PHYSICS I B.

TECH

UNIT I
MAGNETIC AND DIELECTRIC MATERIALS

Magnetic Materials
Origin of magnetic moment - Classification of magnetic materials (Dia, Para, Ferro) - Domain theory of
Ferromagnetism - Hysteresis curve - soft and hard magnetic materials - Applications in different fields
(qualitative).
Dielectric Materials
Dielectrics - Dielectric constant - electronic, ionic, orientational and space charge polarization -
frequency and temperature dependence of polarization - dielectric breakdown mechanisms-Applications
of dielectrics (Qualitative)

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1 MAGNETIC MATERIALS

It is not knowledge, but the act of learning, not possession but the act of getting there, which
grants the greatest enjoyment.
- Carl Friedrich Gauss

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

• Recognize fundamentals about magnetism.
• Understand the origin of magnetism
• Understand classification magnetic materials.
• Study hysteresis and types of magnets
• Understand the properties of magnetic materials for apply in day
today life

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1.1. Introduction to magnetic materials

Magnetism is everywhere from tiny particles like electrons to the entire universe. Historically
the word ‘magnetism’ was derived from iron ore magnetite (Fe3 O4). In olden days, magnets
were used as magnetic compass for navigation, magnetic therapy for treatment and also used
in magic shows.

In modern days, most of the things we use in our daily life contain magnets, Motors,
cycle dynamo, loudspeakers, magnetic tapes used in audio and video recording, mobile phones,
head phones, CD, pen-drive, hard disc of laptop, refrigerator door, generator are a few
examples. Earlier, both electricity and magnetism were thought to be two independent branches
in physics. In 1820, H.C. Oersted observed the deflection of magnetic compass needle kept
near a current carrying wire. This unified the two different branches, electricity and magnetism
as a single subject ‘electromagnetism’ in physics. In this unit, basics of magnets and their
properties are given. Later, how a current carrying conductor (here only steady current, not
time-varying current is considered) behaves like a magnet is presented.

Magnetic materials are the materials which can be made to behave as magnets. When
the magnetic materials are kept in an external magnetic field, they will create a permanent
magnetic moment in it. When an electron revolves around the positive nucleus, orbital
magnetic moment arises due to orbital motion and spin magnetic moment arises due to the
spinning of electrons.

Fig.1.2. Behaviour of Magnetic materials

Magnets are of two types
• Natural magnets and
• Artificial magnets.

Fig.1.3. Natural and artificial magnets

The natural magnets are generally irregular in shape and weak in strength. On the
other hand, artificial magnets have desired shape and desired strength. A bar magnet is an
artificial magnet.

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1.2. Important Terminologies

(i) Magnetic dipole moment: A system having two opposite magnetic poles separated by a
distance ‘d’ is called as magnetic dipole. If ‘m’ is the magnetic pole strength and ‘l’ is the
length of the magnet then its dipole moment is given by, M = ml (or) ia where i is the electric
current that flows through a circular wire of an area of cross section ‘a’.
(ii) Bohr magneton: The orbital magnetic moment and the spin magnetic moment of an
electron in an atom can be expressed as atomic unit of magnetic moment called Bohr magneton
(or) magnetic moment of uncoupled electron.

𝑒ℏ (1.602 ×10−19 )(1.055×10−34)

1 Bohr magneton = 𝜇𝐵 = 2𝑚 = 2×(9.109×10−31 )
= 9.27 × 10−24 Am-2

Magnetic field: The space around the magnet (or) the current carrying conductor
where the magnetic effect felt is called magnetic field.
.

(iii) Magnetic lines of force: Magnetic field is assumed to consist of lines of magnetic forces.
These lines of forces travel externally from north pole to south pole as shown in figure below.
Hence a magnetic line of force is defined as the continuous curve in a magnetic field. The
tangent drawn at any point on the curve gives the direction of the resultant magnetic intensity
at that point.
(iv) Magnetic lines of induction: The magnetic lines of force which originate from north pole
to south pole doesn’t end there itself. They are supposed to continue through the magnet and
reach the north pole from where they started and forms a closed loop as shown in the figure
below. Such imaginary lines are called magnetic lines of induction.
(v) Magnetic induction (or) magnetic flux density (B): It is defined as the number of magnetic
lines of force passing normally through unit area of cross section A at that point as shown in
figure.

Magnetic field intensity (H): It is defined as the force experienced by a unit north pole
placed at the given point in a magnetic field.

B = /A Wbm-2

(vi) Magnetization (or) Intensity of magnetization (I): Magnetization is the process of

converting non-magnetic material into a magnetic material. It measures the magnetization of
the magnetized specimen. It is also defined as the magnetic moment per unit volume.
𝑀 𝑚𝑙 𝑚
𝐼= 𝑉
= 𝑙𝑎
= 𝑎 Wm-2
(vii) Magnetic susceptibility (m): It is defined as the ratio of intensity of magnetization (I) and
magnetic field intensity (H). This ratio gives the ability of the material to acquire magnet.
m = I/H

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(viii) Magnetic permeability (): It is defined as the ratio between the magnetic flux density
(B) and the magnetic flux intensity (H). It is the measure of degree at which lines of force can
penetrate through the material.

Relative permeability (r): It is the ratio between the permeability of the medium to the
permeability of free space. i.e r = /0.

 = 0r = B/H

(ix) Relation between r and m:

When a magnetic material is placed in a magnetic field (H), then two types of lines of induction
passes through the materials. They are (i) due to magnetizing field (H) and (ii) due to material
itself being magnetized by induction (I)
Total flux density = B = 0 (H+I) ------(1)
We know that  = B/H (or) B = H ----(2)
Equating equations (1) and (2), H = 0 (H+I)
0rH = 0 (H+I)
0rH = 0H (1+I/H)
r = 1+I/H
r = 1+m

4. Origin of Magnetic Moment

The revolving electrons of an atom exhibit a magnetic moment. Each revolving electron
therefore exhibits a definite magnetic moment. These magnetic moments are randomly oriented
in the material, which are commonly known as elementary magnets or dipoles. The net value
of the magnetic moment is found to be zero due to the random orientation of these elementary
dipoles. The magnetic moment due to orbital motion can be classified to the following three
types, which contains a proton and a single electron.

Fig.1.4. Origin of magnetic moment

(a) Orbital Magnetic Moment
o The motion of electrons in the closed orbits around the nucleus.
o Its magnitude is always small.
(b) Spin Magnetic Moment
o Spin motion of the electrons

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o (i.e., due to electron spin angular in momentum).

(c) Nuclear Magnetic Moment
o Due to nuclear spin angular momentum).
o It is nearly 103 times smaller than that of electron spin;
o It is not taken into consideration
Bohr Magneton theory
Consider an electron of mass ‘m’ and charge ‘e’ revolving around the nucleus in a circular orbit
of radius ‘r’ in anti-clock side direction.
Let ‘𝑣’ be the linear velocity of electron and ‘’ be the angular velocity (angular frequency) of
a revolving electron.
𝑣 = 𝜔𝑟
2𝜋 2𝜋𝑟
Time period = 𝑇 = =
𝜔 𝑣
The current developed by the electron in the orbit is
𝑒 𝑒𝑣
I = Charge / Time period = 𝑇 = 2𝜋𝑟 (1.1)

The coil is similar to the orbit, so the magnetic moment produced by the current I is
 = IA
𝑒
 = 𝑇 r2
𝑒𝑣
 = 2𝜋𝑟 × 𝜋𝑟 2
𝑒𝑣𝑟
= (1.2)
2
From Bohr’s theory of H atom, ‘the angular momentum of revolving electron is quantized
and can have some definite values only’,
𝑛ℎ
𝐿 = 𝑚𝑒 𝑣𝑟 = n = 1,2,3…
2𝜋
Where 𝑚𝑒 is the mass of electron.
Therefore
𝑛ℎ
𝑣𝑟 =
2𝜋𝑚𝑒
Substituting this in Eq. (1.2), we get,
𝑒 𝑛ℎ
 = 2 2𝜋𝑚
𝑒
𝑒ℎ
= 𝑛 [4𝜋𝑚 ]
𝑒
𝑒ℎ
Therefore, the smallest magnetic moment will be 4𝜋𝑚 , which is commonly known as ‘ Bohr
𝑒

Magneton’ and is represented by B

1.6 × 10−19 × 6.6 ×10−34
Therefore 1𝜇𝐵 (Bohr magneton) = = 9.27×10 -24 Am2.
4 ×3.14 × 9.1 × 10−31

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1.4. Classification of Magnets

 Magnetic materials are classified according to the presence or absence of the
permanent magnetic dipoles.

 Generally every two electrons in an energy state of an atom will form a pair
with opposite spins. thus the resultant magnetic moment is zero.

But in some magnetic materials like iron, cobalt etc., there exists unpaired electrons.The
spin magnetic moment of these unpaired electrons interact with spin magnetic moment of
the unpaired electrons in adjacent atom in a parallel manner

Fig.1.5. Classification of magnetic materials

Diamagnetic materials do not have atomic magnetic moments in the absence of external
magnetic moments.
When it is placed under the external magnetic field, the atomic magnetic moments are aligned
in the opposite direction.

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Fig.1.6. Magnetic moments alignment in the absence of magnetic field (H=0) and
external magnetic field (H) for diamagnetic materials with lines of force and electrons.
Properties

• They repel the magnetic lines of force.

• Susceptibility is negative and it is independent of temperature and applied magnetic

field strength.

• Permeability is less than 1

• There is no permanent dipole moment so they are called as weak magnets.
• When T < TC, it becomes normal material.
1.6. Paramagnetism
• Possess significant atomic magnetic moments even in the absence of external mag-
netic moments. The net magnetic moment of the material is zero due to the randomly
arranged equal number of opposite spins.
• When it is placed under the external magnetic field, the random arrangement of mag-
netic moments will be arranged in the direction external magnetic field gradually.

Fig.1.7. Magnetic moments alignment in the absence of magnetic field (H=0) and
external magnetic field (H) for paramagnetic materials with lines of force and electrons.
Properties
❖ The magnetic lines of force pass through the material
❖ Paramagnetic substances obey Curie’s law, according to which magnetic susceptibil-
ity is small and positive and inversely proportional to its Absolute Temperature.
𝑪
𝝌=𝑻

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where, C is Curie constant

The above equation is known as curie’s law of paramagnetism.
❖ Permeability is greater than 1
❖ The paramagnetic materials possess permanent dipole moment due to the presence of
unpaired electrons.
1.7. Ferromagnetism
• The materials show spontaneous magnetization even in the absence of external magnetic
field.
• This indicates that there is a strong internal field within the material which makes the
atomic magnetic moments align with each other. This phenomenon is known as ferro-
magnetism.

• The magnetic moments in ferromagnetic materials have strong interactions with their
nearest neighbor moments.
• This leads to a strong correlation between large groups of magnetic moments in ferro-
magnetic materials. These large groups are known as domains.

Fig.1.8. Magnetic moments alignment and the Domain pattern in the absence of
magnetic field (H = 0) for ferromagnetic materials with lines of force and electrons.
Properties
• All the magnetic lines of force passes through the materials

• They have permanent dipole moment and they act as strong magnets.

• They exhibit magnetization even in the absence of external field, this property is
called spontaneous magnetization.

• Magnetic susceptibility is positive and high

• When T is greater than Curie temperature, this becomes paramagnetic material.

• Permeability is very much greater than 1.

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1.8. Comparison of Dia, Para, and Ferro magnetism.

Table.1 Comparison of Dia, Para, and Ferro magnetism

Properties Diamagnetic Paramagnetic Ferromagnetic

Definition No permanent Permanent Enormous magnetic

magnetic moment magnetic moment Moment

Spin alignment No spin alignment Random alignment Parallel and orderly

alignment
Magnetised Opposite to the Same direction as Same direction as the
Direction applied field the applied external applied external
magnetic field. magnetic field
Permeability Very less High Very high
Relative µr < 1 µr > 1 µr >> 1
Permeability
Temperature No change Depends on T Depends on T
change

Hysteresis Hysteresis is not Hysteresis is not Phenomenon of

exhibited exhibited Hysteresis is exhibited

Susceptibility Negative Positive and small Positive and high

Examples Au, Ge, Si, Bi, Sb Copper sulphate, Iron, nickel, cobalt,
etc. Platinum, Steel, etc.
Chromium,
Aluminium, etc.

1.9. Domain Theory of Ferromagnetism

Weiss proposed the concept of magnetic domains in 1907 to explain
➢ Hysteresis effect
➢ Properties of ferromagnetic materials.
Principle
The group of atomic dipoles (atoms with permanent magnetic moment) organized in
tiny bounded regions in the ferromagnetic materials are called as Magnetic Domains.
Explanation (Weiss Theory)
➢ According to Weiss hypothesis, a single crystal ferromagnetic material such as iron is
divided into a large number of small regions called domains.
➢ These domains have spontaneous magnetization due to the parallel alignment of spin
magnetic moment in each domain.

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➢ In the absence of applied field, the directions of magnetic moment vary from domain
to domain and are oriented in such a way that the net magnetization of the specimen is
zero.
➢ In the presence of H(Applied field), domain having moments parallel to the H increases
in area and in the final saturation stage, all the other domains are rotated parallel to the
field.
➢ The boundaries separating the domains are called as Domain Walls or Bloch walls.
➢ When a magnetic field is applied externally to a ferromagnetic material, the domains
align themselves with field. This results in a large net magnetization of the material.
➢ A ferromagnetic material such as iron does not have magnetization unless they have
been previously placed in an external magnetic field.
➢ Weiss suggested that it should have some internal magnetization due to quantum ex-
change energy.
➢ According to his hypothesis, a single crystal of ferro magnetic materials is divided
into large number of small regions called domains.
➢ These domains have spontaneous magnetization due to the parallel alignment of spin
magnetic moment in each domain.

1.10. Process of Domain Magnetization

When magnetic field is applied, magnetization occurs in the specimen by two ways.
➢ By the motion of domain walls:
1. The movement of domain walls takes place in weak magnetic fields.
2. All the magnetic moments of those domains similar to the direction of applied
field combined and the volume of domains gets increased.
➢ By the rotation of domains:
3. This takes place in strong magnetic fields.
4. Magnetization changes by means of rotation of the direction of magnetization
of domain towards the direction of the applied field.

Fig.1.9. Domain in ferromagnetic solid is understandable from the thermo - dynamical

principle. i.e. in equilibrium the total energy of the specimen is minimum.

The domain in ferromagnetic solid is understandable from the thermo-dynamical principle. i.e.
in equilibrium the total energy of the specimen is minimum. The total energy of the domain
comprises the sum of following energies.

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(i) Exchange energy (or) magnetic field energy (or) magneto static energy:

Fig.1.10. Exchange energy

The interaction energy which makes adjacent dipoles to align themselves (or) the potential
energy stored in a magnetic material is known as exchange energy. The exchange energy has
established a single domain in a specimen of ferromagnetic and it is shown in the figure. Due
to this the free poles are developed at the ends of the domain, an external field will be produced
around it and the configuration will have high value of magnetic field energy. If two domains
are present in the material then the exchange energy is reduced to half. By creating more and
more domains then the exchange energy can be reduced.

(ii) Anisotropy energy:

Fig.1.11. Anisotropy energy

In ferromagnetic crystals, there are two directions of magnetization, viz. (a) easy direction and
(b) hard direction. In easy direction of magnetization, weak field can be applied and in hard
direction of magnetization strong field should be applied. For producing the same saturation
magnetization along both the hard and easy direction, strong fields are required in the hard
direction than the easy direction.

For example in iron easy direction is [100], medium direction is [110] and the hard
direction is [111] and it is shown in the above figure. We observed that very strong field is
required to produce magnetic saturation in hard direction [111] compared to the easy direction
[100]. The excess of energy required to magnetize the specimen along hard direction over that
required to magnetize the specimen along easy direction is called crystalline anisotropy energy.

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(iii) Domain wall energy (or) Bloch wall energy:

Fig.1.12. Domain wall energy (or) Bloch wall energy

Domain wall is a transition layer which separates the adjacent domains magnetized in
different directions. It is due to both exchange energy and anisotropic energy. When the spins
at the boundary are misaligned and if the direction of the spin changes gradually as shown in
figure it leads to a thick Bloch wall. Here misalignment of spins is associated with exchange
energy. Thickness of the domain walls is around 1000 Å.

When the spins at the boundary change abruptly then the anisotropic energy becomes
very less. Since the anisotropic energy is directly proportional to the thickness of the wall, this
leads to a thick Bloch wall.
(iv) Magnetostrictive energy
When the domains are magnetized in different directions, they will either expand or shrink.
Therefore, there exists a deformation i.e. change in dimension of the material when it is
magnetized. This phenomenon is known as magnetostriction.

The deformation is different along different crystal directions and the change in
dimension (increase or decrease) depends upon the nature of the material. Either the increase
(or) decrease is due to the mechanical stress generated by domain rotation.
1.11. Hysteresis curve
Hysteresis comes from the greek word “Hysteros” which means delay

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. Fig.1.13. Hysteresis curve

• If a magnetic field H is applied to a ferromagnetic material and if H is increased to H-

max, the material acquires magnetism as H increases, B also increases. This repre-
sented by oa.
Hmax to 0:
• If magnetic field is decreased from Hmax to 0, the magnetic induction will not fall rapidly
to 0, but falls to ‘b’, rather than 0.
• This is called as residual magnetism or retentivity.
0 to –Hmax:
• Now to remove this residual magnetism H is reversed and increased to ‘–Hmax’ and is
represented as ‘oc’ and is called as coercivity and hence we get curve ‘bcd’.
• –Hmax is reduced to 0 represented by ‘de’ H is increased to Hmax represented by curve
‘efa’. The area enclosed by the loop ‘abcdefa’ is called hysteresis loop.
• The work done on the ferromagnetic specimen gives an energy loss known as hysteresis
loss.
Hysteresis loss: The loss of energy in taking ferromagnetic specimen through a complete
cycle of magnetization is called as hysteresis loss.

Hysteresis loop: The area enclosed in a complete cycle of magnetization is called as

hysteresis loop. Based on the area of the hysteresis loop, the magnetic materials are
classified into soft and hard magnetic materials.

Example Problem:

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The area of a hysteresis loop drawn between B and H is 100 m2. Each unit space along
the vertical axis represent 0.01 wb/m2 and each unit space along the horizontal axis
represents 40 A/m. Determine the hysteresis loss per cycle.

Solution:
The hysteresis loss per cycle = Area of the hysteresis loop x Value of unit length along
B-axis x Value of unit length along H-axis
= 100 m2 x 0.01 wb/m2 x 40 A/m = 40 J/m3.
1.12. Difference between soft and hard magnetic materials

Soft magnetic materials Hard magnetic materials

Cannot be easily magnetized and
Easily magnetized and demagnetized
demagnetized
Movement of domain wall is easy Movement of domain wall is not easy
Hysteresis loop is very narrow Hysteresis loop is very broad
Hysteresis loss is minimum Hysteresis loss is large
Retentivity and coercivity are small Retentivity and coercivity are large
Example: Iron, nickel alloys Example: Carbon steel, chromium steel

1.13. Energy product:

The product of retentivity (Br) and coercivity (HC) is called as energy product. This represents
the maximum amount of energy stored in the specimen. It helps to distinguish weak and strong
magnets.

1.14. REAL-TIME APPLICATIONS

• Magnetic elements on a hard disk help to represent computer data, which is later
‘read’ by the computer to extract information.

• Magnets are used inside TVs, sound speakers and radios. The small coil of wire and a
magnet inside a speaker transforms the electronic signal to sound vibrations.

• Magnets are used inside a generator to transform mechanical energy into electrical en-
ergy. In contrast, other kinds of motors use magnets to change electrical energy to me-
chanical energy.

• Electrically charged magnets can help cranes to move large metal pieces.

• Magnets are used in filtering machines that separate metallic ores from crushed rocks.

• It is also used in food processing industries for separating small metallic pieces from
grains etc.

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• Magnets are used in MRI machines which are used to create an image of the bone
structure, organs, and tissues. Even magnets are used to cure cancer.

• We often use pocket a compass to find out directions when we are on a trek. The
pocket compass uses a magnetic needle to point north.

• The dark strip on the back of debit and credit cards is magnetic and is used to store
data like computers’ hard drives.

• Magnets can help collect all the nails which are scattered on the ground after a repair
job.

************

DIELECTRIC MATERIALS

Every detection of what is false directs us towards what is true: every trial exhausts some
tempting form of error.
— William Whewell
-

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

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By the end of this section, you will be able to:

• Recognize fundamentals about dielectric materials.
• Understand the concept of polarization.
• Understand various types of polarization.
• Understand various dielectric losses
• Get know about dielectric breakdown mechanisms.
• Acquire knowledge about applications of dielectric materials.

1.15. DIELECTRIC MATERIALS

Materials are categorized as conductors, insulators and semiconductors based on their electrical
conducting properties. Every material is made up of molecules which in turn made up of atoms.
When subjected to electric field these atoms in the material undergoes certain displacements
and changes in properties. In October 1745, an experiment done by Ewald Georg von Kleist of
Germany by connecting a high-voltage electrostatic generator to a volume of water collected
in a hand-held jar using a wire showed that charge can be stored. Using this phenomenon, Pieter
van Musschenbroek invented the first capacitor called “Leyden Jar”. The new material property
that backed this invention was “Dielectric”.

In any material, the atoms are arranged as dipoles represented with a positive and
negative charge on its end. When these materials are subjected to electric field dipole moment
takes place.
Conductor material starts conducting when electricity is applied. An insulator opposes the
flow of electricity as it does not have any free moving electrons in its structure. But Dielectric
is a special type of insulator that does not conduct electricity but gets polarized when subjected
to electricity.
In Dielectric materials, when subjected to the electric field the positive charges present in
the material gets displaced in the direction of the applied electric field. The negative charges
are shifted in the direction opposite to the applied electric field. This leads to Dielectric
polarization. In dielectric material, electric charges do not flow through the material.

(i) Properties of Dielectric

The term Dielectric was first introduced by William Whewell. It is the combination of two
words- ‘Dia’ and ‘electric’. The electrical conductivity of a perfect dielectric is zero.

• They are poor conductor of electricity

• It has a high specific resistance
• It has negative temperature co-efficient of resistance
• Large insulation resistance.

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Fig.1.23. Polarized molecules in dielectric material

1.16. IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS

(i) Electric Flux Density (D)
The number of electric lines passing through the unit area of cross section.
D = 𝝋 / A Unit: Coulomb m–2

Dipole Moment (µ): Dipole moment is defined as the product of charge and distance
between two charges. µ = q × d. Unit: Coulomb meter.

(ii) Dielectric constant ( 𝜺𝒓 )

Dielectric constant ( 𝜀𝑟 ) is the measure of the polarization produced in the material.
It is the ratio between the absolute permittivity (𝜀 ) and the permittivity of free space (𝜀0 ).
𝜺
𝜺𝒓 =
𝜺0
Substance 𝜺𝒓
Air 1
Si 12
Water at 0 C 87

(iii) Polarization
The process of producing electric dipoles inside a dielectric when placed in external field (E)
is called electric polarization.
The positive and negative charge in dielectrics moves in opposite direction, thereby
creating a dipole moment, this process is known as electric polarization.
(i.e) The induced dipole moment is 𝜇 = 𝛼𝑒 𝐸
where, 𝛼𝑒 is the electrical polarizability.
(iv) Electric Susceptibility (e)
The polarization vector P is proportional to the total applied electric field intensity
E and is in the same direction of E.
Therefore, the polarization vector can be written as

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P =0 e E
e is electric susceptibility

(v)Relation between Electric Susceptibility (𝜒𝑒 ) and relative permittivity (𝜀𝑟 )

𝑃 ∝𝐸
𝑃 = 𝜀0 𝜒𝑒 𝐸
𝑃
𝜒𝑒 = 𝜀
0𝐸
𝜀𝑟 = 1 + 𝜒𝑒
𝜒𝑒 = 𝜀𝑟 – 1
𝑃 = 𝜀0 𝐸(𝜀𝑟 – 1)

It is a measure of characteristic of every dielectric.

1.19. Polarization

• The process of producing electric dipoles inside the dielectric when placed in an
external electric field is called polarization. (i.e) displacement of charged particles
under the action of external field.
• Devices based on this concept are rectifiers, resonators, amplifiers and transducers.
• There are FOUR types of polarization mechanisms.
▪ Electronic polarization
▪ Ionic polarization
▪ Orientation polarization
▪ Space charged polarization
(i) Electronic polarization
Definition: The displacement of positively charged nucleus and negativity charged electrons
of an atom in an opposite direction on the application of electric field and creates dipole
moment is known as electronic polarization.
It occurs in monoatomic gases like He, Ar, Xe etc.
i.e, dipole moment is proportional to the magnitude of field strength and is given by
𝝁𝒆 ∝ 𝑬 or 𝝁𝒆 = 𝜶𝐞 𝑬
where 𝛼e is called electronic Polarizability constant
Derivation: Calculation of 𝝁𝒆
a) Without electric field
Consider an atom of nuclear charge + Ze, at the centre and electrons of charge –Ze, distributed
over a sphere of Radius “R” (Z is atomic number).

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 −3𝑍𝑒

Negative charge density of atom (ρ) = = 4𝜋𝑅3 ------- (1)
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚
b) With Electric field

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• Lorentz force
When electric field is applied, lorentz force tends to separate the nucleus and the electron cloud
from their equilibrium position
Lorentz force FL = Charge x Electric field
=-ZeE ----------(2)
The negative sign indicates repulsive force

• Coulomb force
An attractive coulomb force arises between the nucleus and the electron cloud which tends to
maintain the original equilibrium.
The nucleus and electron cloud are separated by a distance “𝑥”, which results in an electric
dipole.
𝑄𝑝 𝑄𝑒
Coulomb force = 4𝜋ℇ 2
----------(3)
0𝑥
The positive sign indicates the attractive force
Where 𝑄𝑝 is charge of the nucleus (Ze), 𝑄𝑒 is the total negative charges in the sphere of
radius(𝑥).

Total negative charges(𝑄𝑒 )enclosed in the sphere of radius (x)

= Charge density (ρ) x Volume of the sphere of radius(𝑥)
−3 𝑍𝑒 4 −𝑍𝑒𝑥 3
= x 3 𝜋𝑥 3 = -------- (4)
4 𝜋𝑅 3 𝑅3

−𝑍𝑒𝑥3
𝑍𝑒( )
𝑅3
Coulomb force (Fc) = 2 ;
4𝜋ℇ0 𝑥
−𝑍 2 𝑒 2 𝑥
Fc = --------- (5)
4𝜋ℇ0 𝑅 3
At equilibrium,
Lorentz force (FL) = Coulomb force (Fc)
−𝑍 2 𝑒 2 𝑥
ZeE = 4𝜋ℇ0 𝑅 3
𝑍𝑒𝑥
E = ;
4лℇ0 𝑅 3
4𝜋ℇ0 𝑅 3 𝐸
𝑥 = --------- (6)
𝑍𝑒
From the definition, dipole moment (µ)
𝜇𝑒 = charge x displacement
= Ze 𝑥
Sub the value of ‘𝑥’ from eq (5) in (6), we get electronic polarisability.

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4𝜋ℇ0 𝑅 3 𝐸
𝜇𝑒 = Ze ( )
𝑍𝑒
3
𝜇𝑒 = 4𝜋ℇ0 𝑅 𝐸
𝜇𝑒 = αeE
αe = 4𝜋ℇ0 𝑅3
farad-m2

Hence electronic polarization is 𝑃𝑒 = 𝑁𝛼𝑒 𝐸,

Therefore,
𝑃𝑒 = 𝑁4𝜋ℇ0 𝑅3 𝐸

(ii) Ionic polarization

Definition: Ionic polarization is due to the displacement of cations and anions in opposite
direction by the influence of external electric field. This occurs in ionic crystals like NaCl.

Derivation: Due to the applied electric field (E) the positive ion displaces through a distance
x1 and negative ion through the distance x2
The net displacement between two ions is,
𝑥 = 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 ------------------ (1)
The restoring force produced in the dielectric, is proportional to the displacement.

For Cation, For Anion,

Lorentz force = Restoring force Lorentz force = Restoring force
FL = β1𝑥1 FL = β2𝑥2
eE = mω20 𝑥 1 eE = Mω20 𝑥2
𝑒𝐸 𝑒𝐸
𝑥 1 = mω2 𝑥 2 = Mω2
0 0

Where β1 and β2 are force constant which depends upon the mass of the ion and o
natural frequency. m is the mass of the positive ion and M is the mass of negative ion

𝑥 = 𝑥1 + 𝑥2
𝑒𝐸 1 1
= [ + 𝑀]
𝜔02 𝑚

From the definition of dipole moment, 𝜇𝑖 = e 𝑥

𝑒𝐸 1 1
𝜇𝑖 = 𝑒 × 𝜔 2 [ 𝑚 + 𝑀 ]
0

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𝑒 2𝐸 1 1
𝜇𝑖 = [𝑚 + 𝑀 ]
𝜔02
Since 𝜇𝑖 = αi E
𝑒2 1 1
αi = ( + )
ω20 𝑚 𝑀
E – Applied electric field, 𝜇𝑖 – Ionic polarisability.
Hence Ionic polarization is 𝑃𝑖 = 𝑁𝛼𝑖 𝐸

𝑒2 1 1
𝑃𝑖 = 𝑁 2 (𝑚 + 𝑀 ) 𝐸
ω0

(iii) Orientational polarization

• It is also called dipolar or molecular polarization.
• It occurs in polar molecules like CH3Cl, H2O, HCl, ethyl acetate which carries dipoles
even in the absence of electric field.

In the absence of electric field, net dipole moment is negligibly small since all the
molecular dipoles are oriented randomly.
In the presence of the electric field these all dipoles orient themselves in the direction
of field as a result the net dipole moment becomes enormous.
2
𝑁. 𝜇𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑒 .𝐸
𝑃𝑜 = 𝑁. 𝜇⃗𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑒 ⇒ = 𝑁. 𝛼𝑜 . 𝐸 ;
3𝑘𝑇
2
𝜇𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑒
𝛼𝑜 =
3𝑘𝑇

(iv) Space charge polarization

• The space charge polarization occurs due to the diffusion of ions along the field direc-
tion giving rise to redistribution of charges in the dielectric.
• It occurs in ferrites and semiconductors and it is very small when compared to other
types of polarization.

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Total polarization
The total polarization of a material is the sum of contributions from all polarization.
2
𝑒2 1 1 𝜇𝑜𝑟𝑖
∴ 𝛼 = 𝛼𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐 + 𝛼𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐 + 𝛼𝑜𝑟𝑖 = 4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑅 3 +[ + ] +
𝑤02 𝑀 𝑚 3𝑘𝑇
2 2
𝑒 1 1 𝜇𝑜𝑟𝑖
𝑃𝑇 = 𝑁4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑅 3 + 2 [ + ] + 𝐸
𝑤0 𝑀 𝑚 3𝑘𝑇

This is called Langevin – Debye equation.

1.20. Frequency and temperature dependence of polarization
On application of an alternating field across the material, the polarization occurs as function of
time i.e.,
𝑃(𝑡) = 𝑃𝑚 [1 – 𝑒𝑥𝑝(− 𝑡⁄𝑡𝑟 )]

𝑃𝑚 is the maximum polarization attained due to applied field and

▪ it is the relaxation time, which is the time taken for a polarization process to reach 0.63
of the maximum value. The relaxation times are different for different kinds of
polarization mechanisms.

(a) Temperature dependence

Electronic and ionic polarizations are independent of temperature and the orientation and space
charge polarizations are dependent of temperature. Orientation polarization is inversely
proportional to the temperature. Orientation polarization decreases when temperature
increases. Because, the random nature decreases the tendency of permanent dipoles to align
along the field direction. Thus the dielectric constant increases. Space charge polarization is
directly proportional to the temperature. The space charge polarization increases with increase
the temperature. It is because of the fact that the thermal energy helps to overcome the
activation barrier and the ions diffuse easily, this results in decrease of dielectric constant.

(b) Total Polarization

There are two factors that decide the polarization of dielectric. They are the formation of dipole
moment and their orientation relative to the electric field. Based on the elementary dipole type
there can be either electronic polarization or ionic polarization. Electronic polarization
Pe occurs when the dielectric molecules forming the dipole moment are composed of neutral
particles.

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Fig.1.28. Total polarization in dielectrics

Ionic polarization Pi and electronic polarization both are independent of temperature.

Permanent dipole moments are produced in the molecules when there is an asymmetrical
distribution of charge between different atoms. In such cases, orientational polarization Po is
observed. If a free charge is present in the dielectric material it would lead to the Space charge
polarization Ps. The total polarization of dielectric involves all these mechanisms. Thus the
total polarization of the dielectric material is

PTotal = Pi + Pe + Po + Ps

1) Electronic polarization is very fast and is completed at any instant of time even when
the frequency of the voltage is very high in the optical range (10 15 Hz ). Thus it occurs
at all frequencies.
2) Ionic Polarization is slower and the ions do not respond when the voltage corresponds
to visible optical frequencies, i.e., the electric field changes in polarity at very fast, so
that the ions are not able to reorient themselves due up to the field. So the ionic
polarization does not occur at visible optical Frequencies. It occurs only at frequencies
less than 1013 Hz.
3) At low frequencies all the four polarizations will occur and the total polarization is very
high, but at high frequencies, the value of the total polarization is very small.
4) Orientation Polarization is even slower than ionic polarization and occurs only at
electrical frequencies (audio and radio frequencies 106 Hz).
5) Space-charge polarization is the slowest process because the ions have to diffuse (jump)
over several inter atomic distances. This occurs at very low frequencies of 50 – 60 Hz
(power frequencies).
Dielectric breakdown mechanisms
• When a dielectric is placed in an electric field, and when the field exceeds the critical
field, the dielectric loses its insulating property and becomes conducting i.e. large
amount of current flows through it. This phenomenon is called dielectric breakdown.

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𝑫𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆
The dielectric strength = 𝑻𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒌𝒏𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄

• The electric field strength at which dielectric breakdown occurs is known as dielectric
strength.

There are different mechanisms of dielectric breakdown. They are

1. Intrinsic or avalanche breakdown
2. Thermal breakdown.
3. Chemical and electrochemical breakdown.
4. Discharge breakdown.
5. Defect breakdown.
(i) Intrinsic Breakdown:
➢ When a dielectric is subjected to an electric field, the electrons in the valance band
acquire sufficient energy and go to the conduction band by crossing the energy band
and hence become the conducting electrons. Therefore the large current flows. This
type of breakdown is called intrinsic breakdown.
➢ Impurities in the dielectric material create additional energy levels in the energy gap
and so they help the intrinsic breakdown to occur at lower voltages.
(ii) Avalanche Breakdown:
➢ On the further application of electrical field, the conduction electrons are accelerated
to very high velocity and collide with the valance electron in the covalent bond.
➢ The valance electron acquires energy and jump from valance band to conduction band.
➢ This process continues as a chain reaction.
➢ Therefore, a very large current flow through the dielectrics and breakdown occurs.
➢ This type of breakdown is called as avalanche breakdown.
Characteristics:
➢ It requires large electrical field.
➢ It can occur even at low temperatures.
➢ They occur in thin samples.
➢ It occurs within a short span of time (milli seconds).
➢ It does not depend on shape of the material and configuration of the electrodes.
Thermal Breakdown:
➢ When a dielectric is subjected to an electric field, heat is produced.This heat is
dissipated by the dielectrics.In some cases the heat generated will be very high
compared to the heat dissipated.
➢ Under such condition the temperature inside the dielectric increases.A large amount
of current flow through the material.This type of breakdown is called as thermal
breakdown.
Characteristics:
➢ It occurs at a higher temperature.
➢ It requires moderate electric field.
➢ It depends on the size and shape of the material.
➢ It occurs in the order of milli seconds.
(iii) Electrochemical Breakdown:
➢ The application of electric current to a dielectric material for a longer time increases
its temperature.
➢ The increase in the temperature of the material increases the mobility of the ions.

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➢ The increase in the mobility of the ions induces the chemical reaction and hence the
material is brought into breakdown i.e dielectrics become conducting.
➢ This type of breakdown is called electrochemical breakdown.
Characteristics:
• It occurs only at low temperatures.
• It depends on the concentration of the ions and magnitude of leakage current.
• Adding impurity should be minimized to avoid this type of breakdown.
(iv) Discharge Breakdown:
➢ This type of breakdown occurs when a dielectric contains occluded gas bubbles.
➢ When these types of dielectrics subjected to an electric field, the gases present in the
material will easily ionized and thus produce large ionization current.
Characteristics:
➢ It occurs at low voltages.
➢ It occurs due to the presence of occluded gas bubbles.
➢ It depends upon the frequency of the applied voltage.
(v) Defect Breakdown:
➢ Some dielectrics have defects such as pores, cracks, blow holes etc.
➢ Impurities like dust or moisture may be present at these defects.
➢ This will lead to a breakdown called defect breakdown.

1.23 Remedies for Dielectric Breakdown Mechanisms

To avoid breakdown dielectric material should have the following properties:
(i) It should have high resistivity.
(ii) It must have high dielectric strength.
(iii) It should have sufficient mechanical strength.
(iv) Dielectric loss should be low.
(v) It should be fire-proof.
(vi) It should be resistive to oils, liquids and gases etc.,
(vii) It must have less density.
(viii) There should not be any defects.
(ix) It must be in pure form.

1.24. Applications of Dielectric Material

• These are used for energy storage in capacitors.
• To enhance the performance of a semiconductor device, high permittivity dielectric
materials are used.
• Dielectrics are used in Liquid Crystal Displays.
• Ceramic dielectric is used in Dielectric Resonator Oscillator.
• Barium Strontium Titanate thin films are dielectric which are used in microwave
tunable devices providing high tunability and low leakage current.
• Parylene is used in industrial coatings acts as a barrier between the substrate and the
external environment.
• In electrical transformers, mineral oils are used as a liquid dielectric and they assist in
the cooling process.
• Castor oil is used in high-voltage capacitors to increase its capacitance value.
• Electrets, a specially processed dielectric material acts as electrostatic equivalent to
magnets.
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Solved Problems permeability of 1.01. Calculate the

values of B and M.
MAGNETIC MATERIALS Solution:
𝐵
1. Magnetic field intensity of a (i) Magnetic Permeability (𝝁)= (or)
𝐻
𝐵
paramagnetic material is 𝟏𝟎𝟒 A/m. At 𝜇0 𝜇𝑟 =
𝐻
room temperature, its susceptibility is Magnetic flux density 𝑩 = 𝜇0 𝜇𝑟 𝐻
3.7× 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 .Calculatethe magnetization 𝑩 = 4 × 3.14 × 10−7 × 1.01 × 2 × 105
in the material and flux density in the 𝑩 = 0.2537 Wb/𝑚2
material. (ii) We know magnetization M=H(𝜇𝑟 − 1)
Solution: 𝑀 = 2 × 105 (1.01 − 1)
𝐼
We know 𝜒 = 𝐻
𝐼 = 𝜒𝐻
𝐼 =3.7× 10−3 × 104 DIELECTRIC MATERIALS
Magnetization of the material 𝐼 = 1. The dielectric constant of a helium
37𝐴𝑚−1 . gas at NTP is 1.0000684. Calculate the
Flux density (B) = 𝜇0 (𝐼 + 𝐻) electronic polarizability of He atoms
𝐵 = 4𝜋 × 10−7 [104 + 37] if the gas contains 2.7 x 1025 atoms/m3
and hence evaluate the radius of the
2. A magnetic field of 2000 𝑨𝒎−1 is helium atom.
applied to a material which has a Given:
susceptibility of 1000. Calculate the (i) Dielectric Constant of the He gas at
Intensity of Magnetization and (ii) NTP, 𝜀𝑟 = 1.0000684
Flux density. No. of He atoms per unit volume, N =
Solution: 2.7 x 1025 atoms/m3
(i) Magnetization (M) = 𝜒𝐻 Formula:
𝑀 = 2000 × 1000 = 2 × 106 𝐴𝑚−1 𝜀0 (𝜀𝑟 − 1)
𝛼𝑒 =
(ii) Flux density (B) = 𝜇0 (𝑀 + 𝐻) 𝑁
= 4 × 3.14 × 10−7 × (2 × 106 + 2000) 8.85 × 10−12 (1.0000684 − 1)
𝛼𝑒 =
= 12.56 × 10−7 × 4 × 109 2.7 x 1025
𝐵 = 5024𝑊𝑏𝑚−2
3. A magnetic field of 1800 𝑨𝒎−1 = 2.242 x 10-41 Fm2
produces a magnetic flux of 3 × 10−5
Wb in an iron bar of cross-sectional 2. Calculate the electronic polarizability
area 0.2 𝒄𝒎2 . Calculate permeability. of xenon atoms. The radius of xenon
Solution: atom is 0.158 nm.
ф Given:
Magnetic flux density (B) =𝑨
Radius of Xe, R = 0.158 nm
3 × 10−5
= Formula:
0.2 × 10−4 𝜶𝒆 = 4𝝅𝜺0 𝑹3
𝐵 = 15 𝑊𝑏𝑚−2
𝐵 15
Permeability (𝝁)= 𝐻 = 1800 𝛼𝑒 = 4𝜋 × 8.85 × 10−12
𝜇 = 8.333 × 10−3 𝐻𝑚−1 × (0.158 × 10−9 )3
4. A Magnetic field strength of 2 × 105 = 4.38 × 10−40 Fm2
amperes/m is applied to a 3. The atomic radius of germanium is
paramagnetic material with a relative 0.122 nm. Determine its electronic
polarizablity.

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Given:
Radius of Ge, R = 0.122 nm
Formula:
𝜶𝒆 = 4𝝅𝜺0 𝑹3
𝛼𝑒 = 4𝜋 × 8.85 × 10−12
× (0.122 × 10−9 )3
= 2.018 × 10−40 Fm2
4. Calculate the electronic polarizablity
of an argon atoms whose 𝜺𝒓 = 1.0024
at NTP and N = 2.7 x 1025 atoms/m3.
Given:
Dielectric Constant of the Argon gas at
NTP, 𝜀𝑟 = 1.0024
No.of He atoms per unit volume, N = 2.7
x 1025 atoms/m3
Formula:
𝜀0 (𝜀𝑟 − 1)
𝛼𝑒 =
𝑁
8.85 × 10−12 (1.0024 − 1)
𝛼𝑒 =
2.7 x 1025

= 8.496 x 10-41 Fm2

5. A capacitor consists of two

conducting plates of area 200 cm2
each separated by a dielectric
constant, 𝜺𝒓 = 3.7 of thickness 1 mm.
Find the capacitance and the electric
flux density when a potential of 300V
is applied.
Given:
Area of the capacitor plate (A) = 200
cm2
Dielectric constant, (𝜀𝑟 ) = 3.7
Thickness, (d) = 1 mm
Potential = 300 V
Permittivity of free space = 8.85 ×
10−12 𝐹 𝑚−1
Formula:
𝜀 𝜀 𝐴
(i) 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝐶 = 𝑟 0
𝑑
3.7 × 8.85 × 10−12 × 200 × 10−4
𝐶=
1 x 10−3
= 6.5519 x 10-10 F
(ii)Electric flux density (D) = 𝜀𝑟 𝜀0 𝐸
= 3.7 × 8.85 × 10−12 × 300
= 9.8279 x 10-41 Cm-2

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