modulated; then, modulated light propagates, via an optical fiber, up to
a monitoring station.The mechanism outlined here is very general and, to some extent, quite
simplistic and different approaches have been implemented and proposed for the functioning
of such sensors. The general block diagram of fiber-optic sensor is shown figure 14. The block
diagram consists of an optical source (Light Emitting Diode, LASER, and Laser diode), optical
fiber, sensing element, optical detector and end-processing devices (optical-spectrum analyzer,
oscilloscope).

Fig. 13 basic mechanism in any optical fiber-based sensor

Fig. 14 Block Diagram of Fiber Optic Sensor

 a) Fiber optic pressure sensor based on polarization:

Fig. 15 Polarization based Fiber Optic Sensor

Polarization based optical fibers are important for a certain class of sensors and are used in a
variety of measurements, communication and signal processing applications.

The optical setup for a polarization-based-fiber-optic sensor is shown figure 15 Double refraction is
induced in the optical fibre when external forces are applied. The property of induced double refraction
is exploited in fabrication of this sensor. A transparent isotropic fiber is held between acrossed polarizer
analyzer system. A light beam from a source is directed through the fiber. The light beam gets linearly
polarized on passing through the polarizer and then it travels through the material. When it reaches
the analyzer, the polarization remains the same, as the axis of the analyzer is oriented at 90o to that of
the polarizer, the light is cutoff by the analyzer and no light is detected at the detector. When mechanical
stress is applied to the material, birefringence is induced in the material. Hence transmission of light
occurs and the phase difference between the two polarization states is observed due to external
disturbances such as stress or strain. Thus, according to the external disturbances, the output
polarization changes. By considering the output polarization state at the next end of the fiber, the
external disturbances can be detected.

b) Fiber-optic pressure sensors based on diaphragm

Figure 16 illustrates the Fiber-optic pressure sensors based on diaphragm. Light rays are sent
through an optical fiber to sense the movement of the diaphragm. The light reflects from the diaphragm
and the incident light is studied.
 Fig. 16 Fiber-optic pressure sensors based on diaphragm

The external unknown pressure is given to the diaphragm. The diaphragm expands and contracts
as the pressure increases and decreases. There is a characteristic relationship between the light
reflected and the distance from the fiber ends to the diaphragm. thus, making the amount of
reflected light dependent upon the diaphragm displacement and hence the measured pressure.

The displacement of the diaphragm is measured by the Photonic sensor.

c) Fiber-optic temperature sensors

The operation of one type of the temperature sensor is based on the 1μm wavelength absorption
characteristics of silicon as a function of temperature. Figure 17 shows a temperature sensor with
a multimode fibre. The fiber is coated at one end with a thin silicon layer. The silicon layer is in
turn coated with a reflective coating at the back. The light launched into the fibre from one of its
ends passed first through the fibre and then after travelling through the silicon layer twice returns
to a detector. The absorption of light by the silicon layer varies with temperature and the variation
modulates the intensity of the light received at the detector. Temperature measurements can be
made with a sensitivity of 0.001oC
Fig. 17 Temperature sensor
 Questions from Unit-3
1 Explain the basic concepts of laser emission.
OR
Explain the terms Induced absorption, spontaneous emission and Stimulated emission.
OR
Discuss how light interacts with matter.
2 Explain the necessary conditions for laser action.
OR
Explain metastable state, stimulated emission and population inversion.
3 Explain the requisites/necessities of a laser system.
4 Obtain an expression for energy density under thermal equilibrium, in terms of
Einstein’s A & B coefficients.
OR
Obtain the relation between Einstein’s coefficients.
OR
Show that for a quantum system under thermal equilibrium, probability of spontaneous
emission is greater than probability of stimulated emission.
5 Discuss any 2 applications of lasers.
6 With neat energy level diagram explain the construction and working of Nd-YAG laser
7 Explain the working of laser-based barcode scanner.
8 Explain the working of Laser Printer.
9 Discuss any four important characteristics of Lasers
10 Define angle of acceptance and numerical aperture. Derive an expression for numerical
aperture and arrive at the condition for propagation of a signal in an optical fiber.
11 What is attenuation? Discuss the different factors attributing to the attenuation in optical
fibers.
12 Mention the different types of optical fibers and explain them in detail giving them
salient features.
13 Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of an optical communication system over
other communication system.
 UNIT-2

14 Discuss point to point communication using an optical fiber with the help of block
diagram. Give some advantages of optical fiber communication systems.
15 Explain the working of any optical fiber-based temperature sensor.
16 Explain the working of any optical fiber-based pressure sensor.

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