INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY (ICT)/COMPUTER THEORY

NOTES-DIPLOMA AND CERTIFICATE

Course content

Introduction to ICT

1.0 Definition of ICT

1.1 Areas of application of ICT
1.2 Impacts /Effects of ICT (Positive and Negative effects)
2.0 Introduction to Computer
2.1 Definition of computer
2.2 Main key parts of the computer
2.3 Features/ Chacteristics of a computer
2.4 Data/ Information processing
2.5 Advantages and disadvantages of computer
2.6 Computer evolutions/generations
2.7 Computer classifications and types
2.8 Computer system
- Data
- Human ware
- Hardware
o Input devices
o Processing devices
o Storage/memory devices
o Output devices
o Communicating devices
- Software
o System software
o Application software
3.0 Computer network and Internet
4.0 Computer viruses
5.0 Information systems
6.0 Database management systems
7.0 System development life cycle (SDLC)
8.0 Word processing (Practical)
9.0 Spread sheets (Practical)
10.0 Presentation software (Practical)
11.0 Database management –Access (Practical)

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 INTRODUCTION TO ICT

1.0 Definition of ICT

ICT stands for Information and Communication Technology can be defined as a set of
technological tools and resources used to communicate, create, disseminate, store
and manage information.

Or ICT are tools and techniques used to capture, store, manipulate, communicate and
use information.

It includes any communication device or application, including: radio, television,

cellular phones, computer and network hardware and software, satellite systems and so
on, as well as the various services and applications associated with them, such as
videoconferencing and distance learning.

1.1 Areas of application of ICT

Business / Finance
- Banking system where there is use of Electronic Fund Transfer (EFT) to clear bills,
loans, consignment by transfer from one bank account to another electronically.
- Enables advertisement through internet, televisions, radios etc.
- Payroll and financial modeling softwares have been developed.
- ICT has ensured that customers and suppliers share and access real time data
- Performing internet banking (On line banking) or access other financial services
through the internet.
- Online shopping (delivering of goods online)
- IT tools like computers have enabled business men to design new product labels
for their businesses and enterprises.
- Computers and other related devices have enabled businesses to store their
records for future use and references.
- Many people and companies use computers to help manage their finances,
some use finance software to balance, check books, pay bills, track personal
income and expenses, manage investments and evaluate financial plans.
- IT tools can be used to design, brand and packaging of commodities etc

Online Banking

- Online banking is when the user can access their account via the internet.
- With online banking users access account balances, pay bills, pay tuition etc
- E-transaction using mobile money services
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Education
- Sometimes the delivery of education occurs at a place while the learning occurs
at other locations (distance learning).e.g. Students can take classes on web. More
than 70% of colleges in developed countries offer some type of distance learning
classes. A few even offer entire degrees online.
- Students use software to assist with learning or complete assignment.
- Through ICT there has been enhanced class room teaching through use of
presentations as well as projectors to deliver the information in a more convincing
way.
- Schools and Institutions use computers to typeset examinations and print them.
- Online registration and admissions: Most institutes and schools have opened up
websites which offer online registration and admissions without visiting the institute
physically.
- Research. Teachers and students use the internet to carry out research on various
topics.
- Online discussion (video-conferencing).etc

E- Commerce.
- E – Commerce is the general term used for companies trading online. It is a shorter
way of saying electronic trading.
The “E” is for Electronic and commerce means trading.

HEALTH

- Hospitals and doctors use computers to maintain patients‟ records.

- Computers monitor patients‟ vital signs in the hospital room and at home.
- Computers and computerized devices assist doctors, nurses and technicians with
medical tests.
- Doctors use the web and medical software to assist with researching and
diagnosing health conditions.
- Pharmacists use computers to file insurance claims.
- Surgeons use computer controlled devices to provide them with precession during
operations such as for laser eye surgery and robot assist heart surgery.
- Surgeons implant computerized devices, such as pace makers that allow patients
to live longer.
- Many websites provide up-to date medical fitness, nutrition or exercise
information. These Websites also maintain lists of doctors and dentists to help you
find the one that suits your need.

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 - They have chart rooms so you can talk to others diagnosed with similar conditions.
- Websites even allow you to order prescriptions online. An exciting development in
health care is telemedicine, which is a form of long distance health care.
- Through telemedicine, Health care professionals in separate locations have live
conferences on computers e.g. doctors at another location to discuss a bone X-
ray live images of each doctor along with the X-ray are displayed on each
doctor‟s computer.
Security
- Use of CCTV cameras to monitor supermarkets for shop lifters / thieves and to
monitor crucial buildings like banks, parliament e. t. c.
- Use of traffic camera to track traffic offenders.
- Use of biometric devices like finger print scan, iris scan to keep records of right
employees. iv. Mobile phones have tracking records used to track down rebels
and suspected criminal.
- Walkie talkies that are used in communication by armies and police.
- Surveillance cameras that help in capturing criminals.
- Computers are used by police and other security agents in storing databases for
criminals.
Home application
- Computers help in calculating home grocery bills.
- Computers can be used as Television sets those that have TV cards.
- Computers can act as radios at home since music can be heard from computers
by either inserting in a CD or MP3.
- You can access internet on a computer at home
- IT machines can be used for house chores like laundry, cooking, preserving foods
and drinks etc
Communication
- Making voice calls
- Exchanging text messages e.g. on whatsapp, Facebook, twitter, instgram
Art, leisure and entertainment
- One of the most compelling ways in which technology has affected our lives is in
the way we are entertained or we choose to entertain ourselves
- More and more families enjoy television, computers and electronic games in their
homes. Father may be watching television; mother may be teleshopping over the
Internet while the children are in their bedrooms playing arcade games.
- The internet can be used to book tickets for concert or visit to the cinema.
- Portable devices like phones are used for playback music and video files.
- Digital transmission is used to broadcast TV and radio programs. TV programs are
provided free to air or on a pay to view basis through satellite and cable services.
- Music download from the internet, the internet is used as a channel for the
distribution of music through music download website.
- Playing of games is an important leisure activity for many computer users.
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Others areas include agriculture, transport, tourism, hotels, industry, etc.

1.2 Impacts /Effects of ICT (Positive and Negative effects)

Positive
- ICT has enabled efficient and instant communication through the use of TV,
radios and telephones with comprehensive news.
- Fast and easy way of getting friends through social networks like Face book,
twitter etc
- Use of mobile money to pay bills, fees, and convey money to our family
members without incurring costs
- Online Education where by people gets academic qualifications online.
- People can communicate any time and at any place with the introduction of
phones
- Information rich and easy access through the internet
- Establishment of ICT networks has led to more infrastructure development
e.g. more software applications have been introduced to the market.
- Investment in mechanical ICTs, contributes to labour productivity growth.
Workers are trained to use the machines thus increasing on the productivity
level.
- The effective use of ICT has helped firms gain market share at the cost of less
productive firms, which could raise overall productivity.
- The use of ICT has helped firms to be innovative, e.g. by helping them to
expand their product range, customize the services offered, or respond
better to clients.
- Computers have automated most aspects of banking, and bill paying and
automotive productions. Before computers each bill had to be typed in and
the person actually had to pull up a customer record from filing cabinets
and mark it paid which was very slow and expensive. Etc.

Negative

- Social Networking has removed the boundaries of respect and direct

dialogue between and among youths and elders.
- Access of pornographic material and immoral movies by young people
through the internet has led to moral decay.
- Culture degeneration due the exposure of western culture.
- ICT has diluted traditional community moral and values.

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 - Difficulty in accessing information since not all people have no access to
computers thus making it difficult to access information.
- High level of unemployment as a result of introduction of ICTs in most companies.
ICT replace human beings.
- Many ICTs electronic equipment sold in the market, are fake and do not last
long which is a loss to the buyer.
- With many ICT technologies on the market, it has become difficult to choose from
options.
- Most ICTs are not environmental friendly.
- Increased rate of forgeries and impersonation which has resulted into loss of
property and lives.
- Most ICT devices are source of health related problems like headache,
backache, eye strain etc
- ICT has become addictive which has resulted laziness and poor production in the
production sector
- Social isolation due to ICT as individual feels better off with his/her computer than
interacting with a fellow person. etc

2.0 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER

2.1 Definition:

Computer is an electronic device that accepts data input, process, store and output
information.

Computer Literacy: Computer literacy refers to having the knowledge and

understanding of computers and their uses.

A computer performs four tasks as explained below

1. Accept/input data. You must put data into a computer.

2. Process data. The stored information is then worked upon and turned into what the
computer was instructed to do.
3. Store the information. The information is stored in a device called a memory that holds
the information for as long as long as you want it.
4. Give out (output) the information. The results of the processed information are then given
out.

2.2 Main key parts of the computer

- Keyboard - for entering/typing characters

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 - Mouse - for pointing or moving the pointer/cursor
- Monitor/screen (VDU-Visual Display unit) - for displaying information
- System unit - for data processing and housing the internal parts of the computer

2.3 Features/ Characteristics of a computer

Speed: In a computer, operations and processing are carried out at a very high speed. The
computer performs millions and billions of instructions per second. Its speed is measured in
Millions of instructions per second (MIPS)

Accuracy: Computers have the ability of processing data without making errors. They are error
free and rarely make mistakes. Computer errors are usually made by the users or operators
thereby a term GIGO (Garbage in Garbage Out) which means that when you feed data with
errors into the computer you receive output with errors from the computer. Or WYSIWYG (what
you see is what you get)

Storage: Computers can store large amounts of data before and after processing both
permanently or temporarily

Versatile: Computers are said to be versatile because they are used to perform a variety of
tasks such as creating documents, billing customers, storing records, performing calculations,
entertainment, etc. at a time.

Diligence: Computers are diligent machines because they can perform the same task over
and over again without getting tired and bored.

Automatic: This means that computers have the ability to work without human supervision.
Computers do not need any supervision in order to perform programmed routines. In other
words, they are automatic.
Artificial intelligence: This means that they can respond to commands or requests given to
them and provide solutions. I.e. it follows instructions of the user.

2.4 Data/ Information processing

Data is raw, unprocessed disorganised facts that have no meaning.

Examples of data are letters, figures, symbols, sound, picture etc.

TYPES OF DATA
Direct data or Primary data: Originates from the source i.e. first hand data.

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Indirect or secondary data: Data which comes in a more round a bout way. It is already
researched data e.g. textbook data, magazine data, newspapers, etc.

Information is organized, meaningful, processed data.

This refers to processed data i.e. data that is already converted into a more
useful/meaningful form. Information should be the basis for decision and policy making.

Examples of information are; words, report, letter, music, movie, etc

DATA AND INFORMATION PROCESSING

The process of turning data (meaningless) into information (meaningful) is called Data
processing.
It involves a series of input, process, storage, and output activities. These series of
activities are often called the information processing cycle.

Below is a diagram illustrating the information processing cycle

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Stages of Data Processing
The five basic stages of information processing are
1. Data Collection - capturing data from their sources and recording it
onto some media (e.g., paper).
2. Data Preparation - copying, grouping, or arranging data in a more
convenient way for input.
3. Input of Data -- entering the data or sending the stored data into the
processing system.
4. Data Processing - calculating or manipulating the input data and
even storing the results for future use.
5. Output of Information - giving out the processed results in a readable
form (e.g., a report).

Methods of Data and Information Processing

There are many ways of processing information but the three basic ways
include:

Manual Information Processing

Manual Data Processing (MDP) is when tools like include pens, pencils,
papers, etc are used. Transactions are recorded on source documents
such as files, ledger cards and stored in filing cabinets or drawers.

Advantages of manual information processing

 Initial investment costs are not high. The tools used are cheap to
acquire.
 Manual data processing methods are easy to apply since there are
no complications in carrying out tasks.
 Skilled labour is not in high demand

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 There are no health risks associated with manual data processing
such as eyestrains and backaches.
 The equipment used in manual data processing is portable that is
easy to move with.
 Many people are employed to perform various tasks.

Disadvantages of manual information processing

 Tasks cannot be completed because of the slow speed at which man

processes data.
 Small amounts of data are processed and with errors.
 Small amounts of data are stored in files and drawers.
 Inefficiency and less productivity are experienced.
 Running cost becomes higher in the long term.
 Tasks cannot be completed without human intervention.
 There is lack of proper security for the data stored because it‟s easily
accessible to everyone.
 There is lack of communicating ability for data and information with
other employees.
 Manual data processing can lead to boredom and tiredness while
processing large amounts of data
 Data can be easily lost in case of natural disasters such as fire, floods,
etc.

Mechanical Information Processing

Mechanical information processing is the use of devices such as the

typewriters, calculators, cash registers, accounting machines to convert
data into information. Data is input by the machine operator who
manipulates a machine and output is obtained in form of a printed
material on paper or display on small screens such as what is seen on
calculators and cash registers.

Electronic Information Processing

When an electronic device (e.g., a computer) is used to process data into

information, this is called electronic information processing.

Advantages of using computers for information processing include

 Tasks can be completed faster because computers work at amazing

speed.

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 Computers can process large amounts of data and generate error-free
results, provided that the data is entered correctly.
 Computers can store enormous amounts of data for future use.
 The high reliability of components inside modern computers enables
computers to produce consistent results.
 Efficiency and productivity can be raised.
 Running cost becomes lower in the long term.
 Tasks can be completed with little human intervention (i.e., automatic).
 Overall, security can be raised due to less human intervention.
 The management can observe new information and new trends more
quickly.
 Customer services can be improved due to more efficient
management and operations.
 Computers with communicating capability can share data and
information with other computers.

Disadvantages of using computers for information processing

 Initial investment costs can be high.

 Extra cost is required to employ specialized staff to operate and
design the data processing system.
 Some jobs may be lost due to computerization and thus lower the
morale of staff members.
 Some staff has to be trained or retrained.
 Face-to-face interactions among staff may be reduced.
 Due to the rapid changes in information technology, computers
and related equipment become out dated within a short period of
time.
 In case of computer breakdown, data can be easily lost.

INFORMATION
This refers to processed data i.e. data that is already converted into a
more useful/meaningful form. Information should be the basis for decision
and policy making.

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LEVELS OF INFORMATION
- Strategic information
- Tactical information
- Operation information

Types of information
 Past information
 Present information.
 Future information
 Strategic information
 Tactical information
 Operational information

QUALITIES OF GOOD INFORMATION

 Timelines. Having data at the right time.

 Cost effectiveness. Having data which is within the means of the
firm.
 Completeness/ Comprehensiveness. Having information that is not
lacking in any form.
 Relevance. Having data which is capable of solving organizational
needs. It must be directed to the right audience and from the right
author.
 Clarity. Having data that is error and ambiguity free.
 Must be through the most appropriate channel. I.e. a channel
which is noise free, or minimizes noise.
 User specific or easily attached to the user. It must be properly
qualified or structured.
 Accuracy. This is all embracing i.e.
o Time accuracy.
o Cost accuracy.

COMPUTERS EVOLUTION OR GENERATIONS

A computer generation/evolution refers to the advancement of

computer technology over the years.

It refers to the development in the technology which was used to build

the computer‟s internal organization. There are five (5 generations) i.e.

 The First Generation (1945 – 1959)

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  The Second Generation (1959 – 1964)
 The Third Generation (1964 – 1972)
 The Fourth Generation (1972 – )
 The Fifth Generation

Characteristics of First generation (1945 – 1959)

 They used vacuum tubes for processing /operation

 They were big computer as the size of a room
 They used very many wires
 They used punched cards
 They could not store much information because of their limited
memory
 They used magnetic drums for primary storage
 They produced a lot of heart during their operation/processing
 They also produced a lot of noise during their operation
 They consumed a lot of electricity
 Computer programming was done in machine
 They could solve one problem at a time
 The speed was 10kilo instruction per second
 The maximum memory was approximately 200KB ~2KB.
 They were short lived and needed a stand by technician

Characteristics of Second generation (1959 – 1964)

 They used transistor for their operation/processing

 They were much smaller in size than that 1st
 The speed increased compared to the first (200000-300000
instructions per seconds)
 They used less electricity and gave off less heart
 Computer became less expensive compared to the first generation
 They also had no and monitor
 Magnetic tapes were used for secondly storage
 There was introduction of high learning language (FORTRAN)
 There was the introduction of super computers .e.g. IBM7030 other
computers included Mark III Atlas –leo IBM 1401

Characteristics of the Third Generation (1964 – 1972)

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  They used integrated circuits (ICs) as their processors
 They were speedy in processing data up to5 millions instruction per
seconds (MIPS)
 Their storage memory was bigger up to (2MB of RAM and could be
expanded
 They had the ability to perform several operations simultaneously
(Multi-tasking)
 Computers became cheaper, and better in performance,
 Small in size,
 Low power consumption
 They were programmed in simple languages (BASIC-Beginners all-
purpose symbolic instruction code)
 They stored information on Magnetic devices called Metal Oxide
Semi-conductors (MOS)
 There was introduction of Operating System s
 Used keyboard and monitors (interface)

Characteristics of the Fourth Generation (1972 –1990)

 There was the introduction large scale integration (LSI) and Very
 This was design by compressing more tiny circuit &transistors into
even smaller space.
 There was the development and use of micro-processors and micro-
computers or PCs.
 The price of computer reduced greatly.
 They became increasingly smaller than the computers in other
generations
 They consumed little power, some like laptops can operate on
rechargeable batteries
 There was a development of graphical user interfaces LAN & WAN
which led to the development of internet
 They are very fast in their operation
 Software programs have been significantly improved and high level
languages are almost exclusively used.
 They can connect to a color screen with improved graphics and thus
the development of GUI

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  Most of these computers have small in-built speakers for sound
 They could link together to form network and thus development of
internet
 They also sought the development of graphical user interface (GUI)
 They used microprocessor which was integrated circuit with previous
generations.
 Introduction of Portable Computers such as Laptops
 Introduction of Networking Technology and Operating Systems.

Characteristics of the Fifth Generation (1990-present)

 In this generation, computers have very high processing power and

speed than their predecessors, whose size is increasingly becoming
smaller.
 These computers have special instruction sets that allow them to
support complex programs that mimic human intelligence, often
referred to us as Artificial Intelligence.
 This generation is also characterized by AI, connectivity to internet,
superior hard & software
 And are very small in size
 Characterized by superior hardware and software
 They use parallel processing and super conductor
 Development of micro-processor and micro computer
 Introduction of wide variety of software
 Use of internet will be universal
 High storage capacity
 Power consumption has reduced
 Introduction of expert system
 Will use integrated microprocessor which will make them faster
 Will use natural language which are spoken by humans

COMPUTER CLASSIFICATIONS AND TYPES

Modern computers fall into various categories. These categories are

classified in the following ways:-

 Classification by size/capacity.
 Classification by process/function.
 Classification by purpose.
 Classification by Processor Power
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CLASSIFICATION BY SIZE
Under this classification, computers are classified depending on the
physical size and the amount of data/information that can be
held/stored. Some computers are very large while others are very small.
The categories under this classification include:

 Super computers or Monster computers

 Mainframe computers.
 Mini computers.
 Micro computers
Super Computers
A supercomputer is the fastest, most powerful, and most expensive
computer used for applications that require complex and sophisticated
mathematical calculations.
Super computers process billions of instructions in seconds and there
processing is usually limited to one task.

Characteristics of super computers

 They are large in size and have the largest storage capacity.
 They are expensive
 They are powerful
 They are faster when processing information 66 times faster than
the microcomputers
 They are kept in air conditioned rooms
 They are used in large scientific research centres and weather
forecasting centres
 They use many applications compared to other computers.
 Are used to carry out complex tasks like weather forecasting

Mainframe computers

A mainframe computer is a large, powerful and expensive computer that

is used in large organizations where sophisticated computers systems are
run. They can handle thousands of users connected at the same time.
Typical organizations that use mainframes include telecommunication
companies, International Non-Governmental Organizations, big industrial
complexes, etc.

Characteristics of Mainframe computers

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  These are large general purpose computers with a high
processing speed
 They have an extended memory or storage space.
 They have extensive input and output capabilities (capacities).
 They can accommodate many users at a time (500-1000 users)
 Supports many peripherals
 Require air conditioned rooms
 Requires experts to operate it
 Supports very many software programs
 Expensive
 Consume a lot of power

Mini Computers:
A minicomputer is a medium sized computer larger than a
microcomputer and is used in situations where a microcomputer is not
powerful enough. It can handle hundreds of users connected at the same
time. Mini computers are sometimes referred to as mid-range servers.

Characteristics of minicomputers

 Minicomputers are physically smaller than the mainframe and can

be used by 50 to 500 connected users at a time.
 They are easier to manufacture and maintain hence cheaper than
the mainframe.
 Minicomputers are also known as mid-range servers which can
normally support to several hundreds of users at a time.
 Minicomputers were developed in for use in process control systems
while mainframes were mainly used for commercial applications.
 They are slower than the mainframe
 They are used in medium sized companies
 They do not need special power supply
 They are less powerful than the mainframes
 They require also air conditioned rooms
 They require skilled man power.

Micro Computers

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Microcomputers are the smallest computer systems basically found in
homes, offices, schools and small businesses. They are single-user
computers. They are also referred to as Personal Computers (PC).

Characteristics of microcomputers

 They are designed to be operated by an individual (single-user)

 Input of data is through one keyboard, mouse, scanner, etc
 Output of data is through one monitor
 Storage of data takes place on the disks (hard, floppy and
compact) as well as in memory found on the system unit.
 Processing of data takes place using one microprocessor or
microchip found in the central processing unit (CPU).
 They support one processing task at a time.
 They can be used to perform a variety of tasks
 Cheap compared to other categories
 Reliable
 Easy to use
 Don‟t require air conditioned rooms
 Consume less power
 They are further broken down into these categories

Examples of Microcomputers

Desktop Computers: Desktop Computers are small microcomputers that

have their system units lying horizontally on the desk with a monitor placed
on top of the system unit

Tower/Mini Tower Computers: Tower computers are microcomputers that

have their system units lying vertically on the desk with the monitor placed
beside the system unit.

Laptop Computers: Laptop computers are small microcomputers that are

portable.

Notebook Computers: Notebook computers are smaller versions of

laptops that are portable as well.

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Personal Digital Assistants (PDA): PDAs are hand held devices designed for
individuals who move around and have built in communications
capabilities that allow the PDAs to use voice, fax, Internet, contact
address books, appointments, etc. E.g. smart phones, I pad, palmtops etc.

CLASSIFICATION BY FUNCTION/PROCESS
Under this classification, computers are classified according to how they
process and present data or how the computer is designed to operate
(function)

The categories under this classification are;

 Digital computers
 Analog computers
 Hybrid computers

Digital computers

Digital computers are ones that process and present data in form of
discrete values. Discrete values include numbers like 1, 2, 3 … they don‟t
present decimals or fractions. Examples of digital computers include
pocket calculators, digital watches, laptops, desktops, smart phones, I
pads, anything/ device that is digital etc.

Characteristics of Digital computers

- They used binary code system to represent and transmit information.

- They are fast
- They are not affected by interferences and background noise
- Data does not degrade during transmission
- It is more accurate
- Analog data can be compressed

Analog computers

Analog computers are one that process and present data in form of
continuous measurable quantities/units. They usually measure the
quantities of nature like pressure, temperature, volume and weight.
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Examples of Analog computers include thermometers, voltmeters,
speedometer, barometers, temperature guns etc.

Characteristics of Analog computers

- They used physical quantities to represent and transmit information

(continuous)
- They are slow
- They are affected by interferences and back ground noise.
- Data degrades during transmission
- It is less accurate
- Analog data cannot be compressed

Hybrid computers

These are computers which process and present data in form of discrete
values as well as continuous measurable quantities. They possess the
characteristics of Digital and Analog computers. All modern
microcomputers are hybrid.

CLASSIFICATION BY PURPOSE
Computers here are classified according to the work they are designed to
do.

These are categorized into two.

 Special purpose machine.

 General purpose computer.

Special Purpose Computers

They are designed to handle only a specific task(s). Their form of

operation is restricted in nature, e.g. digital watches, pocket calculators
and robotics, ATM Machine, lifts, elevators etc

General Purpose Computers

Designed to solve a wide range of problems, they perform a variety of

tasks by means of specially written programs. These can perform
calculations; keep date and time, process documents, store databases,
etc. e.g. desktop all microcomputers, mainframe computers,
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minicomputers, super computers etc.

CLASSIFICATION BY PROCESSOR POWER

These are ones classified according to speed and processor power. Due
to the rapid change in technology, processor power has also increased
and the computers are getting faster and faster. The higher the processors
power the faster the computer and vice versa. Thus these computers are
classified according to the speed with which a computer responds to the
user requests.

The categories under this classification include;

 80286 or 286
 80386 or 386
 80486 or 486
 Pentium I (80586)
 Pentium II or Pentium Pro
 Pentium III
 Pentium IV
 Dual Core Processor
 Intel
 icore
The above processors are arranged according to the time of make and
strength. Every new processor made would gradually replace the existing
one until it would become extinct.

COMPUTER SYSTEM

Definition: A computer system refers to the combination of hardware,

software, data and human ware/user to process data into information.
Actually it is the co-ordination that is required between the hardware;
software and human ware to enable the computer produce work or
perform the required tasks.

Components of computer system

The components of a computer system are divided into 4 categories

 Data
 Human ware/user

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  Hardware
 Software

DATA

Data is raw, unprocessed disorganized facts that have no meaning.

Examples of data are letters, figures, symbols, sound, picture etc.

HUMAN WARE/USER

 This is the personnel that uses/operates a computer.

 He/she provides data to be entered into a computer.
 He/she manages computer hardware and software

Examples of human ware; secretary, accountant, student, teacher,

doctor, engineer, policeman, DJ etc

COMPUTER HARDWARE

Computer Hardware‟s are the physical components (devices) or tangible

parts that make up a computer that can touched and felt.

Except the system Unit, the rest of the components of a microcomputer

like monitor, mouse, disk drives, keyboard, printer, scanner etc are usually
referred to as peripheral devices.

A peripheral device is any piece of hardware that can be connected to

a computer. “Peri” means “outside”. So they are connected the system
unit from outside.

Examples;

 Keyboard (Peripheral Hardware)

 Mouse (Peripheral Hardware)
 Screen/Monitor or [V.D.U.] (Peripheral Hardware)
 Diskette (Peripheral Hardware)
 Printer (Peripheral Hardware)
 Loud Speakers (Peripheral Hardware)
 Digital Camera (Peripheral Hardware)
 Scanners (Peripheral Hardware)
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  Microphone (Peripheral Hardware)
 Light Pen (Peripheral Hardware, etc
While those inside the system box are known as SYSTEM UNIT hardware.
These can only be seen and touched when the box is opened. Such as
 Processor (System Unit)
 Hard Disk (System Unit)
 Internal speaker (System Unit
 Motherboard/ Main board (System Unit Hardware)
 Memory (System Unit)
 Power supply
 Mother board
 Memory modules slots
 Ports and connectors
 Data buses
 CMOS battery, etc

Peripheral devices can fit into one of the four categories, that is, Input
devices, processing devices, Storage devices, Output devices, and
communication devices.

 Input devices
 Processing device (System unit)
 Output devices
 Storage devices
 Communication devices

INPUT HARDWARE /INPUT DEVICES

An input device is hardware used to enter/feed data into the computer.

What is Input?

Input refers to the process of entering data, programs, commands and

user responses into memory for processing.

Input also refers to the data entered into the computer through the
keyboard, mouse, microphone and other devices.

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Examples of input devices include

 Keyboard,
 mouse,
 joystick,
 scanner,
 Digital cameras,
 Touch screens.
 Microphone etc
 Track ball, etc

An example of data and the device that can be used is shown below:
Data Type Device type
 Graphics --------------------------------------- Scanner
 images/photos/pictures --------------------- Digital camera
 sounds (Audio) ---------------------------------- Microphone
 Video (Moving pictures) --------------------- Digital camera
 Text -------------------------------------------------- Keyboard

Keyboard

A keyboard is an input device that allows a user to enter data and

instructions into the computer by typing.

Data is input by pressing the keys etched with characters on the

keyboard. The characters include alphabetical, numerical, and special
characters as well as keys with special words on them.

Advantages of using a keyboard for data entry

i) It is cheap i.e. it‟s comes with a computer set during purchase.

ii) Entering data and instructions with a keyboard is generally faster
than with pointing devices such as a mouse, joystick, light pen
etc.
iii) Keyboards are more reliable and usually produce fewer errors
than other input methods such as Voice input and Optical
character recognition

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Disadvantages of using a key board for data entry

i) It takes a lot of time to practice in order to type quickly and

accurately.
ii) Typing speeds are still very low when compared with computer
speeds.
iii) Once faulty, you can‟t repair a keyboard.

Mouse

It is a hand held input device that moves the pointer on the screen or
selects objects such as icons. A mouse is also a most widely used pointing
device on personal computers.

Advantages of using a mouse

i) A mouse is user friendly for computer beginners.

ii) A mouse is easy and convenient to use with a graphical user
interface.
iii) Using a mouse to select items or move to a particular position on
the screen is faster that using a keyboard.
iv) It‟s cheap.

Disadvantages of using a mouse

i) It is not easy and convenient to input text with a mouse.

ii) Issuing commands by using a mouse is slower than by using a
keyboard.
iii) It needs some practice in order to control a mouse properly.
iv) A mouse is not accurate enough for drawings that require high
precision
v) A mouse usually required a flat surface to operate.
vi) A mouse needs more desk space to operate when compared
with a trackball or a touch pad.

PROCESSING DEVICE (SYSTEM UNIT)

This is a hardware device that changes data into information in the

computer. Or, turns/processes data into information. This device is the
brain of the computer and it is responsible for all operations that take
place in the computer. We have one processing device in the computer
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called a CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU). Sometimes we call it
microprocessor due to its small size.

The CPU is sometimes referred to as the processor or central processor or

the micro-processor

The CPU consists of three main parts:-

- The control unit (CU)

- The Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
- Register
-
THE CONTROL UNIT (CU)

The control unit (or brain) controls the entire operation of the processor
system during the execution of a program.

 It controls the flow of data between the main memory and the
periphery devices.
 The control unit determines the instruction to be executed.
 It fetches the data from the main memory and puts it in the proper
order for the processor.
 It also sends the processed results back to the main memory.
 Extracts instructions from memory decodes and executes them
calling on ALU when necessary.
 Fetches and sends commands to system devices and peripherals.

 Interprets commands i.e. it‟s is the intermediary between the user

and the computer.

 It coordinates all operations within the CPU (microprocessor)

 Sends processed data to either output device or storage device

ARITHMETIC LOGIC UNIT (ALU)

 The ALU performs arithmetic and logical operations. The arithmetic

and logic computations/operations include i.e. It is responsible for all
mathematical operations.

 Additions.
 Multiplication.
 Division.
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  Subtraction
 Performs all comparisons like equal to, Not equal to, Greater than,
Less than etc

REGISTER

This is a temporary storage of instructions during processing.

FUNCTIONS OF THE CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)

 It controls the flow of data between the main memory and the
periphery devices.
 The control unit determines the instruction to be executed.
 It fetches the data from the main memory and puts it in the proper
order for the processor.
 It also sends the processed results back to the main memory.
 Extracts instructions from memory decodes and executes them
calling on ALU when necessary.
 Fetches and sends commands to system devices and peripherals.

 Interprets commands i.e. it‟s is the intermediary between the user

and the computer.

 It coordinates all operations within the CPU (microprocessor)

 Sends processed data to either output device or storage device

 Does all the mathematics

 Does all the comparisons

COMPUTER STORAGE

Computer storage refers to computer components, devices and

recording media that retain/store data/information.

There are two forms of storage in computers

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 i) Primary storage: This is storage that takes place in the computer‟s
memory, which is temporary. It is directly linked to the central
processing unit of a computer.
ii) Secondary storage: This is storage that takes place outside the
computer‟s memory, which is permanent.

Storage, also called secondary storage, backing storage or auxiliary

storage stores data and programs when they are not being processed.

 The process of storing data is called writing or recording data because

the storage device records the data on the storage medium to save it
for later use.

 The process of retrieving data is called reading data, because the

storage device reads the data and transfers it to memory for
processing.

PRIMARY STORAGE

It is also called Main Memory, Internal Memory or registers memory.

Primary storage devices have direct access to the CPU. Primary storage
devices store data in a temporary form helped by the register since
register is a special high speed storage area within the CPU and all the
data must be represented in a register before it can be processed.

It is classified into two:-

- Read Only Memory

- Random Access Memory

RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY (RAM)

RAM (Random Access Memory) or working storage. This is the most

common type of memory. The RAM is used to keep data and programs
temporary. It stores programs being used on the computer at a particular
time.

It‟s called Random Access Memory because it allows the user to freely
read and write to it. RAM contents are held temporarily. This is because its

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contents are lost once the computer or power is turned off. That‟s why we
say its volatile memory. It is therefore advisable to keep on saving your
work when using a computer.

TYPES OF RAM

There are two types of RAM:

 Static RAM (SRAM)

 Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

 Static RAM is very fast compared to DRAM and holds its contents as
long as there is power.
 DRAM however; can hold its contents for only a short period of time
even when power is off.
 The contents of DRAM can be maintained by refreshing the memory
chip several times per second.
 SRAM is more expensive. It‟s used to make special types of memories
like buffers and cache memory.
 SDRAM (Synchronous Dynamic Random Access Memory). This is a type
of memory that is synchronised with a system bus. It is the one of the
most types of PC RAM used today.
 DDR-RAM (Double Date Rate Random Access Memory. This is a newer
type of memory. It is similar to regular SDRAM, except data can be
transferred on both positive and negative clock edges.
 Conventional Memory. This is a kind of memory which is used by all Ms-
DOS (Microsoft Disk Operating System) based applications.
 Upper Memory Area (UMA). This is part of RAM which is used by
computer hardware such as the monitor, keyboard. Unused parts of
UMA are called Upper Memory Blocks.
 High Memory Area (HMA). This is type of memory that can be used by
MS DOS based applications to conserve conventional memory.
 Extended Memory (XMS). This is the memory that requires an extended
memory manager like High Memory Manager.
 Expanded Memory (EMS). This is an additional to conventional memory
used by some MS Dos based applications

CHARACTERISTICS OF RAM

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  RAM is a temporary storage.
 Its contents are user defined i.e. the user opens the programs and
data to be held on RAM.
 RAM size can be changed.
 Can be increased.
 The contents of RAM can be read and written to.
 RAM is volatile. This means that it can easily lose its contents
 RAM is used in large quantities by the computer

READ ONLY MEMORY

ROM chips store information or instructions that don‟t change.

ROM chips store the start-up instructions when the computer is turned on.
Therefore it can be read as many times as possible but not written to or
erased from, hence the term Read-Only.

The instructions in ROM are recorded permanently in memory when it is

manufactured. ROM is non-volatile. This means memory retains its
contents when power to the computer is turned off.

ROM is used to store programmed instructions and data, which are

required to remain unchanged for long periods of time e.g. booting
instructions and BIOS settings. This is because ROM is non-volatile; the
contents of ROM cannot be changed or deleted; they can only be read,
hence the name Read Only. These instructions are called Firmware.

TYPES OF ROM

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PROM-Programmable Read Only Memory: This is the type of memory that
can be only programmed once after it has been manufactured. Once
programmed, the instructions stored on it can never be altered
(changed). It is common with compact disk recordable (CD-R)
EPROM-Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory: This is a kind of
memory whose contents can only be erased once and then
programmed once exposed to ultra -violent (UV) light and then
reprogrammed for another use. Its common with compact disk re-writable
(CD-RW)

EEPROM-Electronically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory: This

can be erased and reprogrammed using electricity. This section of
memory, contents can be deleted and be re-programmed many times.
E.g. Mobile phones etc

CHARACTERISTICS OF ROM

 Its contents can only be read.

 It‟s non-volatile i.e. its contents cannot be lost when the computer is
switched off.
 Its contents are not user defined, they come from the manufacturer
 The size of ROM may not be increased.
 Its contents cannot be changed
 It can store instructions permanently or semi-permanently.
 ROM is used small quantities
 Not needed by the computer immediately.

Differences between RAM and ROM

i) RAM is volatile whereas Rom is non-volatile

ii) RAM can be increased whereas ROM cannot be increased.
iii) RAM contents can be changed while ROM contents cannot be
changed.
iv) RAM contents are set by the user while ROM contents are set by the
manufacturers

Other types of memory

- Cache Memory: This is a type of memory which stores data that is

being accessed frequently by the processor. The role of cache
memory is therefore to provide a space for temporary storage of

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 frequently accessed data. Cache memory make the computer
to be more powerful
- Virtual memory: This is the type of memory than supplements RAM

MEASUREMENT OF COMPUTER MEMORY

In memory, data is represented electronically by storage cells which are

either charged or discharged. In RAM the cells can be charged (on) or
discharged (off). In ROM the cells are either charged or discharged
permanently.

Therefore electronically, computer memory can be represented as either

ON or OFF. Mathematically it is represented as either 1 or 0 in the binary
system or binary code.

Binary digits, computers use binary system of measurement as the basis of

working that is 1 and 0. Therefore computer memory is measured in terms
of Binary Digits (BITS) which are the least units of measurement.

To make up a single character, a computer needs a group of eight bits

and eight bits are equivalent to a single character.

A bit is the smallest unit of measurement in the computer memory.

A Nibble is the collection of four bits

A Byte is the collection of eight bits which are equivalent to a character or

a keyboard letter.

Measurement Equivalence

1 binary digit (0 or 1) 1 bit

1 kilobyte or character 8 bits

1 kilobyte (KB) 1024 bytes

1 megabyte 1024 kilobytes or 220 bytes

1Gigabyte 1024 megabytes or 220 kilobytes or 230 bytes

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1 Terabyte 1024 gigabytes or 220 megabytes or
230kilobytes

SECONDARY STORAGE (BACKUP OR AUXILIARY STORAGE)

Secondary Storage devises are ones that store data in a seemingly

permanent form or used for back up purposes.

Examples of secondary storage devices;

 Memory Card
 Hard disks/fixed disks
 Floppy disk/diskette
 The compact disks (CD-ROM) or CD
 Flash disks
 Tapes
 Zip drives
 Punched cards.

And can be classified according to the technology used to read and

record data that is

 Magnetic-made of flexible plastic with one side coated with a

ferromagnetic materials(videotapes , cassette tapes)

 Solid state-device that is purely electronic with no moving part

 Solid-refers to the fact that inside the electronic component there is

no mechanical action taking place (RAM)

 Optical-These devices use laser technology to store and read data

to and from the disk.CD/DVD

Storage: Holds data, instructions, and information for future use

Storage mediums: physical material used for storage

CD-ROM drive: The CD-ROM drive is used with computer is to read the
information from the CD-ROM.

A DRIVE: Device that reads from and writes to disk

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CD-Writer: A CD-writer or recorder (or simply CD-R drive) is used to write
data on

CARE AND MAINTENANCE OF A STORAGE DEVICE

 Don‟t fold it
 Don‟t place a storage device near a magnetic field such as near
the radio, speakers etc
 Do not expose it to direct sunlight for a long period.
 Remove a diskette from its drive before turning off the computer.
 Do not drop diskettes on the hard surface e.g. the floor.
 Do not remove or insert it from its drive when the drive active light
is on.
 Do not force it into the drive.
 Keep them away from intensive heat.
 Store them in boxes or case when not being used.
 Don‟t expose the diskette to direct sunshine or heat.
 Store the diskette in a cool dry dust-free environment.
 Don‟t spill liquid onto the device.
 Don‟t use any diskette which has had liquids spilled on it.
 Use a soft pencil or felt-tip pen when writing on diskette labels, as
the pressure of a ballpoint may leave indentations on the
magnetic surface.
 Don‟t touch the magnetic surface (the black plastic like plate) of
the disk, as your finger prints may hinder the drive in reading from
and writing to the disk

COMPUTER OUTPUT DEVICES

These are devices which bring out information from the computer to the
user. Or, devices which display information

Output is the result obtained from the computer after a processing task.
E.g. Text, Graphics, Images, Video (motion pictures), Sound (audio)

Output could either be in form of a hard copy (printed material) or a soft

copy (a display on the monitor or heard from the speaker).

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Examples of output devices: monitors, speaker, plotter, projector, printer
etc.

There are basically two types of output devices:

- Display devices
- Printing Devices

Display Devices:

A display device is a visual output device of a computer. They include the

monitors and flat panel displays

THE MONITOR
A monitor also called a visual display unit (VDU) has a display surface
called a screen. It displays information from the computer in form of text,
video or pictures.

Types of monitors

Cathode Ray Tube Monitors (CRT): These monitors use a Cathode tube to
display text and graphics on the surface of the screen. The cathode tube
has electronic guns at the back of the tube that generates an electronic
beam towards the surface of the screen.

Advantages of CRTs

 Can produce faster

 They have a very wide viewing angle
 They are cheaper than LCDs
 They have a better resolution
Disadvantages of CRTs

 Emit higher EMR (Electromagnetic radiation) than LCD monitors

 Consume more energy than LCD Monitors
 Occupy bigger space in the room
 Not easily portable

Liquid crystal Display (LCD): based screen displays visual information on a

flatter and smaller screen. LCDs are frequently used in laptop computers
and flat screen monitors. They use a liquid crystal rather than a cathode
ray tube to create images on the screen

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Advantages of LCDs

 They are lighter and therefore easy to transport

 Occupy little space on the desk or table
 Use less power
 Have little radiation and thus have less effect on the eyes
Disadvantages of LCDs

 They are more expensive than CRTs

 They have a very narrow viewing angle
 They have a relatively poor output compared to CRTs
 Slow response at times

There are also,

 Flat panel monitors for laptops and other small computers.

 Touch screen monitors- allows one to touch with ones finger on the
desired icon or menu on the screen to perform the action one
wants.

Printing Devices: these are output devices that produce hard copies

THE PRINTERS

Printers are output devices that produce a hard copy of text and
graphical images on a piece of paper as output. (Print information on a
paper any other physical medium)

CATEGORIES OF PRINTERS

Printers fall into two categories. These are based on whether the image is
produced by physical contact with the print media or not. The two
categories are:

 Impact printers
 Non-impact printers.

IMPACT PRINTERS

These are printers whose print heads physically come into contact with
the print medium/paper. This is the reason why they make noise and force
during printing.

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Examples of Impact printers include:-

 Character printers
 Line printers
 Dot matrix printers.
 Daisy wheel printers

Characteristics of Impact printers

- Noisy
- Slow
- Use force
- Poor quality output (not clear)
- Use ribbon
- cheap

Advantages of Impact Printers

 They are not very expensive

 Some impact printers are very fast; they can print at a speed of
160cps thus increasing productivity.
 They are easy to maintain, their print heads only require periodic
cleaning.
 They are reliable; they can print over 100 million characters in their life
span.
 They can print on continuous paper especially dot-matrix printers

Disadvantages

 They are noisy during operation. Because of the contact between print
heads and the print medium
 They have a lower print resolution compared to other types of printers
 The head usually overheats during long hours of printing which slows
down the process of production.
 They are slower in printing compared to non–impact printers
 Produce poor quality output

NON-IMPACT PRINTERS

These are printers whose print heads do not come into contact with the

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print media/paper when printing.

Examples of non-impact printers include:-

 Inkjet Printers
 Desk Jet printers.
 Bubble jet (Thermal inkjet) printers.
 Thermal printers.
 Laser printers.

Characteristics of Non-impact printers

- Quiet
- Faster
- Use a scanning technology
- Expensive
- Produce good quality output (clear)
- Use tonner
- Coloured output

Advantages of Non-impact printers

 They are nearly noiseless since they do not have any moving parts to
generate the noise. The paper is placed into the printer and
characters are formed as they get heated.
 They consume very little power (almost a sixth) of other printers.
 They are reliable because they do not experience inconveniences
with paper jams or blocked nozzles
 They produce clear and crisp images with very high resolution.

Disadvantages

 They cannot print on any paper because the heat generated will
not cause any discoloration without burning the entire paper.
 The paper used has a limited shelf life. It can be affected by age,
sunlight, humidity and other chemical vapors which may cause it to
discolor completely there by causing the words to disappear.
 The paper has to be specially prepared before they can be used in
printing, which creates delays.
 Their print heads cannot be serviced or repaired, which makes them
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 expensive to maintain. The whole print head must be replaced
 The printing speed is also so slow because the heads have to be
allowed time to cool before the next printing cycle.
 They have a shorter life span than other printers. Their print heads
are expected to print a maximum of 10 million characters
accurately whereas other print heads like dot matrix printers go over
50 million characters in their life span.

COMMUNICATION DEVICES

Communications devices: These are devices which enable two or more

computers to exchange items such as data, instructions, and information
with each other. (Enable communication to take place)

The primary function of a communications device (e.g., a modem) is to

convert or format signals so that they become suitable for the
communications channel or a receiving device.

A communication channel is the communications path between two

devices.

Some of the more common types of communications devices are:

a) Modems:
A modem is a communications device that converts analog signals
to digital signals and vice versa. The word modem is derived from a
combination of the words modulation and demodulation.

 Modulation is to convert digital signals into analog signals

 Demodulation is to convert analog signals into digital signals.

A modem connected to a sending computer converts the computer's

digital signals into analog signals (i.e., modulation), which can travel
over a communications channel (e.g., a telephone line).

Another modem at the receiving end converts the analog signals back
into digital signals (i.e., demodulation) that can be understood by the
receiving computer.

b) Network Interface Card (NIC)

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 A network interface card (NIC), or LAN adapter, is an expansion card
that enables a computer or device to connect to a network.

c) Hub:
A hub, also called a concentrator or Multi-station Access Unit (MAU) is a
device that provides a central connecting point for cables that run to
the server and each of the devices in a network. It allows devices such
as computers, printers and storage devices to be connected to the
server.

d) Gateway:
A gateway is a combination of hardware and software that allows
users on one network to access resources on a different type of
network. Gateways connect networks that use different protocols.

e) Bridges:
A bridge is a device that connects two LANs using the same protocol,
such as the Ethernet. Sometimes, it is more efficient and economical to
use a bridge to connect two separate LANs, instead of creating one
large LAN that combines the two separate LANs.

f) Routers
A router is an intelligent communications device that sends (routes)
communications traffic to the appropriate network using the fastest
available path. A router is used to connect several networks.
g) Switch

A switch is a communication that connects more than one computer on

a network. Just list like a hub or more than a hub, it allows devices such as
computers, printers and storage devices to be connected to the server.

COMPUTER SOFTWARE

Software is the series of instructions or programs that tell the computer

what and how to perform a task. Software is often called a computer
program. They manage the operation of the computer and makes sure
the computer works efficiently.
The term software is used to describe the complete range of computer
programs that convert a general purpose computer system into one
capable of performing a multitude of specific functions

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There are two categories of software; System software and Application
software.

SYSTEM SOFTWARE

System software is programs that control the operations of the computer

and its devices. System software deals with the hardware directly. System
software is usually supplied with the computer hardware i.e. used by the
computer itself.

Systems software can be grouped into the following groups:-

a) The Operating system.

b) Utility programs.
c) Programming languages and Language processors

OPERATING SYSTEM

An operating system (OS) is a set of programs containing instructions that

coordinate all the activities among computer hardware devices.

The operating system relies on device drivers to communicate with each

device in the computer. The operating system also contains instructions to
run application software.

Functions of an operating system

a) Controlling Input and Output:

Operating systems control the flow of data into and out of the
computer system and to the peripheral devices.

b) Memory Management:
The purpose of memory management is to optimize the use of RAM.
The operating system has to allocate, or assign items to areas of
memory, called buffers, while they are being processed.

c) Administering Security:
Most multi-user operating systems require each user to log on. Both
successful and unsuccessful log on attempts are often recorded in a

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 file so the system administrator can review who is using or
attempting to use the computer

d) Managing Storage Media and Files:

Most operating systems include a file manager program that
performs functions related to storage and file management.

e) Detects Equipment Failures

The OS monitors each hardware device and detects failures.

f) Monitors system performance

The operating systems monitors the systems‟ performance using a
program called a performance monitor to detect the status of each
device and report failures and other information about various
system resource and devices..

g) Job Scheduling: The operating system has to determine which task

will be processed first and makes sure that the one that is currently
being prepared is closely monitored to avoid wasting time with the
processor.

h) Resource control and allocation. The operating system gives each

resource a unique identification number called an interrupt number.

i) Error handling. Operating system expresses what the error is and

where possible makes suggestions on how to correct the error.

j) Job sequencing. Operating system fixes a list of jobs or tasks

currently being run and clocks them in and out of the processor.

k) Interrupt handling. An interrupt is a break from the normal sequential

processing of instructions in a program

l) Configuring devices. Operating system today support plug and play

and can configure devices automatically.

In summary the functions of Operating system

 Memory management

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  Booting the computer
 Providing the user interface
 Processor management
 File management
 Managing the storage media
 Administering security
 Monitoring system performance
 Device configuration
 Scheduling computer jobs like printing
 Error handling
 Manage application programs
 Manage computer hardware

Operating systems are grouped into two types of user interface.

- command line interface (CLI)

- graphical user interface (GUI)

Command line interface (CLI)

This is where a user types a keyword or press special keys on the keyboard
to enter data and instruction in form of commands. The set of commands
a user uses to interact with the computer is called the command
language.

Advantages of command line interface

- Command line interface takes up little memory and normally

does not require a very fast processor.
- Operation is fast because commands can be entered directly
through the keyboard.
- Many commands can be grouped together as a batch file so
that repetitive tasks can be automated.
Disadvantages

- A command language has to be learnt and memorized.

A Graphical User Interface (GUI)

This is an operating system which allows the user to use menus and visual
images, icons, buttons and other graphical objects on the computer
desktop to feed commands, data or instructions to the computer.

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It is a user interface which allows the user to give instructions/commands
and data (communicate with the computer) with help of visual menu on
the computer desktop (WIMP)

Advantages of a Graphical user interface

- It is user friendly because it is easy to learn and work with.

- There is no need to type and memorize any command language.
- The interface is similar for any application.
- It provides options of commands on menu from which the user
selects.
- User can easily differentiate folders due to use of different icons,
images.

Disadvantages

- A graphical user interface normally requires more memory.

- It does not require the user to have a faster processor.
- It also occupies more disk space to hold all the files for different
functions.
- It is difficult to automate functions for expert users.
- Menus and icons may not be easy to access when they are so
many.
- GUI‟s may not be easily used with input devices but commonly
with a mouse.

CLASSIFICATION/CATEGORIES OF OPERATINMG SYSTEMS

Operating systems are grouped according to the way or where they are
used. The main categories include.

 Desktop Operating systems

 Networking Operating Systems
 PDA Operating systems.
 Other Operating systems.

Desktop Operating Systems

These are operating systems which are commonly used on PCs and
normally standalone PCs (not on network). They include:-

 DOS (Disk Operating System)

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  Windows Operating System: Windows Operating Systems are types
of Graphical User Interfaces (GUI). It is based on graphics instead of
text. It is characterized by the use of Mouse and drop-down menus.
Examples of Windows OS

- Windows 3.x
- Windows 95
- Windows 98
- Windows NT
- Windows 2000
- Windows ME
- Windows XP
- Windows 7,8,10

Network Operating System

These are designed to be used on several computers that exist on a

network; however, they can also be installed on standalone computers.
Examples include:

- Novell Netware
- Windows NT 4.0.
- Windows 3.11 (Windows for Workgroups)
- UNIX
- LINUX (Ubuntu)
PDA Operating System

These are operating systems, which are specifically designed for hand
held or very small computers. They are commonly pen driven or touch
sensitive. These PDAs usually come when they are already loaded with the
operating system. Examples include:

- Windows CE
- Palm Operating system
- EPO
- Pocket PC 2002
- Android

Others Operating Systems

Other operating systems include those that are designed specifically for

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specific computers by the manufacturers. Examples include:-

 Mac Operating System for Macintosh computers.

 Arcon RISC OS for Machines that use Arcon processors.
 VMS for DECs mini computers
 VME for the ICLs minicomputers.
 System-7 for the Apple Macintosh computers
 CP/M (Control programs for Microcomputers) designed for
microcomputers

OTHER WAYS OF CATEGORISING OPERATING SYSTEMS

There are several other ways of categorizing operating systems and these
include:-

 According to the number of users it can support simultaneously.

 According to the number of tasks it can perform simultaneously.
 According the user interface it provides.
According to the number of users

 Single-user operating systems: A single user or single tasking system

allows one user to operate one program at a time. It cannot support
more than one person and supports only one user program at a
time. An example is MS-DOS.
 Multi-user operating system: A multi-user computer can be
accessed by several users or applications simultaneously. They can
be installed on a computer that can be accessed by all users in a
place. Examples include UNIX, Linux, Novell, Windows NT, Windows
2003 server, etc.

According to the number of tasks

 Single tasking operating system or single program operating system

This allows the processing of one application program in the main memory
at a time. The user can only run one interactive program at a time. An
example of this OS is, MS DOS.

 Multi- tasking operating systems

This allows the computer to support more than one application program

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at the same time. The operating system through processor scheduling
allocates time and switches from one task to another so quickly that it
appears as if they are being executed simultaneously. Examples include
almost all windows operating systems including Windows NT/2000, UNIX,
Novell, Linux,

According to the user interface

Operating systems can be categorized according to the type of user

interface they provide to the user. The term user interface refers to the
interaction between the user and the computer. The user interfaces
include the following:

 Command line interface (CLI)

 Graphical user interface (GUI)
 Menu driven interface

COMMON TECHNOLOGIES ASSOCIATED WITH OPERATING SYSTEMS

Multi-tasking: This refers to having several programs running simultaneously

on the computer. For example; you can send a page to print and
continue typing a document.

Multi-threading: Is when each process runs one or more thread when this
happens, it appears to the user as if the application is performing several
tasks at once. For example; Window 95, which performs a spell check as
you type.

Multi-Processing: Tasks are shared among several processors and run

simultaneously.

Job: A job is a group of tasks taken as a unit of work for a computer,

which may include one or more computer programs, files and instructions
to the operating system.

FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN CHOOSING AN OPERATING SYSTEM

When choosing an operating for a computer the following should be put

into consideration.

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- The computers specification for example memory capacity, processor
speed, hard disk capacity etc.
- The type of computer in terms of size and make. This would tell you to
buy either a PDA or Desktop Operating system
- The application software intended for the computer. This because
some applications cannot be supported by particular operating
systems
- User friendliness of the operating system
- The cost of the operating system
- Reliability and security provided by the operating system
- The number of processors and hardware it can support
- The number of users it can support

UTILITY PROGRAMS

A utility program is a type of system software that performs a specific task,

usually related to managing a computer, its devices, or its programs. Utility
programs are also referred to as service programs. They are used to
enhance the performance of the computer.

The most common utility programs are:

 Debuggers: - Tests the flow of a program, it detects errors in the

program and notifies the user
 Sorting Utility: - This allows data to be arranged as specified by the
user i.e. ascending order, Descending order or otherwise.
 Merging Utility: - Allows data from more than one file to be
combined into one.
 Copying/Backup:- This allows the creation of a duplicate copy of
the original. Allows the movement of hard disk contents to backup
storage.
 Anti-virus:- This detects and removes viruses from the computer.
 Data compression:- Helps to free space on storage device (hard
disk) by removing redundant data
 Screen saver is a utility that causes the monitor's screen to display a
moving image or blank screen if no keyboard or mouse activity
occurs for a specified time period.
 Uninstaller is a utility that removes an application, as well as any
associated files for that application from the computer system.
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  Disk defragmenter is a utility that reorganizes the files and unused
space on a computer's hard disk and floppy disk so data can be
accessed more quickly and programs can run faster.
 File decompression utility enlarges, or decompresses, the size of a
file from the compressed state to a big size.
 File viewer is a utility that displays and copies the contents of a file.
 File compression utility reduces, or compresses, the size of a file.
Compressed file takes up less storage space on a hard disk or floppy
disk, which frees up room on the disk and improves system
performance.

PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES

Programming languages are the means of communicating with the

processor.

There are two basic categories of programming languages.

- Low Level Languages.

- High Level Languages.

LOW LEVEL LANGUAGES (LLL)

These are called low level languages because they are closely related to
the computer processor. Thus these languages are easily understood by
the computer than the programmers.

There are two examples of low level languages

 Machine Code Language

 Assembly Language

Machine Code Language

This is also known as Object Code and is referred to as the 1 st Generation

Language. It‟s very difficult to learn and very unfamiliar to humans. It‟s not
user friendly at all. This is because program codes must be written in binary
digits only.

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 Advantages of a machine language

- Machine language is highly efficient, allows control of each

operation.
Disadvantages of machine languages

- Programmers have to write programs using 0‟s and 1‟s which are
difficult to learn read and debug
- The whole is time consuming to coordinate and error prove
- It is not user friendly at all and it is designed for specific
microprocessors.

Assembly Language

This is referred to as the 2nd Generation Language. This was invented to

simplify machine code language. Though it closely looks like a machine
code language, at least, it is easier to be understood and remembered
by humans. This is because it uses few English abbreviations or words e.g.
SUB for subtract, FNO for First Number.

Advantages of assembly language

- Assembly languages have a closer control over the computers and

executes very efficiently
- It is therefore useful for writing operating systems and games
programs which require fast and efficient use of CPU

Disadvantages

- Like machine language, assembly language is designed for specific

machines and specific processors.

HIGH LEVEL LANGUAGES (HLL)

High level languages consist of statements that are closer to human

languages or mathematical nation than a machine or assembly
language.

- High level languages are machine independent

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- The high level languages are user friendly and problem oriented rather
than machines based and have a wide vocabulary of valid words,
symbols and sentences.
- They make programming much easier since they shield programmers
from knowing all the codes.

Language processors

These are mainly used with high level languages to work backwards to the
processor e.g. they translate high level languages into low level
languages that the processor can understand.

- Compilers this translates program written in the high level language

into machine by translating an entire program at once.
- Interpreters these translates a high level language into a machine
language by translating line by line while the program is running.
- Linkers these programs determine where the program will be located in
memory.

EXAMPLES OF HIGH LEVEL LANGUAGES

 FORTRAN (Formula Translation) this programming language is used to

write scientific and engineering applications or programs.
 COBOL (Common Business Oriented Language) this is used to write
applications or programs used for business and commercial data.
 BASIC – Beginners All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code. This
programming language is used to teach students how to use
computers. It is used by students who are new to programming.
 PASCAL-This programming language was developed in 1970 as a tool
for teaching programming. It was named so in remembering of the
inventor of the mechanical calculator (Blaise Pascal)
 C. This programming language was developed at the Bell laboratory. It
is a language of many operating systems and application packages.
 ADA this programming language was named in honour of lady
Augusta Ada King who worked hand in hand with Charles Babbage
and made programs that were used by the Analytical Engine.
 Others include;
- Java
- Visual Basic (VB)
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 - LISP
- Python etc

APPLICATION SOFTWARE
Application software refers to programs that perform specific tasks for
users using a variety of application programs. These are programs which
are designed to help the user accomplish his specific tasks.

Application software involves programs that a user can use to perform

some useful tasks like writing letters, editing photos, connect to the
internet, and so on. These programs are sometimes called end user
programs meaning that they cannot be used to write or create other
programs

There are basically two types of application software which include:-

- General purpose applications/Off-the-shelf programs

- Special purpose / Custom Designed programs

GENERAL PURPOSE APPLICATIONS/OFF-THE-SHELF PROGRAMS

These are programs designed to solve a variety of tasks. These are pre-
written programs purchased off-the-shelf by the user. They solve problems
that are common in nature.

The common types of off-shelf application software include:

 Word Processors (MS Word, WordPerfect, WordStar, Lotus Notes, Perfect

Text Editor, Professional Writer, etc). Used in creation of documents like
letters, reports, labels etc.
 Spreadsheets (MS Excel, Lotus 1-2-3, Quattro Pro. VisiCalc. ) used in
creation and maintenance of numerical data and carrying out
calculations).
 Databases, (MS Access, dBase III and IV, MySQL, FoxBase, Paradox).
They are used to keep records and files
 Presentation software (MS PowerPoint).Used in creation of slides, slide
show overheads etc
 Desktop publishing (Adobe PageMaker, MS Publisher, Adobe InDesign)
used in designing publications like newspapers, creation of books,

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 magazines etc.
 Computer Aided Design (CAD) e.g. AutoCAD. This is used in technical
drawing
 Graphic Software (Adobe Photoshop, Corel Draw ).Designing and
manipulating graphics
 Communication software e.g. Browsers, internet explorer and e-mail
software, MS Outlook, MS exchange. Used in sending mails and
searching for data on the www

Advantages of General Purpose/Off-shelf packages

- Relatively low priced since they are sold in large numbers

- They are easy to use and are suitable for people with little or no
computer knowledge.
- They are readily available compared to special purpose
programs.
- They can be customized to solve other problems e.g. designing
vouchers, CVs from template
- Have less error
- They are appropriate for a wide range of applications.
- They are usually provided together with a documentation
explaining how to use them.
- Development time should be much quicker, given that most of
the system will be written already.
- The software manufacturers will continually update a successful
package.
- Some standard packages can be customized to the user‟s
specific needs.
- Enable quick decision-making.
- Other users will have used the package already, and a well-
established package should be relatively free of bugs.

Disadvantages of General Purpose Programs

- It is quite easy to forget the commands to use in the package,

especially if it is not used frequently.
- Sometimes, the package will allow only a clumsy solution to the
task at hand.

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 - The organization is purchasing a standard solution. A standard
solution may not be well suited to the organization‟s particular
needs.
- There is a high risk during implementation if the software fails to
work.
- Competitors may well use the same the same package,
removing any chance of using IS/IT for competitive advantage

SPECIAL PURPOSE / CUSTOM DESIGNED PROGRAMS

These are specific software programs designed to perform specific tasks

for users. For example a Payroll package to compute salaries of
employees, an inventory program to control stock of assets, books, etc

They are software programs written by users or independent software

professionals to the user‟s specifications/requirements

 Programs which are uniquely designed and tailored to meet a

particular user‟s needs
 Program that is designed and written just to solve the particular
problem for a particular group of people

Advantages of customized packages

- If the work is done in house, the organization gains considerable

knowledge of how the software works and may be able to tune it so
that it works more efficiently with the company‟s hardware.
- If done in house, the in house team may have to learn new skills.
- Improves corporate image
- Increase production
- Its secure
- Difficult to manipulate or forge
-

Demerits of customized packages

 It may prove costly than expected, because new versions of the
standard package will also have to be customized.
 Customization mat delay delivery of the software.
 Customization may introduce bugs that do not exist in the standard
version
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  Training the users is costly to the organisation

Other forms of software available include:

i) Packaged software is commercial software, which is copyrighted

and designed to meet the needs of a wide variety of users.

ii) Custom software is tailor-made software, which is developed at a

user's request to perform specific functions.

iii) Freeware is copyrighted software provided at no cost to users.

iv) Shareware is copyrighted software that is distributed free for a trial

period, and payment is required for using the software beyond that
trial period.

v) Public-domain software is free software donated for public use and

has no copyright restrictions.

vi) A cross platform application is the application that runs identically

on multiple operating systems.

FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN CHOOSING A PACKAGE

User requirements: Does the package fit the user‟s requirements? I.e. The
user must be convinced of a product.

Documentation: Is there full documentation for the user? User manuals

can be full of jargon and hard for a non-technical person to understand.
They should be.

User-friendliness: Is the package easy to use? Is the software user friendly

with the menus and clear on screen?

Market confidence/performance of the package: The user should

consider how long the package has been on the market and how
satisfied the existing user is with the package

Technical requirement: Where technical knowledge is required the person

purchasing should ensure that the desired knowledge is possessed by the
staff that will be using the package.
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After purchase service/support: The user should know exactly how he
should be helped to solve problem if they occur after purchase

Up-to-date: How will the package be kept up to date (e.g. what if a fault
is discovered in the program by software manufacturer? In an accounting
package, what if the rate of VAT alters? Etc

Modification: Can the package be modified by the user e.g. allowing

users to insert amendments to format of the format of reports or screen
displays etc? Or will the software supplier agree to write a few tailor-made
amendments to the software?

The cost of the package: The firm should go for the package
corresponding to the funds available. It is however important to consider
the costs vs. benefits.

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 DATA COMMUNICATION, NETWORKS AND INTERNET

DATA COMMUNICATION

Data communication refers transferring of data, instructions and

information from one computer to another computer or some other
computers or devices.

Basic modes for data communication

- A sending device is a device that initiates an instruction to transmit

data, instructions or information.
- A communication device is a device that converts the data, instruction
or information from the sending device into signals that can be carried
by a communication channel.
- A communication channel is a path over which the signals are sent e.g.
a standard telephone line.
- A receiving device is one that receives the signals from the
communication channel and converts them into a form understood by
the receiving device. It is device or a computer that accepts the
signals from sending computer.
- Communication software is software which consists of programs that
manage transmission of data, instructions and information between
computers.

Communication devices enable two or more computers to exchange

items such as data, instructions and information with each other.

Types of communication devices

- Dial-up Modems: A modem in a communication device that

converts between analog and digital signals. The word modem is
derived from a combination of the words modulation and
demodulation
- Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) and Digital Subscriber
Line (DSL) modems
- ISDN – Integrated Services Digital Network is a set of standards for
digital transmission of data over standard copper telephone lines.
- Cable Modem. This sends and received data over the cable
television network.
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 - Network Interface Card (NIC) or LAN Adapter, Is an expansion card
that enables a computer or device to connect to a network.

Transmission media consists of materials or techniques capable of

carrying one or more signals.

- Physical Transmission media. This use a wire, cable and other physical
materials to send communication signals.
- Wireless Transmission media. These send communications signals
through the air/space using radio, microwave and infrared signals

MODES OF DATA TRANSMISSION

Simplex transmission: In this form of transmission, data flows in one

direction only. In this you receive but you cannot send. E.g. watching a TV
or listening to a radio

Half Duplex transmission: This is a form of transmission in which data flows

in both directions but not simultaneously. Data has to flow from one end
to another until it is finished, then other data can flow in opposite
direction. The principle is similar to the original radio call.

Duplex transmission: In duplex transmission, data flows in both directions

simultaneously. E.g. Phone calls

Asynchronous Transmission: This is a method whereby data is transmitted

singly at will at irregular intervals of time. This method is possible for low
quantities of data.

Synchronous Transmission: This is where large quantities of data are

transmitted at ago, as blocks of fixed rate.

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COMPUTER NETWORK

A network is a link between two or more computer systems together in

order for them to share resources and peripheral devices e.g. printers.

A computer network refers to standalone computers and other devices

like printers interconnected to one another with the ability of sharing data
and resources.

TYPES OF NETWORKS

Local area networks (LANs)

This is a network that connects computers in a limited or small

geographical area such as a school computer laboratory, an office,
computers in adjacent buildings etc.

Each LAN is a governed by a protocol

A protocol is a set of rules and formats for sending and receiving data. Or

A protocol is a set of rules and procedures for exchanging information

among computers on a network.

Protocols define how the communication channel is established, how

information is transmitted and how errors are detected and corrected.
Some of the most common protocols in use today include

TCP/IP – Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol is a protocol which

enables computers to communicate across the internet. It is a protocol of
the internet required on any computer that must communicate across the
internet.

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

This is a large scale network that connects gazetted areas like a town or
city and, multiple corporate LANs together. MANs usually are not owned a
single organization.

Wide Area networks (WANs)

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A wide area network is two or more LANs connected together generally
across a wide geographical area. This covers a very large geographical
area like a continent or the whole world. It consists of many LANs.

Campus area networks (CANs)

A Campus Area Network is a network in which different campus offices

and organizations can be linked together e.g. University, School. In this
connection different LAN can be connected.

Intranet: This is a private network inside a company / organization which

uses Internet protocols. Many LANs within an organisation are
interconnected to share files and information among departments.

Extranet: This is a private network inside a company / organization that

connects many LANs across borders to share information with clients and
suppliers.

NETWORK MODELS OR TYPES OF LAN

Is a description of how network layers interact?

- Peer to peer (P2P)

- Client server

Peer to Peer (P2P)

This is the type of network model where every computer on the network
can work as a client and server computer. There is no central server and
specific client. Each user in this network can access resources from every
other computer especially those resources that are made available. Most
LANs always apply this model.

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Characteristics of Peer to Peer network model

- Each computer stores files on its own storage device.

- Each user in this network can access resources from every other
computer
- Each computer in a peer to peer network can share the hardware,
data or information located on any other computer on the network.
- There is no central server and specific client.
- All nodes on the network have equal relationships to all other
- All have similar types of software that supports the sharing of
resources.
- In a peer to peer network, each node has access to at least some of
the resources on the other nodes.

Advantages of Peer to Peer

- Less expensive to implement.

- Does not require additional specialized network administration
software
- Does not require a dedicated network administrator.
- Every machine is independent from each other
- Easy to configure and connect
- Faulty to one computer cannot affect other computers on a network

Disadvantages of Peer to Peer

- Does not fit well to large networks.

- Each user must be trained to perform administrative tasks.
- It is less secure.
- All machines sharing the resources negatively impact the
performance.
- Does not fit well for data backup.

Client server: this is the network model whereby the network is made up of
client computers and server Clients or, users access resources that are
made available by the server. The central computer can be a file server,
network server, application server or just a server. Files and programs used
by more than one user often are stored on the server. A client server

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network is one in which individual computers share the processing and
storage workload with the central server.

Characteristics of Client server network model

- One computer (server) controls other computers on the network

- All communications are done through the server computer
- The arrangement requires special software for the nodes and the
server.
- A server node must be faster and with high storage capacity
- This type of model is expensive.
- It fits large organisations where administration becomes manageable

Advantages of client server network

- Provides better security

- Easier to administer when the network is large because administration
is central
- All data can be backed-up on one central location.
- It fits well in large organisations

Disadvantages

- Requires expensive specialized network administrative and

operational software.
- Requires expensive, more powerful hardware for the server machines.
- Requires a professional administrator.
- User data is unavailable if the server is down.
- Difficult to configure and connect
- Easy sharing of computer viruses

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Factors affecting transmission rate of a network

- Transfer Rate. This is the speed of transmitting data and in bits per
second (bps) kilobits per second (kbps) or megabits per second.
- Bandwidth is the amount of data sent by a network at a time.
- Network topology, since data flows in both directions in some
networks if data collides and has to be sent again, this causes the
network to slow down.
- Capacity of the hardware, hubs, switches and network interface
cards have their own maximum speed.
- The server-the amount of RAM and the speed of the hard disk
determines the speed of a network
- Location of software and files – storing software on the workstation
hard disk reduce network traffic ad speed up performance.

REQUIREMENTS FOR COMPUTER NETWORK

Routers: device that receives data and forward (route) it to another

network device

Hub: device that provides a central point for cables in a network

Switches: unlike the, a switch does not broadcast the data to all the
computers, it only sends data packets to the destined computer

Repeater: device that can receive a packet and transmit it to another

device using very high power so that the packet can move every long
distance.

Gateways: network device that can operate in a an environment with

network of different protocol

Modem: a device that is capable of converting analog signals into digital

signals (modulating) and can also convert digital signals into analog
signals (demodulating)

Bridge: Device that connects two networks making each accessible to

the other. So a device that operates like traffic lights in a city.

Network Interface Card (NIC): it is also known as network adapter or LAN

adapter and it enables computer to be connected in a network

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Network software: The software can help us recognize some network
devices and some can help us locate information from the network

Transmission media: we already looked at these media these may include

physical (twisted pairs cables, coaxial and optical fibers), and wireless
(microwaves, radios waves, Bluetooth, satellites and infrared).

NETWORK TOPOLOGY

This refers to the physical and logical layout of the cables/computers and
devices on communication network.

Types of network topology

- Bus topology
- Ring topology
- Star topology
- Mesh topology
- Wireless topology

Bus/linear topology

A type of network that consists of a single central cable that connects all
computers and other devices together called a backbone or Bus.

Advantages of a bus topology

- It is inexpensive and easy to install

- Computers and devices can be attached and detached at any
point on the bus without disturbing the rest of the network
- Failure of one device usually does not affect the rest of the bus
network.
- It is easy to extend

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Disadvantages

- If many computers are attached, the amount of data flowing along

the cable increases, data collisions occur and the network slows
down in heavy traffic
- If the bus itself fails to work, the complete network remains
inoperative
- Cable break can affect many users.
- It requires extra circuitry and software to prevent data packets from
colliding.

Star Topology,

This is topology in which the central device e.g. hub is placed in the
centre of the network and all nodes are connected to the hub to
communicate through it.

Advantages of a star network topology

- It is easy to install and maintain

- Computer and devices can be added to or removed from the
network with little or no disruption of the network
- It is reliable because each device connects directly to the hub, if
one device fails; only that device is affected.
- Centralized monitoring and management is possible
- Modifying the system and adding new computers is easy.
Disadvantages of a star network

- If the hub fails, the entire network is inoperable

- Lots of cables are required so that the installation cost is expensive.
-

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Ring Topology

This is a network topology that connects nodes in circular chain, with each
node connected to the next. The last node connects to the first,
completing the ring.

Advantages of ring topology

- The speed of data transmission is fast since there is no collision which

occurs.
- Can move a longer distance than a bus network
- The system provides equal access to all points.
- Performance is even despite many users
Disadvantages of ring topology

- It is more difficult to install

- Cable break affects many uses as the whole network may go down.
- Network configuration disrupts operation
- Failure of one computer can impact the rest of the network
- Problems are difficult to isolate.

Mesh Network Topology

This is a topology in which a cable runs from every computer to every

other computer

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Advantages of a mesh topology

- Data can never fail to be delivered.

- The system provides increased redundancy and reliability as well.

Disadvantages of a mesh topology

- Very expensive due to many cables needed

- Difficult to identity error or fault since communication will still take
place.
- Difficult to implement

Wireless Topology

This has been developed for mobile computing. In a wireless topology,

single or multiple machines can connect through a single wireless access
point.

Advantages of wireless topology

- Data moves faster

- Less expensive since no cabling required
- Easy to connect
- Connection can take place anywhere.

Disadvantages of wireless topology

- Easy sharing of viruses

- Affected by network signals
- Congestion can affect communication

Other network topologies include;

Hybrid Networks:

These are a combination of Star, Ring and Bus networks. They include:

- Extended Star topology, Hierarchical topology

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Advantages of computer Networks
- Peripherals devices can be shared e.g. printers
- Software programs can be shared easily
- Easy sharing of data.
- Facilitates communications because people can communicate
efficiently
- User access may be restricted. (data security)
- Provides data storage
- Provides Data backup. etc

Disadvantages of computer networks

- If one server breaks down, it may affect a number of computers.
- It is vulnerable to hacking
- Source of viruses
- Cabling and installation make it expensive
- Privacy violation
- Poor signals network breakdown can affect communication thus
delays
INTERNET

Internet is the collection of networks linked together for exchange of

information. OR

Internet is the global connection of computers together to share/

exchange information.

REQUIREMENTS FOR CONNECTING A COMPUTER TO INTERNET

To connect a computer to the internet you need a computing device, a

connection device and an internet service provider (ISP).

A Computing Device (Personal Computer/ Gateway)

This is a computer which connects two or more network codes of a

computer which enable one access other computers. A computing
device can be a personal computer, portable computer or a mobile
device such as a cell phone/ telephone.

- A Connection Device E.G. A Modem/ Router

 A modem.

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This is a device which converts digital signals into analog signals and vice
versa and transmits signals over a telephone line. It is also called modular
demodulator.

 A Router
This is a device which connects different networks together on switch with
different under a network.

2. An ISP (Internet Service Provider)

This is a company that provides internet connectivity to individuals,
business and organization. E.g. MTN, Airtel, UTCL, etc

3. Browser
This is a software application that allows you to view a world wide website
(WWW) OR This, is the software that allows you to view the information on
the web. E.g. Mozilla Firefox, Google crome, internet explorer etc

Factors considered when choosing an ISP

 Cost of an ISP. One should choose an ISP which is relatively cheaper

but with several services.
 Speed of an ISP. One should consider an ISP which has a high speed.
 Accessibility. One should consider an ISP which can easily be accessed
 Services provided. An ISP should provide several services or different
connections.
 Security levels: eliminate fears of hackers from neighborhood access
 Can communicate with you
 Provides help and installation
 Reliability: how long the service provider has been in business and how
dependable your ISP is
 Check whether there are Restriction on use(UTCL junior)
 Support service/customer care: their ability to offer the best customer
service and technical support
 Bandwith (this is the volume of information (in bytes) per second used)

Methods of connecting to the internet

1. Physical connection: This is where one connects the internet using

cables.
2. Wireless Connection: This is where one connects the internet without
cables. One should have different devices that support wireless
technology and it should have the Wi-fi card-wireless fidelity card.

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Types of internet connections

1. Dedicated internet connection (broad band technology)

In this type of connection we do not need request from the ISP for
connection for every time you connect to the internet.

2. Dialup internet connection (dial on demand)

This is the type of connection where we need to connect the ISP every
time you want to connect to the internet

Band width: This is the amount of data that can be transmitted over a
network in a certain amount of time OR, It is the speed of accessibility and
sending of messages/ information over the internet.

A packet; this refers to any group of bits that includes data and
information

Internet Terminologies and Internet Protocols

Internet Protocol (IP): A set of communication standards which control

communication activity on the Internet.

Transmission Control Protocol (TCP): A set of rules used to send data

between computers over the Internet.

File Transfer Protocol (FTP): A method of moving files between two Internet
sites

Telnet: The standard protocol for connecting one computer to another.

Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP): A set of rules for exchanging files (text,
graphic images, sound, and video) on the web.

Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP): It is used to transport mails on the

Internet.

Post Office Protocol (POP): A communication technology for retrieving

emails from a mail server.

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 INTERNET TERMINOLOGIES (TERMS USED)

Digital subscriber line (DSL): This is the type of technology where you do
not need to connect to ISP every time you want to use the internet.

World Wide Web (WWW)/Net: The World Wide Web (WWW) or simply the
web refers to the collection of information that is accessible on the
internet. Or, collection of web pages.

Web page: This is the document on the web that contains in formation in
form of HTML. It is the formatted text document that a web browser can
display.

Website: is one or more web pages that resides on a single website/ server

Web Browser: This is a software program that enables you to view and
interact with various resources on the web. Examples of widely used
browsers are; Microsoft internet explorer, Mozilla fire fox, Google chrome,
Netscape navigator, Safari, Opera, Konqueror, Lynx etc

Search engine: is a software system designed to look for information on

the net/website. Example; Google, Yahoo, Bing, Yandex, DuckDuckGo, Baidu,
Ask.com, Naver etc

Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP): A set of rules for exchanging files (text,
graphic images, sound, and video) on the web.

Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP): It is used to transport mails on the

Internet.

Post Office Protocol (POP): A communication technology for retrieving

emails from a mail server.

Telnet: The standard protocol for connecting one computer to another.

Uniform resource locator (URL): is an address that locates a computer on
a website.

Example of an URL. http://www.enteruganda.com/balloons/hotair.html

Hyperlink: A text or image that causes the browser to load another page.

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Hypertext: A text that contains links to other documents.
Surfing the net: means to go from one page to another on the Internet, browsing
for topics of interest e.g. face booking, watsapping etc.

Gopher: A technology that is used to make files available over the Internet.
E-mail or Electronic mail: is the transmission of messages via a computer
network.

E-MAIL OR ELECTRONIC MAIL

It is the transmission of messages and files via a computer network. Or, the
exchange of electronic letters, data, and graphics on the Internet

It is a combination of a username and a domain name that identifies a

user who sends or receives email.

Messages can consist of simple text or can contain attachments, such as

documents, graphics, or audio/video clips

What is an e-mail address/account?

It is unique name that consists of a user name and domain name that
identifies the user. e.g. [email protected]

Parts of an Email address e.g. [email protected]

 frederickwinyi – user name
 @ (at)
 gmail - the domain name (mail server)
 .(dot)
 com - indicates the type of organization

Parts/facilities of an email page

- Inbox: Section for unread messages.

- Compose massage: email opens a blank screen for typing
message.
- To: an area for email address of the recipient
- Cc: (carbon Copy): Type addresses for other recipients

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 - BCC: (Blind Carbon Copy) – Used to send a copy of an email
without the notice of the other recipients.
- Subject: An introduction to the message
- Attachments: a section to attach your file
- Draft : a section for unsent messages
- Sent: a section that stores all sent messages

Advantages of electronic mails (e-mails)

-
Reduces paper costs and irritation.
-
Provides immediate delivery feedback.
-
They offer provision for attachments.
-
Secured by passwords.
-
E-mails can be conveniently sent to multiple recipients.
-
By providing a list of senders and subjects one can prioritize on
which messages to read first.
- Sending is cheaper.
- There is a possibility of multimedia mails where they can be
received as voice mails and read aloud.
- Can easily go across many time zones (continents).
- Emails can be sent across boarders
Disadvantages of electronic mails (e-mails)

- E- mails introduces viruses

- E-mail is not so secure i.e. snoopers and hackers can read it.
- Involves time consuming sorting through lots of messages every
day.
- E-mails are not very private through tapings.
- System overloads can cause unnecessary delays
- Can be affected by unstable network

WEBSITE

It is one or more web pages that resides on a single website/ server

Uses/advantages of websites

- Good for advertisements and marketing of business

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- Using a website for communication is faster and cheaper than using
postal offices or radios
- Can help you to get some money due people who may bring their
adverts to be uploaded for public
- Provides room for goods display, buying and selling of our goods online
- Improves on sales or business promotion
- Can help you sensitize your clients about the use of some goods they
buy from your business and also keep on updating your customers
- It can help you win your competitor in one way or the other
- Can assist you when carrying out market research
- Improves your corporate image.
ADVANTAGES/USES OF THE INTERNET

 It helps in communication. Internet helps to communicate with

people in various regions
 Internet helps to get current events/affairs. Most of the leading news
channel use internet as a medium to provide update news.
 It is used in education. It can be used to search for information on
any specific topic or subject.
 It is a source of entertainment. One can listen to music, play games,
watch movies or share family pictures over the internet.
 It helps in business i.e. on line shopping is possible with the internet.
One can buy and sell products like books, cars in the shortest period
of time.
 The internet helps in on line banking. Banking transactions such as
viewing details of your bank account, transferring money from one
account to another and checking balance. Statement at home is
possible than going in lines of the banks
 It helps in virtual learning/ distance learning. One can take a course
and register for certificate courses, exams over the internet.
 It is used in software down loading. There is huge variety of software
on the internet which one can get for free provided one has the
internet.
 It helps in funding and investment. Many NGO‟S have websites
about their activities and therefore they can decide whether to
invest in capital or not.
 It is a source of job opportunities. Many people get jobs through the
internet as most of the organizations advertise using the internet on
their websites.
 The internet is used in advertising jobs and other goods are
advertised using the internet.

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  It helps in travel arrangements. Internet allows you to book holidays,
hotels and flights from your home and you can check on the latest
travel news and confirm trains and ferry times before you set out.

Disadvantages of the internet

 Mora degradation. Many people acquire bad habits from the

internet especially from watching immoral movies e.g. blue movies
 The internet spreads viruses to computers. Virus programs use the
internet to spread various viruses to computers.
 With virtual learning face to face interactions are reduced. This
reduces the relationship between the learners and the teachers.
 It is used by only those who have computers connected to the
internet.
 It has led to high rates of forgery among people. People have tried
to make fake money, notice passport and other documents using
the internet.
 It leads to spamming. This is the sending of the same message to
various people including those who do not require it.
 It has led to increase of hackers and crackers people using the
internet.
 It is expensive to obtain the internet as it requires regular payments/
subscription.

COMPUTER VIRUSES

A computer virus is a computer program/code that copies itself and

infects a computer without the knowledge of the user. Or computer
program written to alter the way a computer operates, without the
permission or knowledge of the user.

CLASSIFICATIONS/TYPES OF VIRUSES

File infector viruses: File infector viruses infect program files. These viruses
normally infect executable code, such as .com and .exe files.

Boot sector viruses: Boot sector viruses infect the system area of a disk--
that is, the boot record on hard disks. It affects the booting files and
causes failure in booting.

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Master boot record viruses: normally save a legitimate copy of the master
boot record in a different location from boot sector viruses.

File viruses: These attach themselves to computer files. They usually delete
files or cause erratic behaviors in the file system.

Trojan horse: Trojan Horses are impostors i.e. files that claim to be
something desirable but, in fact, are malicious.

Worm: Worms are programs that replicate themselves from system to

system without the use of a host file.

Failed virus: These are viruses that have failed to meet their goals.

Time bombs: Usually activated in conjunction with a pre-defined event

Packagers: They hide the existence of a virus from virus guards by masking
some code around the actual harmful file.

Test viruses: Simply text files written to test some virus guards software. They
are not harmful but just designed for Test purposes.

Macro viruses: These types of viruses infect data files (application

programs). They are the most common and have cost corporations the
most money and time trying to repair.

Multipartite Viruses: These are viruses that use a combination of

techniques to infect the different executable files, boot sectors and or
partition sectors. They are normally difficult to trap.

SOURCES OF VIRUSES

- Sharing of storage devices like flash discs

- Un-protected connection to external networks (firewall)
- Surfing of Pornographic sites
- Opening of suspicious e-mails
- Opening an infected file
- Running an infected program
- Starting up the computer with an infected floppy diskette/flash disc
- Use of infected storage devices like floppy diskettes, hard disk etc.
- Through E-mails or distributed maliciously through the internet.
- Through downloads from the internet especially free ones
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 - Through freeware and shareware.

HOW TO PROTECT COMPUTERS FROM VIRUSES

- Installing anti-virus software

- Ensuring that external storage devices are scanned before use
- Ensuring that the anti-virus software is updated from time-to-time
- Avoiding the sharing of external storage devices e.g. flash disc
- Setting up firewalls to monitor traffic from outside networks
- Right protecting the storage devices
- Ensure that the e-mails are from a trusted source before opening
them or e-mail attachments
- Avoid opening of suspicious e-mails before scanning them for viruses
- Never start up a PC with a floppy diskette/flash disc in the drive.
- Scan all the drives and files for possible virus infection before using
them.
- Write protect the recovery disk before using it.
- Back up important files regularly.

SYMPTOMS OF VIRUSES
- Programs taking longer than usual to load.
- Unusual error messages occurring more frequently
- Less memory available than usual (reduced storage space)
- Programs and files disappearing mysteriously.
- Computer indicating that the storage devices are full.
- Annoying messages
- Computer files to start
- Machine becomes slow
- Loss of files
- Hard disc crash
- Creation of strange files

Disasters Caused By Virus

- Damaging programs/software
- Deleting files/data on storage devices
- Formatting the hard disk.
- Boot failure
- Take up / fill up the computer memory
- Causes system crashes.
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 - Corruption of files
- Slows down the speed of the computer and loss of computer
network

ANTI-VIRUS UTILITY/ PROGRAM/VIRUS GUARD

An anti-virus utility is a program that prevents, detects and removes viruses

from a computer‟s memory or storage devices. This utility is installed into
the computer by the computer user or owner to perform the very purpose
identified above. The user is required to check or clean the computer
regularly using this anti-virus.

Examples of common anti-virus programs include;

- Kaspersky
- AVG
- Norton
- MacAfee
- Avila
- Avast
- Smadav , etc

BUGS

A computer bug is an error in a computer system (software or hardware),

which causes undesirable results or unwanted procedures.

A bug error can be both software and hardware problem or a

programming oversight.

Effects of the Computer Bug (Disadvantages)

 May lead to the program crash of freeze leading to the disruption
of service.
 Some bugs (errors) qualify as security bugs and therefore may
enable a malicious user to bypass access controls in order to
obtain unauthorized privileges.
 In computer controlled machines, a bug may bring system failure
and result of the computer failing execute positive commands.

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PREVENTION OF BUGS
Bugs are a consequence of the human factors in the programming tasks
and sometimes poor handling.

The software industry has put much effort into finding methods for
preventing bugs in programming which include:-

Programming Style: Innovations in programming style and defensive

programming have been designed to make typing errors (bugs) less likely
or easier to spot.

Programming Techniques: Programs can be written to check the

inconsistency of their own internal data while running

Developing Methodologies: Programming has been made more

automatic than manual because of simplified programming languages so
that fewer bugs can be produced through human error.

INTRODUCTION TO INFORMATION SYSTEMS

A system can be broadly defined as an integrated set of elements that

work together. Or A system is a set of components that operate together
to achieve a common purpose. Or is a set of components that work
together to manage data processing and storage.

An information system can be defined as a set of interrelated

components that collect (or retrieve), process, store and distribute
information to support decision making and control in an organization.

In addition to supporting decision making, coordination and control, an

information system also help managers and workers analyze problems
and visualization in an organization.

Data, Information and Knowledge

Data: are streams of raw facts representing events occurring in

organizations or the physical environment before they have been
organized and arranged into a form that people can understand and

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use. E.g. supermarket checkout data. There are three activities involved in
an information system to produce the information that organizations need
to make decisions, control operations, analyze problems, visualize
complex subjects and create new products or services. These activities
are input, processing, and output.
- Input: the capture or collection of raw data from within the
organization or from its external environment for processing in an
organization.
- Processing: the conversion, manipulation and analysis of raw input
into a form that is more meaningful to humans.
- Output: The distribution of processed information to the people who
will use it or to the activities for which it will be used.

Information is data that has been shaped into a form that is meaningful
and useful to human beings.
The characteristics of good information are;

- Relevance
- Timeliness
- Accuracy
- Cost-Effectiveness
- Reliability (from the right source)
- Usability
- Exhaustiveness
- Aggregation Level.

Information is relevant if it leads to improved decision making

Knowledge consists of data and/or information that have been organized

and processed to convey understanding and accumulated learning, and
expertise as they apply to a current business problem.

COMPONENTS OF AN INFORMATION SYSTEM –IS

Hardware: is the physical equipment used for input, processing, storing

and output activities in an information system.
Software: is the program or collection of programs that control and
coordinate the hardware. Operating software such as Linux and Microsoft

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Windows, and utility software anti-virus, Application software is used for
specific information processing needs.
Networks: allow computers to share data and services. Range from two
computers joined together to the biggest network (internet).
Database: is a collection of related files or tables containing data.
Procedures: are the set of instructions about how to combine hardware,
software, databases, and networks in order to process information and
generate the desired output.
People (users): those individuals who use the hardware

Capabilities of Information Systems:

- Perform high-speed: high-volume numerical computations.
- Provide fast communication and collaboration
- Store huge amounts of information
- Allow quick and inexpensive access to vast amounts of information.
- Automate business processes and manual tasks.

Importance Information Systems

 Operational Excellence: IS enables users to achieve higher level of

efficiency and productivity.
 New product, services: IS is a major enabling tool for firms to create
new product and service. Businesses are using information systems to
sense and respond to rapidly changing customer demand. E.g.
customer feedback.
 Customer and supplier Intimacy: Service providers can keep track of
user‟s preferences and improve intimacy. E.g. Hotel staff can keep
track of guests‟ preferences. When a customer arrives at the hotel, the
system automatically changes the room conditions such as dimming
the lights.
 Improved decision making: IS enable users (e.g. mangers) to access
the right information at the right time to make an informed decision. IS
enables managers to quickly review employee performance ratings for
pervious years and drill down into more details.
 Competitive Advantage: any assets that provide an organization with
an edge against its competitors in some measure such as cost, quality,
or speed.
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 Day-to-day survival: organizations invest in information systems and
technologies because they are necessities of doing business.
TYPES OF INFORMATION SYSTEM

Transaction Processing Systems (TPS): A Transaction Processing Systems

(TPS) is used primarily for record keeping during day to day running of
the business which is required in any organization to conduct the
business. Examples of TPS are sales order entry, payroll, and shipping
records etc. TPS is used for periodic report generation in a scheduled
manner. TPS is also used for producing reports on demand as well as
exception reports.

Decision Support System (DSS): Decision Support System (DSS) serves

the management of an organization. A decision support system has
sophisticated data analysis tools, which support and assist all aspects of
problem-specific decision-making. DSS may use data from external
sources such as current stock prices to enhance decision-making. DSS is
used when the problem is complex, and the information needed to
make the best decision is difficult to obtain and use.

Management information system (MIS): an information system that

provides routine information to managers and decision makers. The
primary objective behind installing an MIS in the organization is to
increase operational efficiency. MIS may support marketing,
production, finance, etc.

Knowledge Management Systems (KMS): knowledge management

system refers to a collection communication technologies, information
storage and retrieval systems to enable the generation, storage,
sharing, and management of tacit and explicit knowledge assets

Expert Systems: The expert systems can make suggestions and act like
an expert in a field of an organization. An expert system has an
extensive knowledge base.

Workflow System: A workflow system is a rule-based management

system that directs, coordinates and monitors the execution of an
interrelated set of tasks arranged to form a business process. There are
three types of workflow software.

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 Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP): Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP)
system is business process management software that allows an
organization to use a system of integrated programs capable of
managing a company‟s vital business operations for an entire multi-site,
global organization.

SCOPES/SIZES OF INFORMATION SYSTEMS

Information systems are more than computers. Using information

systems effectively requires an understanding of the organization,
management and information technology shaping the systems. Thus
information systems can be described as organizational and
management solutions to challenges posed by the environment.
 Organization Involves the organization‟s hierarchy, functional
specialties, business processes, culture, and political interest groups.
Information systems are an integral part of the organizations. The key
elements of an organization includes; its people, structure, business
processes, politics and culture.
 Management: leadership, strategy, and management behavior.
Information systems can help managers in design and delivery of
new products and services, and redirecting and redesigning the
organizations.
 Technology: computer hardware, software, data management
technology, and networking/telecommunications technology
(including the Internet).The internet has created a new „Universal”
technology platform on which to build new products, services,
strategies and business models.

Information Systems security threat

- Espionage or Trespass: occurs when an unauthorized individual

attempts to gain illegal access to organizational information (cross
the legal boundary). Covert (secret) activities, such as the theft of
trade secret, bribery, blackmail and technological surveillance to
gain advantages over rivals.

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 - Denial-of-Service Attack: A Denial-of-Service attack (DoS) is a
cyber-attack on the availability of services and resources on the
victim's computer. The attacker dispatches floods of data packets
to the victim's computer. This floods the victim's computer and
engages all the resources, hence making them inaccessible.
- Identity theft: Identity theft is the stealing of another person‟s
personal data for the financial purpose to frame him/her for a crime.
- Social Engineering: the perpetrator uses social skills to trick or
manipulate legitimate employees into providing confidential
information.
- Cyber terrorism: Attack via the internet using a target‟s computer
systems to cause physical, real-world harm and interrupting the flow
of information.
- Phishing involves getting a user to enter personal information via a
fake website.
- Pharming involves modifying DNS entries, which causes users to be
directed to the wrong website when they visit a certain Web
address.

Common information management problems include:

- Large number of disparate information management systems.

- Little integration or coordination between information systems.
- Range of legacy systems requiring upgrading or replacement.
- Direct competition between information management systems.
- No clear strategic direction for the overall technology environment.
- Limited and patchy adoption of existing information systems by staff.
- Poor quality of information, including lack of consistency, duplication,
and out of date information.
- Little recognition and support of information management by senior
management.
- Limited resources for deploying, managing or improving information
systems.
- Lack of enterprise-wide definitions for information types and values (no
corporate-wide taxonomy).
- Large number of diverse business needs and issues to be addressed.
- Lack of clarity around broader organizational strategies and directions.
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- Difficulties in changing working practices and processes of staff.
- Internal politics impacting on the ability to coordinate activities
enterprise-wide.

INTRODUCTION DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

A database is a collection of related data about a particular subject or for

a specific purpose. Or a database is a collection of structured and
related data items organized so as to provide a consistent and controlled
access to the items.

For example, a collection of students‟ names or a school register is a

typical example of students‟ database.

There are mainly two types of databases;

 Manual databases
 Electronic databases.

Manual databases: These are non-computerized. These are traditional

ways of recording and keeping data using simple devices e.g. a book
with a list of items in stock, a diary etc.
However, these methods/databases (manual) had /have
problems/weaknesses

- Poor update of records

- Time wasting (when searching for particular item).
- Unnecessary duplication of data
- Misleading reports due to poor entry and organization.
It‟s these weaknesses that led to the use of DBMS

Electronic databases: These are computer based databases. They are

further categorized into Distributed database, which sit on individual
stand-alone computers and centralized databases, which sit on a
database server.

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Advantages of electronic databases over manual

- Enhancement of data integrity.

- Ensured data independence.
- Reduction of data redundancy
- Facilitates data sharing and integration
- Improvement of access to data
- Centralization of security
- Reduction of costs
- Convenience
- Efficiency
- Accuracy
- Data backup
- Confidentiality
- Data consistence
- Easy administration

Disadvantages of Electronic Databases

- Difficult to develop
- Expensive to manage.
- Require highly-trained expertise for maximum management.
- Data security may not be ensured in case of data sharing.
- Data can be pirated or corrupted by unscrupulous data
managers.
Functions of Electronic Databases

 Allow the user to add and delete records

 Update or modify the existing records.
 Organize data for easy access, retrieval and manipulation of
records.
 Act as an interface between a database and other application
programs.
 Ensure security for the data in the database by safeguarding at
against unauthorized access and corruption (damage)
 Keep statistics of data items in a database.
 Data storage; it keeps the statistics of data items in a database

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  Enables easy data sorting
 Eases data update and modification of existing records
 Enables easy making data summary

DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM (DBMS)

Database management system is program that facilitates the creation,

organization and maintenance of data in the database.

DBMS one can:-

- Sort data
- Create reports
- Create forms
- Organize queries
- Make tables etc.

Examples of DBMS programs include;

- Microsoft Access (MS- Access) Preferred for small desktop

databases
- Oracle- preferred for larger corporate databases
- FoxPro
- Database IV
- Lotus Approach
- Microsoft Visual FoxPro
- Borland database
- Corel Paradox
- Claris File maker

Advantages of Database management system programs

- Enhancement of data integrity.

- Ensured data independence.
- Reduction of data redundancy
- Facilitates data sharing and integration
- Improvement of access to data

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 - Centralization of security
- Reduction of costs
- Convenience
- Efficiency
- Accuracy
- Data backup
- Confidentiality
- Data consistence
- Easy administration

Disadvantages of Database management system programs

- Difficult to develop
- Expensive to manage.
- Require highly-trained expertise for maximum management.
- Data security may not be ensured in case of data sharing.
- Data can be pirated or corrupted by unscrupulous data
managers.

Database Components/Features
Most DBMS software contain four major features that a typical database
must consist of: Tables (files), Queries, Reports, Forums.

Tables: Tables are the basic components of a database. This is because

they (tables) hold the actual data in a database.

Forms: These (forms) enable one to enter and display (view) records from
the database tables easily.

Queries: These are tools used to manipulate data in the data tables.

Queries are used to carryout several tasks on the data in database tables.

Reports: Reports enable one to preview and print data in a meaningful

format.

TERMS ASSOCIATED WITH DATABASE

Primary key:

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