211PHY1301 PHYSICS I B.

TECH

UNIT III SEMICONDUCTORS

Two points that are very important points to remember and ask: Is it real and does it work?
- Edward T. Hall

INTRODUCTION
3.1. FREE ELECTRON THEORY:

In solids, electrons in outer most orbits of atoms determine its electrical properties.
Electron theory is applicable to all solids, both metals and non-metals. In addition, it
explains the electrical, thermal and magnetic properties of solids. The structure and
properties of solids are explained employing their electronic structure by the electron
theory of solids.
It has been developed in three main stages:

1. Classical free electron theory

2. Quantum Free Electron Theory.
3. Zone Theory.

Classical free electron theory: The first theory was developed by Drude & Lorentz in

1900. According to this theory, metal contains free electrons which are responsible for
the electrical conductivity and metals obey the laws of classical mechanics.
Quantum Free Electron Theory: In 1928 Sommerfield developed the quantum
free electron theory. According to Sommerfield, the free electrons move with a
constant potential. This theory obeys quantum laws.
Zone Theory: Bloch introduced the band theory in 1928. According to this theory,
free electrons move in a periodic potential provided by the lattice. This theory is also
called “Band Theory of Solids”. It gives complete informational study of electrons.

3.2.CLASSICAL FREE ELECTRON THEORY FOR METAL:

This theory was proposed by Drude and Lorentz in the year 1900.According to this theory, the
free

electrons are mainly responsible for electrical conduction in a metal. It obeys the laws of
classical mechanics.
Drude Model:
An atom consists of a central nucleus with positively charged protons surrounded by the
electrons of negative charge.
The electrons in the inner shells are called core electrons or bound electrons and those in the
outermost shell are called valence electrons or free electrons.
In metal, when the valence electrons of each atom detach from the orbit, then move freely
throughout the metal. These electrons are known as free or conduction electrons.

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Postulates of classical free electron theory:

1. A metal consists of a very large number of free electrons. These free electrons move freely
throughout the volume of the metal. The movement of free electrons are mainly responsible for
electrical conduction in the metal.
2. Drude assumed that the collection of free electrons from all the atoms free electrons in a given piece
of metal forms electron gas. They move randomly in all possible directions like the molecules of a
gas in a container.
3. These free electrons move in random directions and make collisions with either positive ion core
or other free electrons. All the collisions are elastic i.e., there is no loss of energy. The resultant
velocity is zero.
4. The movements of free electrons obey the laws of the classical kinetic theory of gases.

5. The velocities of free electrons in a metal obey the classical Maxwell-Boltzmann law of
distribution of velocities.
6. The free electrons move in a completely uniform potential field due to ions fixed in the lattice.

7. When an electric field is applied to the metal, the free electrons are accelerated in the direction
opposite to the direction of applied electric field.

8. In metals, there are large numbers of free electrons moving freely within the metal i.e. the free
electrons or valence electrons are free to move in the metal like gaseous molecules, because
nuclei occupy only 15% metal space and the remaining 85% space is available for the
electrons to move.

Merits of classical free electron theory:

• It is used to verify Ohm’s law.
• It is used to explain the electrical and thermal conductivities of metals.
• It is used to derive the Wiedemann-Franz law.
• It is used to explain the optical properties of metals.

Drawbacks of classical free electron theory:

1. It fails to explain the electronic specific heat and the specific heat capacity of metals.
2. It fails to explain superconducting properties of metals.
3. It fails to explain new phenomena like photoelectric effect, Compton effect, black –
body radiation, etc.
4. It fails to explain Electrical conductivity (perfectly) of semiconductors or insulators.
5. It fails to give a correct mathematical expression for thermal conductivity.

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3.3.QUANTUM FREE ELECTRON THEORY OF METALS:

Advantages:

1. All the electrons are not present in the ground state at 0 K, but the distribution obeys Pauli’s
exclusion principle. At 0 K, the highest energy level filled is called Fermi- level.
2. The potential remains constant throughout the lattice.
3. Collision of electrons with positive ion cores or other free electrons is independent of charges and
is elastic in nature.
4. Energy levels are discrete.

Drawbacks:
1. It fails to explain classification of solids as conductors, semiconductors and insulators.

3.4.FERMI ENERGY AND ITS IMPORTANCE

Fermi energy level (Ef)
Fermi energy level (Ef) is the maximum energy level upto which the electrons can be filled at
0K. At absolute Zero, electrons occupy energy levels in pairs from the bottom of the band up to an
upper level called as Fermi Level, F as shown in figure. Therefore Fermi level is defined as the
uppermost filled energy level in a conductor at 0 K.

Importance:
i. Thus it act as a reference level which separates the vacant and filled states at 0K.
ii. It gives the information about the filled electrons states and empty states.
iii. When the temperature is increased, few electron gains the thermal energy and it goes to higher
energy levels.

3.5.FERMI-DIRAC DISTRIBUTION FUNCTION

Fermi function F(E) represents the probability of an electron occupying a given energy
state.
Fermi distribution function F(E) is used to calculate the probability of an electron occupying a
certain energy level at a particular temperature. The distribution of electrons among the energy levels
as a function of temperature is known as Fermi Dirac distribution function.
𝟏
𝑭(𝑬) = 𝑬−𝑬𝑭⁡ ……………………………….…………..[1]
𝟏+𝐞𝐱𝐩⁡( )
𝒌𝑩 𝑻

where, Ef = Fermi Energy, KB - Boltzmann Constant, T - Temperature in Kelvin.

Effect of temperature on Fermi function
The effect of temperature on Fermi function F(E) can be discussed with respect to above
equation [1].
Case (i) At T = 0 k,
(a) When E < EF , E – EF is a negative quantity
𝟏 𝟏
𝑭(𝑬) = 𝑬−𝑬𝑭⁡ = ⁡ 𝟏+𝒆−∞ ⁡ = 𝟏
𝟏+𝐞𝐱𝐩⁡⁡( )
𝒌𝑩 𝑻

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It means that all the energy levels lying below EF are occupied. (i.e., 100% chance for electron to be
filled with in the Fermi energy level).

(b) When E > EF, E – EF is a positive quantity

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝑭(𝑬) = 𝑬−𝑬𝑭⁡ = ⁡ 𝟏+𝒆∞ ⁡ = ∞ = 𝟎
𝟏+𝐞𝐱𝐩⁡( )⁡
𝒌𝑩 𝑻

The result indicates that all the levels above EF are vacant at T= 0 K .
This indicates the probability of occupation of electron in the energy level ranges from zero to one.
Hence at 0 K, all the energy states below Ef are filled and all those above it are empty.
Case (ii) for T > 0K and For E = EF , E – EF = 0
When the temperature is raised, due to thermal excitation the probability of finding electrons
in the levels immediately below EF will decrease and the probability of finding the electrons in the
levels immediately above EF increases.

At T > 0 K, E = Ef.
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝑭(𝑬) = 𝑬−𝑬𝑭⁡ = ⁡ 𝟏+𝒆𝟎 ⁡ = 𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟓
𝟏+𝐞𝐱𝐩⁡( )⁡
𝒌 𝑻

This implies that the probability of occupation electron at any temperature above 0 K is 0.5
(or) 50 %. Therefore Fermi level is defined as the energy which has the probability & occupancy of
0.5.

Figure 3.5. Fermi Dirac Distribution at 0K

Figure 3.6. Electron filled in the energy orbitals

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Figure 3.7. Fermi Dirac distribution at different temperatures

Fermi functions at different temperatures:

At T = 0 k. There is an abrupt change in the value of F (E) from one to zero at Ef . As shown in the
figure 3.8.

Figure 3.8 Fermi Dirac distribution at different temperatures

At T > 0 K. the change is gradual. The higher the temperature, more gradual changes appeared as
shown in figure 3.8.

The different temperatures all the curves pass through a crossover point c, at which the probability of
accuracy is 0.5. This is due to the fact that F(E) has the value of 0.5 for any temperature greater than 0
k.

At T > 0 K, Fermi energy is the average energy possessed by conduction electrons.

Importance of Fermi Energy level:

a. It acts as a reference level which separates the vacant and filled states at 0 K.
b. It gives the information about the filled and the empty states.
c. At 0 K. below Fermi level, energy states are filled and above Fermi level it will be empty.

3.6.DENSITY OF STATES IN METAL

The ability of metal to conduct electricity depends upon
(i) The number of quantum states and
(ii) Energy levels that are available for the electrons.

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Hence it is essential to find the energy states which are available for occupation by the charge carriers.
Definition:
Density of states is defined as the number of energy states per unit volume in an energy interval E
and E+dE.
• It is denoted by Z(E).
𝑁𝑜.𝑜𝑓⁡𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦⁡𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠⁡𝑖𝑛⁡𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦⁡𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙⁡𝐸⁡𝑎𝑛𝑑⁡𝐸+𝑑𝐸⁡𝑖𝑛⁡𝑎⁡𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙⁡𝑝𝑖𝑒𝑐𝑒⁡𝑁(𝐸)𝑑𝐸
• 𝑍 (𝐸 ) =
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒⁡𝑜𝑓⁡𝑡ℎ𝑒⁡𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙⁡𝑝𝑖𝑒𝑐𝑒⁡(𝑉)

CALCULATION OF DENSITY OF STATES IN METAL:

Let us consider a cubical sample with side ‘a’.
Volume of the cube = 𝑎3
A sphere is constructed with the quantum numbers 𝑛𝑥 , 𝑛𝑦 , 𝑛𝑧 as three
co-ordinate axes in three dimensional space.
➢ ‘n’ is the radius vector from origin o to 𝑛𝑥 , 𝑛𝑦 , 𝑛𝑧 in space.
➢ ‘E’ is the Energy on the surface of the sphere.
➢ 𝑛𝑥 , 𝑛𝑦 , 𝑛𝑧 are points in space.
Thus the radius of the sphere 𝑛2 = 𝑛𝑥2 + 𝑛𝑦2 + 𝑛𝑧2 .
The sphere is further divided into many shells. Each shell represents
a particular combination of quantum numbers.
Each quantum number (integer) represents one energy state.
Thus, volume of the sphere of radius n is equal to the number of energy states.
Inorder to calculate the number of states within a small energy interval E and E+dE, we have to
construct two spheres with radii n and n+dn and calculate the space occupied within these two spheres.
4
No. of energy states within a sphere of radius ⁡⁡⁡𝑛 = ⁡ (3) 𝜋𝑛3
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒⁡𝑛𝑥 , 𝑛𝑦 , 𝑛𝑧 can have only positive integer values, we have to consider only one octant of the
sphere.
𝑇ℎ𝑒⁡𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓. 𝑎𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒⁡𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦⁡𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠⁡𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛⁡𝑜𝑛𝑒⁡𝑜𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡⁡ 1 4
⁡ = 8 [3 𝜋𝑛3 ]
𝑜𝑓⁡𝑡ℎ𝑒⁡𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒⁡𝑜𝑓⁡𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠⁡𝑛⁡𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔⁡𝑡𝑜⁡𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦⁡𝐸
𝑇ℎ𝑒⁡𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓. 𝑎𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒⁡𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦⁡𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠⁡𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛⁡𝑜𝑛𝑒⁡𝑜𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡⁡ 1 4
⁡= [ 𝜋(𝑛 + 𝑑𝑛)3 ]
𝑜𝑓⁡𝑡ℎ𝑒⁡𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒⁡𝑜𝑓⁡𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠⁡𝑛 + 𝑑𝑛⁡𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔⁡𝑡𝑜⁡𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦⁡𝐸 + 𝑑𝐸 8 3
Thus the number of energy states having energy values between E and E +dE is N(E) dE.
1 4 1 4
𝑁(𝐸)𝑑𝐸 = ⁡ [ 𝜋] (𝑛 + 𝑑𝑛)3 − [ 𝜋] (𝑛)3 ⟶ (1)
8 3 8 3
𝜋
= [𝑛 + 𝑑𝑛 + 3𝑛 𝑑𝑛 + 3𝑛𝑑𝑛2 − 𝑛3 ]
3 3 2
6

𝜋 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔⁡𝑡ℎ𝑒⁡ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑟⁡𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟⁡
=⁡ 6 × (3𝑛2 𝑑𝑛)⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡[ ]
𝑜𝑓⁡𝑑𝑛⁡𝑎𝑠⁡𝑖𝑡⁡𝑖𝑠⁡𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦⁡𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙
𝜋
𝑁(𝐸)𝑑𝐸 = ⁡ 𝑛2 𝑑𝑛 ⟶ (2)
2
The energy of an electron in a cubical metal piece of sides a is given by
1⁄
𝑛2 ℎ2 2
8𝑚𝑎2 𝐸 8𝑚𝑎2 𝐸 2
𝐸= ⟹𝑛 = =𝑛=[ ] ⟶ (3)
8𝑚𝑎2 ℎ2 ℎ2

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8𝑚𝑎2
𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓⁡𝑛2 ⁡, 𝑤𝑒⁡𝑔𝑒𝑡⁡𝑛𝑑𝑛 = ⁡ 𝑑𝐸
2ℎ2
1⁄
𝜋 𝜋 8𝑚𝑎2 2 8𝑚𝑎 2
𝑁(𝐸)⁡𝑑𝐸 = 𝑛(𝑛𝑑𝑛) = [ 2 ] 𝑑𝐸
2 2 ℎ 2ℎ2

3⁄
𝜋 8𝑚𝑎2 2 1
= [ 2 ] 𝐸 ⁄2 𝑑𝐸
4 ℎ
′
𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔⁡𝑡𝑜⁡𝑷𝒂𝒖𝒍𝒊 𝒔⁡𝒆𝒙𝒄𝒍𝒖𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏⁡𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒊𝒑𝒍𝒆⁡𝒐𝒏𝒍𝒚⁡𝒕𝒘𝒐⁡𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒔⁡𝒐𝒇⁡𝒐𝒑𝒑𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒆⁡𝒔𝒑𝒊𝒏⁡𝒄𝒂𝒏⁡
𝒐𝒄𝒄𝒖𝒑𝒚⁡𝒆𝒂𝒄𝒉⁡𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒆.⁡
3⁄
𝜋 8𝑚𝑎2 2 1
𝑁(𝐸)⁡𝑑𝐸 = 2 × [ 2 ] 𝐸 ⁄2 𝑑𝐸
4 ℎ
4𝜋 3 1
𝑁(𝐸)⁡𝑑𝐸 = ⁡ 3 ⁡(2𝑚) ⁄2 ⁡𝑎3 ⁡𝐸 ⁄2 ⁡𝑑𝐸
ℎ
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓⁡𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦⁡𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠⁡
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦⁡𝑜𝑓⁡𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠 = ⁡ ⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒⁡𝑜𝑓⁡𝑡ℎ𝑒⁡𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙⁡𝑝𝑖𝑒𝑐𝑒
3 1
𝑁(𝐸)⁡𝑑𝐸 4𝜋 ⁡(2𝑚) ⁄2 ⁡𝑎3 ⁡𝐸 ⁄2 ⁡𝑑𝐸
𝑍(𝐸)𝑑𝐸 = ⁡ =⁡ 3
𝑉 ℎ ⁡𝑎3
4𝜋 3 1
𝑍(𝐸)⁡𝑑𝐸 = ⁡ 3 ⁡(2𝑚) ⁄2 ⁡𝐸 ⁄2 ⁡𝑑𝐸
ℎ
(ii) Find the expression for carrier concentration in metals.
CARRIER CONCENTRATION IN METALS:
(Free electron density in metals)
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓⁡𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠⁡𝑝𝑒𝑟⁡𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡⁡𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒⁡𝑖𝑛⁡𝑎⁡𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛⁡𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦⁡𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙⁡(𝑛𝑐 )⁡𝑖𝑠⁡𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙⁡𝑡𝑜⁡𝑡ℎ𝑒⁡𝑆𝑢𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑔⁡𝑡ℎ𝑒⁡
𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡⁡𝑜𝑓⁡𝑡ℎ𝑒⁡𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦⁡𝑜𝑓⁡𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠⁡𝑍(𝐸)&⁡𝑡ℎ𝑒⁡𝑜𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑦⁡𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦⁡𝐹(𝐸).
⁡𝑛𝑐 = ∫𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦⁡𝑏𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑍(𝐸)𝐹(𝐸)⁡𝑑𝐸

4𝜋 3⁄ 1 1
⁡𝑛𝑐 = ∫ ℎ3 ⁡(2𝑚) 2 ⁡𝐸 ⁄2 ⁡𝑑𝐸
(𝐸−𝐸𝐹 )⁄
1+𝑒 𝑘𝑇

This is the expression for “density of charge carriers” (ie) electrons at any temperature.
Importance of Density of states:
• It is used to calculate the number of charge carries per unit volume of the solid.
• Several properties of a metal may be obtained, once the density of states is known.

3.7.Semiconductor - Introduction
Semiconductors are group of materials having resistivity between those of metals and insulators.
The interesting feature of semiconductors is that, they are bipolar, i.e., current conduction take
place by two charge carriers namely electrons and holes. Semiconductors are especially important
because, varying condition like temperature and impurity can easily alter their conductivity.

Semiconductors, the life blood of microchips that epitomize modern technology, are special in
many ways. Semiconductors are materials that conduct electricity better than insulators, but not as
well as conductors. Yet, by altering their structure a little bit, we gain the ability to build

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components whose electrical properties we can control with tremendous ease, allowing us to use
them in electronic applications in so many ways. The most well-known and common of which is
silicon (Si). Germanium (Ge) is another semiconducting element.

Properties:

1. The resistivity lies between 10-4 to 0.5 ohm – meter.

2. They are formed by covalent bonds.
3. At 0K, they behave as insulators.
4. They have empty conduction band and almost filled valence band.
5. They possess diamond cubic crystalline structure.
6. They have negative temperature coefficient of resistance.
7. In semiconductors both the electron and holes are charge carriers and will take part in conduction.
8. The conductivity of a semiconductor increases both due to the temperature and impurities.
9. The energy gap Eg is in between conductor and insulator. Eg < 3eV
10. The total conductivity  =  e +  h ,  e -conductivity due to electrons,  h -conductivity due to
holes

3.8. Semiconductor-Types:
Depending on the relative concentration of holes and electrons the semiconductors are classified
into two types.

1) Intrinsic Semiconductor

2) Extrinsic Semiconductor.

Fig.3.15. Types of semiconductors

Intrinsic Semiconductor:

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The semiconductor which is pure and having the number of electrons in CB equal to number of
holes in VB is called as intrinsic semiconductor. The examples of intrinsic semiconductor are pure
silicon and pure germanium crystals. The intrinsic semiconductors at 0 K - The valence band is
completely filled at 0 K and all the states in the conduction bands are vacant.

Fig.3.15a. Intrinsic semiconductors

The intrinsic semiconductors at T > 0 K - The valence band is not completely filled when T > 0
K and some of the states in the conduction bands are occupied.

3.9.CARRIER CONCENTRATION IN INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR

Definition: The number of electrons in conduction band per unit volume of the material is called
as electron concentration (n).
Similarly the number of holes in valence band per unit volume of the material is called hole
concentration (p).
In general, the number of charge carriers per unit volume of the material is called carrier
concentration. It is also known as density of charge carriers.
3.9.1. Density of Electrons in Conduction Band (Derivation)
The number of electrons per unit volume in conduction band for energy between E and E+dE
is given by
dn = Z (E) F (E) dE ------ (1)
Where Z (E) dE – Density of states in energy between E and E+dE

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F (E) – Electron probability occupancy. Number of electrons in conduction band for the entire range
is calculated by integrating eqn (1) between energy Ec and + ∞.
+∞
∫ dn = n = ∫Ec Z⁡(E)F⁡(E)dE ------ (2)
Ec is energy corresponding to the bottom most level and +∞ is energy corresponding to the
upper most level in conduction band.
Density of states in conduction band between the energy range E and E+dE is given by
4π
Z (E) dE = h3 (2m∗e )3/2 E1/2 dE ----------- (3)
The electrons in conduction band are not totally free. They move in a periodic potential of
the crystal lattice. Therefore, in eqn (3), the mass of the electron (m) is replaced by its effective
mass m∗e according to band theory of solids.

The bottom edge of the conduction band (Ec) denotes the potential energy of an electron at rest.
Therefore, (E - Ec) is the kinetic energy of conduction electron at higher energy levels.
Thus, in eqn. (3), E is replaced as (E - Ec)
4π
Z (E) dE = h3 (2m∗e )3/2 (E − Ec )1/2dE ------ (4)
The probability of electron occupation is given by Fermi distribution function
1
F (E) = 1+e(E−EF)/kT ------ (5)
Substituting eqns. (4) and (5) in (2), we get
+∞ 4π 1
n =∫E ⁡ h3 ⁡(2m∗e )3/2 ⁡⁡(E − Ec )1/2 × 1+e(E−EF)/kT dE
c
4π +∞ ⁡(E−Ec )1/2
n = ⁡ h3 ⁡(2me∗ )3/2 ∫E dE ----- (6)
c 1+e(E−EF )/kT
Since kT is very small and (E-EF) is greater than kT, e(E−EF )⁄kT is very large compared to ‘1’
Hence, ‘1’ from the denominator of eqn (6) is neglected.
ie., 1 + e(E−EF )/kT ⁡ ≈ e(E−EF )/kT
Now, eqn. (6) becomes
4π +∞ ⁡(E−Ec )1/2
n = ⁡ h3 ⁡(2me∗ )3/2 ∫E dE
e(E−EF )/kT
c
4π +∞
n = h3 (2m∗e )3⁄2 ∫E (E − Ec ) 1⁄2 −(E−Ec )⁄kT
e dE
c
4π +∞
n = h3 (2m∗e )3⁄2 ∫E (E − Ec )1⁄2 e(EF −E)⁄kT dE
c
4π +∞
n= (2m∗e )3⁄2 eEF ⁄kT ∫E (E − Ec )1⁄2 e−E⁄kT dE ------- (7)
h3 c

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To evaluate above integral in eqn. (7), let us assume

E − Ec = x when E = Ec when E = +∞
E = Ec + x Ec − Ec = 0 +∞ − EC = x
dE = dx x = 0⁡ x = +∞
Substituting above values in eqn. (7), we have
4π ∞
n = h3 (2m∗e )3⁄2 eEF ⁄kT ∫0 x 1⁄2 e−(Ec +x)⁄kT dx
4π ∞
n = h3 (2m∗e )3⁄2 e(EF− Ec )⁄kT ∫0 x 1⁄2 e−x⁄kT dx -------- (8)
Using the gamma function, it is shown that
∞ (kT)3⁄2 π1⁄2
∫0 x 1⁄2 e−x⁄kT ⁡dx = 2
-------- (9)
Substituting eqn. (9) in eqn. (8), we have
4π (kT)3⁄2 π1⁄2
n= 3
(2m∗e )3⁄2 e(EF− Ec )⁄kT[ ]
h 2
2π
n = h3 (2m∗e )3⁄2 (kT) 3⁄2 1⁄2 (EF− Ec )⁄kT
π e
2ππ1⁄2 (2m∗e )3⁄2 (kT)3⁄2 e(EF− Ec )⁄kT
n= (h2 )3⁄2
2πm∗e ⁡kT
n = 2[ ]3⁄2 e(EF−Ec )⁄kT ---------------- (10)
h2
Equation (10) is the expression for concentration of electrons in the conduction band of intrinsic
semiconductor.

3.9.2. Density of holes in Valence Band (Derivation)

An electron is transferred from valence band to conduction band, a hole is created in valence
band.
Let dp be the number of electrons per unit volume in valence band for energy between E and E+dE is
given by
⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡dp⁡ = ⁡Z⁡(E)⁡(1 − F⁡(E)⁡)dE ------ (1)
Where Z (E) dE – Density of states in energy between E and E+dE
Since F (E) – Electron probability occupancy. 1 – F (E) is the probability of an unoccupied electron
state, i.e., probability of presence of hole.
1
1⁡– ⁡F⁡(E) = 1 − ------ (2)
1+e(E−EF )⁄kT
Since E is very small when compared to EF in valence band, E-EF is negative quantity. Therefore
e(E−EF ) /kT is very small and it is neglected in the denominator term of eqn (2)
1⁡– ⁡F⁡(E) = e(E−EF )⁄kT --------- (3)
Density of states in valence band,
4π
Z (E) dE = h3 (2m∗h )3/2 E1/2dE ------ (4)
Here m∗his the effective mass of the hole in valence band.
EV , top of energy level in valence band is the potential energy of a hole at rest. Hence EV − E is the
Kinetic energy of the hole at level below EV. so the term E in eqn (4) is replaced as (EV − E).
4π
Z (E) dE = h3 (2m∗h )3/2 (EV − E)1⁄2dE … (5)
Substituting eqns (3) and (5) in (1), we get
4π
dp = (2m∗h )3/2 (EV − E)1⁄2 e(E−EF )⁄kTdE ----------- (6)
h3

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The Number of holes in valence band for the entire range is calculated by integrating eqn (6) between
limits -∞ to EV .
𝐸𝑉 4𝜋
∫ 𝑑𝑝 = 𝑝 = ∫−∞ ℎ3 ⁡(2𝑚ℎ∗ )3/2 ⁡⁡(𝐸𝑉 − 𝐸)1⁄2 𝑒 (𝐸−𝐸𝐹)⁄𝑘𝑇 𝑑𝐸
4𝜋 𝐸
𝑝= ⁡(2𝑚ℎ∗ )3/2 𝑒 (−𝐸𝐹)⁄𝑘𝑇 ∫−∞
𝑉
⁡⁡(𝐸𝑉 − 𝐸)1⁄2 𝑒 𝐸⁄𝑘𝑇 𝑑𝐸 --------- (7)
ℎ3
To evaluate above integral in eqn (7), let us assume
𝐸𝑉 − 𝐸 = 𝑥 when 𝐸 = 𝐸𝑉 when 𝐸 = −∞
𝐸 = 𝐸𝑉 − 𝑥 𝐸𝑉 − 𝐸𝑉 = 𝑥 𝐸𝑉 − (−∞) = 𝑥;
𝑑𝐸 = −𝑑𝑥 𝑥 = 0⁡ 𝐸𝑉 + ∞ = 𝑥; 𝑥 = ∞
Substituting these values in eqn (7), we have
4𝜋 0
𝑝= ⁡(2𝑚ℎ∗ )3/2 𝑒 (−𝐸𝐹 )⁄𝑘𝑇 ∫−∞ ⁡⁡𝑥 1⁄2 𝑒 𝐸𝑉 −𝑥⁄𝑘𝑇 (−𝑑𝑥) ------ (8)
ℎ3
4𝜋 ∞
p= (2𝑚ℎ∗ )3⁄2 𝑒 (𝐸𝑉− 𝐸𝐹 )⁄𝑘𝑇 ∫0 𝑥 1⁄2 𝑒 −𝑥⁄𝑘𝑇 dx ------ (9)
ℎ3
Using the gamma function, it is shown that
∞ (𝑘𝑇)3⁄2 𝜋 1⁄2
∫0 𝑥 1⁄2 𝑒 −𝑥⁄𝑘𝑇 dx = 2
------ (10)
Substituting eqn (10) in eqn (9),we have
4𝜋 (𝑘𝑇)3⁄2 𝜋 1⁄2
P = ℎ3 (2𝑚ℎ∗ )3⁄2 𝑒 (𝐸𝑉− 𝐸𝐹)⁄𝑘𝑇 [ ]
2
2𝜋
p = ℎ3 (2𝑚ℎ∗ )3⁄2 (𝑘𝑇) 3⁄2 1⁄2 (𝐸𝑉− 𝐸𝐹 )⁄𝑘𝑇
𝜋 𝑒
∗ 3 ⁄2
2𝜋𝜋 1⁄2 (2𝑚ℎ ) (𝑘𝑇)3⁄2 𝑒 (𝐸𝑉− 𝐸𝐹 )⁄𝑘𝑇
p= (ℎ2 )3⁄2
∗
2𝜋𝑚ℎ ⁡𝑘𝑇 3⁄2 (𝐸 𝐸 )⁄𝑘𝑇
p = 2[ 2 ] 𝑒 𝑉− 𝐹 ---------------- (11)
ℎ
Equation (11) is the expression for concentration of holes in valence band of intrinsic semiconductor.
Intrinsic Carrier Concentration
In an intrinsic semiconductor, the number of electrons in conduction band is equal to the number of
holes in valence band.
i.e., 𝑛𝑖 = 𝑛 = 𝑝
𝑛𝑖 × 𝑛𝑖 = 𝑛𝑖 2 = 𝑛𝑝
2𝜋𝑚𝑒 ∗ 𝑘𝑇 𝐸𝐹 − 𝐸𝐶 2𝜋𝑚ℎ ∗ 𝑘𝑇 𝐸𝑉 − 𝐸𝐹
𝑛𝑖 2 = 2 [ 2
] 𝑒𝑥𝑝 [ ] 2 [ 2
] 𝑒𝑥𝑝 [ ]
ℎ 𝑘𝑇 ℎ 𝑘𝑇
2𝜋𝑘𝑇 3 𝐸𝑉 − 𝐸𝐶
𝑛𝑖 = 4 [ 2 ] (𝑚𝑒 ∗ 𝑚ℎ ∗ )3⁄2 𝑒𝑥𝑝 [
2
]
ℎ 𝑘𝑇
Where 𝐸𝐶 − 𝐸𝑣 = 𝐸𝑔 is forbidden energy gap.
2𝜋𝑘𝑇 3 −𝐸𝑔
𝑛𝑖 = 4 [ 2 ] (𝑚𝑒 ∗ 𝑚ℎ ∗ )3⁄2 𝑒𝑥𝑝 [
2
]
ℎ 𝑘𝑇
Taking square root on both sides in the above equation, we have
1⁄2
3
2𝜋𝑘𝑇 −𝐸𝑔
(𝑛𝑖 2 )1⁄2 = [4 [ 2
] (𝑚𝑒 ∗ 𝑚ℎ ∗ )3⁄2 𝑒𝑥𝑝 [ ]]
ℎ 𝑘𝑇

1/2
2𝜋𝑘𝑇 3/2 ∗ ∗ )3⁄2 1/2
−𝐸𝑔 1/2
𝑛𝑖 = 4 ( 2 ) ((𝑚𝑒 𝑚ℎ ) (𝑒𝑥𝑝 [ ])
ℎ 𝑘𝑇

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2𝜋𝑘𝑇 3/2 −𝐸𝑔

𝑛𝑖 = 2 ( 2 ) (𝑚𝑒 ∗ 𝑚ℎ ∗ )3⁄4 𝑒𝑥𝑝 [ ]
ℎ 2𝑘𝑇
The above equation is called as intrinsic carrier concentration.

3.10. VARIATION OF FERMI LEVEL WITH TEMPERATURE IN AN INTRINSIC

SEMICONDUCTOR
Derivation of Fermi Level

In an intrinsic semiconductor,

i.e., Density of electrons (n) = Density of holes (p)

𝐸𝑐+Ev
EF = [ ] …..(14)
2

Therefore, the Fermi level lies in the midway between Conduction level E c and Valence level Ev at T
= 0K.

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But in general mh = me so the Fermi level is a function of temperature and is raised slightly with
temperature.

3.11. ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY IN INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR

The general expression for the electrical conductivity,

 = ne

The intrinsic electrical conductivity,

The electrical conductivity depends on the negative exponential of band gap Eg between the valance
band and conduction band and also for the mobilities of both holes and electrons. The mobilities in a
pure semiconductor are determined by the interaction of electron with lattice waves or phonons.

So that we can neglect (e + h)

The electrical conductivity

Where C is a constant.

Taking log on both sides of equation (1),

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A graph is drawn between 1/T and Log i from the graph it is noted that this electrical conductivity
increases with temperature.

3.12. DETERMINATION OF BAND GAP ENERGY OF A SEMICONDUCTOR

We know that the electrical conductivity,

We know resistivity is resistance per unit area per unit length

The above equation gives us a method of determining the energy gap of an intrinsic material. If we
find the resistance of the intrinsic semiconductor using post office box or Carey Foster’s bridge at
various temperatures, we can plot a graph between 1/T and log Ri.

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Therefore by finding the slope of line we can calculate the energy band gap with the following
expression.

3.13. EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR

A semiconductor in which the impurity atoms are added by doping process is called extrinsic
semiconductor. The addition of impurities increases the carrier concentration and conductivity. There
are two types of impurities.

1. Donor impurity which leads to N-type semiconductor.

2. Acceptor impurity which leads to P-type semiconductor.

N-type Semiconductor (Donor impurity)

❖ Donor impurity means it donates the electron to the semiconductor materials

❖ Pentavalent atoms (five valence electrons in their outer most orbit) are called as donor impurities.
Example : Phosphorous, Arsenic and Antimony
❖ When a pentavalent atom is added with tetravalent atoms (Ge and Si), the covalent bond is formed and
one element is left free. Thus one impurity atom is surrounded by four Ge or Si atoms.
❖ The remaining electron is loosely bound to the parent impurity atom is detached from the impurity
atom by supplying ionization energy.
❖ Each impurity atom donates one free electron. Thus this type of semiconductor is called as N-type
semiconductor.
❖ The donor atoms form the new energy level called donor energy level (ED) very near and below the
conduction band.
❖ At room temperature, almost all the excess electrons donated by the donor atoms are raised to the
conduction band as majority charge carriers (free electrons) in N-type semiconductor.

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T= 0 K T>0K

P – Type Semiconductor (Acceptor Impurities)

❖ Acceptor impurity means it ready to accept an electron to form the covalent bond in semiconductor
materials.
❖ Trivalent atoms (three valence electrons in their outer most orbits) are called as acceptor impurities.
Example: Aluminum, Gallium, Boron and Indium.
❖ When a trivalent atom is added with tetravalent atoms (Ge or Si), the covalent bond is formed and
there is one vacancy (hole) for one electron in one of the covalent bonds, thereby one impurity atom
is surrounded by four Ge or Si atoms.
❖ Thus each impurity atom hole is ready to accept an electron. Thus this type of semiconductor is
called P-type semiconductor.
❖ The Acceptor atoms form the new energy level called acceptor energy level (EA) very near and above
the valence band.
❖ When a small amount of energy is applied, the electrons from valence band are moved to the
acceptor level and creating holes in the valence band.
❖ These valence band holes are the majority charge carriers in the P-type semiconductor material.

T= 0 K T >0 K

3.14. HALL EFFECT

The Hall effect was first observed by an American scientist, E. H. Hall, in 1879.
Statement

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❖ When conductor (metal or semiconductor) carrying a current is placed in a transverse magnetic field,
an electric field is produced inside the conductor in a direction normal to both the current and the
magnetic field. This phenomenon is known as “Hall effect” and the generated voltage is called “Hall
voltage”.
Measurement of conductivity will not determine whether the conduction is due to electron or holes and
therefore will not distinguish between p-type and n-type semiconductor.

Therefore Hall Effect is used to distinguish between the two types of charge carriers and their carrier
densities and is used to determine the mobility of charge carriers.

Hall Effect in n –type Semiconductor

Let us consider an n-type material to which the current is allowed to pass along x-direction
from left to right (electrons move from right to left) and the magnetic field is applied in z-directions,
as a result Hall voltage is produced in y direction.
Since the direction of current is from left to right the electrons moves from right to left in x-direction
as shown in Figure.

Now due to the magnetic field applied the electrons move towards downward direction with
the velocity ‘v’ and cause the negative charge to accumulate at face (1) of the material as shown Figure.
Therefore a potential difference is established between face (2) and face (1) of the specimen which
gives rise to field EH in the negative y direction.

Here, the force due to potential difference = – eEH ... (1)

Force due to magnetic field = – Be𝑣𝑑 ... (2)
At equilibrium eqn. (1) = eqn. (2)
– eEH = – Be 𝑣𝑑
EH = B𝑣𝑑 ... (3)
We know the current density Jx in the x direction is

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Jx = – n e𝑣𝑑
𝐽
𝑣𝑑 = 𝑛𝑒𝑥 ... (4)
Substituting eqn. (4) in eqn. (3) we get
𝐵𝐽
𝐸𝐻 = − 𝑛𝑒𝑥 ….. (5)
𝐸𝐻 = ⁡ 𝑅𝐻 𝐽𝑥 ⁡𝐵 ……(6)
Where ‘RH’ is known as the Hall coefficient, given by
RH = – (1/ne) ... (7)
The negative sign indicates that the field is developed in the negative ‘y’ direction.
HALL COEFFICIENT:

Hall field per unit current density per unit magnetic induction is called Hall coefficient.

Similarly Hall Effect in p-type Semiconductor is RH = (1/pe)

Applications of Hall effect

 It is used to determine whether the material is p-type or n-type semiconductor.
 It is used to find the carrier concentration.
 It is used to find the mobility of charge carriers.
 It is used to design magnetic flux meters.

PART A
1. What are bound and free electrons?(Nov 2005).
Bound electrons:
The electrons which are attached to the atoms and bound to the parent nuclei are called bound electrons.
Free electrons:
The valence electrons or free electrons of metallic atoms are free to move about the whole volume of
the metals like the molecules of a gas in a container.
2. What are the differences between drift velocity and thermal velocity of an electron?
S.No Drift velocity Thermal velocity
1 The average velocity acquired by It is the velocity of electron by the
an electron in the presence of influence of thermal energy
electric field is known as ‘drift
velocity (vd)’.

2 It is unidirectional and opposite to It is random in nature

that of field direction
3 It is given as 2𝑘𝑇 -1
vd =μE, μ is mobility and E is It is given as vT = √ ms , k is Boltzmann
𝑚
applied field constant, T is temperature and m is mass
of an electron
4 Value is very small 50 cm/s Value is very high 105 m/s
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3. What are the merits of classical free electron theory? (May 2006)
Merits of classical free electron theory:

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• It is used to verify Ohm’s law.

• It is used to explain the electrical and thermal conductivities of metals.
• It is used to derive the Wiedemann-Franz law.
• It is used to explain the optical properties of metals.

4. Draw the Fermi distribution curve at 0K and at any temperature T K. OR. How does the Fermi
function vary with temperature? OR Sketch the variation of Fermi function with temperature for a
metal. (Nov 2013).

In metals at 0K,
If E <⁡𝐸𝐹 , all levels are filled with electrons i.e. F(E) = 1
If E >⁡𝐸𝐹 , all levels are empty i.e. F(E) = 0
At T > 0K, at ⁡𝐸𝐹 , F(E) = 1/2
5. Evaluate the Fermi function of an electron for an energy kT above the Fermi energy. (Nov 2011).
Given
E-EF = kT,
Formula,
Fermi distribution function,
1
𝐹(𝐸) =
1 + 𝑒 [(𝐸−𝐸𝐹)/𝑘𝑇]
1 1 1
= 1+𝑒 [1] = 1+2.718 =3.718

= 0.26894.
6. Define Fermi-Dirac distribution function. (June 2011).
The distribution of electrons among the energy levels as a function of temperature is known as Fermi-
Distribution function. It is given by
1
𝐹(𝐸) = [(𝐸−𝐸
1+𝑒 𝐹 )/𝑘𝑇]
𝐸𝐹 is Fermi energy, k is Boltzmann constant, T is temperature in K.
• The function F(E) indicates the probability that a particular quantum state at the energy level ‘E’ is
occupied by an electron.
• It gives the probability of filling the electrons within the Fermi energy level.
• For example, if F(E) = 0.7, there is 70 % chance for filling the electrons within the Fermi energy level.

7. Write an expression for electrical conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor.(Nov 2012).

Electrical conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor:

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 = n i e(  e +  h )
3 − E g 
 2kT 
(m )
2 
3 2 kT 
= 2 
*
e m h* 4
e e(  e +  h )
 h 
2

ni - Intrinsic carrier concentration,

e- charge of the electron,  e ,  h - mobilities of electron and hole.
8. What is the difference between direct band gap and indirect band gap semiconductors. OR
What are the differences between elemental semiconductor and compound semiconductor?
(Nov 2012, June 2009). (or) Write the advantages of compound semiconductors over elemental
semiconductors.(May 2006)
Indirect band gap or Elemental Direct band gap or Compound
Semiconductor Semiconductor

It is made of single element E.g. Ge, Si. They are formed by combining
elements of III-V, II-VI, IV-IV column
elements of the periodic table.Eg GaAs,
GaP, CdS, MgO etc
Recombination of electron and hole takes Recombination of electron and hole
place indirectly. takes place directly.
Heat or phonons are produced due to Photons are emitted during
recombination recombination
Life time of charge carriers and current Life time of charge carriers and current
amplification is high amplification is low
Its energy gap and carrier mobility are low Its energy gap and carrier mobility are
high
They are widely used in the production of They are used for the manufacture of
diodes and transistors LEDs, Laser diodes etc.
9. What is an intrinsic semiconductor? Give two examples(Apr 2003, Nov 2003).
Intrinsic semiconductors:
 Chemically Pure semiconductors are known as Intrinsic semiconductors.
 At 0 K, all the valence electrons are engaged in covalent bond, there is no free electrons, the
semiconductor cannot conduct and act as perfect insulator.
 At room temperature, the charge carriers i.e.electrons and holes are created by thermal agitation due
to breaking of covalent bonds.
Examples: Ge and Si.
10. Why do we prefer Si for transistors and GaAs for laser diodes?
(i) Si is prefer to transistors, because:
➢ It is an indirect band gap semiconductor.
➢ Life time of charge carriers is high.
➢ It is electrically stable with temperature and bias voltage.
➢ Current amplification is high.
(ii) GaAs is prefer to Laser diodes, because:
➢ It is a direct band gap semiconductor.
➢ It is chemically stable at normal atmosphere.

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➢ Here the recombination of electrons and holes produces photons.

11. What happens when the temperature increases in the case of semiconductor and conductor?
Semiconductor:
With the increase in temperature, the conductivity of semiconductor increases and hence
resistivity decreases because more and more charge carriers are created by the temperature.
Conductor:
With increase in temperature in metals, no change in the concentration of the charge carriers.
The additional thermal energy induce the collisions of electrons with the lattice ions and hence the
resistivity increases and conductivity decreases.

12. Distinguish between n-type and p-type semiconductors.(June 2010)

n-type semiconductor p-type semiconductor

n-type semiconductors are produced p-type semiconductors are produced by

by doping an intrinsic semiconductor doping an intrinsic semiconductor with
with pentavalent impurity like, P, As, trivalent impurity like, B, Al, Ga, In
Sb, Bi
The majority charge carriers are The majority charge carriers are holes and
electrons and minority charge carriers the minority charge carriers are electrons.
are holes
The donor level is closer to the The acceptor level is closer to the valence
conduction band band
Compared with intrinsic electron and Compared with intrinsic electron and hole
hole concentration, In n-type concentration, In p-type
n > ni and p < pi n < ni and p > pi

13. Give the expression for band gap in an intrinsic semiconductor.(May, Nov 2011).
EXPRESSION FOR BAND GAP IN AN INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR:
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑅𝑖 𝑑𝑦
Eg = 2k [ 1⁄ ] ⁡ = 2k where k is a Boltzmann constant, 𝑅𝑖 = Resistance of the intrinsic
𝑇 𝑑𝑥
semiconductor.

14. Given an extrinsic semiconductor. How will you find whether it is n-type or p-type.(Nov 2010)
or How can you distinguish p-type and n-type semiconductors? (june 2010, 2012)
• The n – type and p-type semiconductors can be distinguished by determining the Hall coefficient using
Hall effect.
• For an n-type semiconductor the Hall coefficient is negative whereas for p – type semiconductor it is
positive.
• Thus from the direction of the Hall voltage developed one can find out the type of semiconductor.

15. Distinguish between intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors.(Nov 2013, May 2006, Nov 2003)
INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR

Semiconductor in a pure form is called Semiconductor which are doped with

intrinsic semi conductor impurity is called extrinsic semiconductor
Here the charge carriers are produced Here the charge carriers are produced due
only due to thermal agitation to impurities and thermal agitation.

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Here the number of electrons are equal Here the number of electrons are not equal
to number of holes to number of holes
They have low electrical conductivity They have high electrical conductivity
At 0K, the Fermi level exactly lies At 0K, Fermi level lies closer to conduction
between conduction band and valance band in “n” type semiconductor and closer
band. Eg. Si, Ge, to valence band in “p” type semiconductor.
Eg. Si and Ge doped with Al, In, P, As

16. Compare the variation of conductivity of metals with that semiconductor(Nov 2007)
(OR) Distinguish between conductor and semiconductor on the basis of their electrical
conductivity.
METALS SEMICONDUCTOR

In conductor the electrons are In semiconductors both the electron and

charge carriers and will take part in holes are the charge carriers and will take
conduction. part in conduction.
Electrical conductivity is 104 to 109 Electrical conductivity is 103 to 104 ohm-
ohm-1m-1 1m-1

Electrical conductivity will Electrical conductivity will increase due to

decrease due to respect to addition respect to addition of impurities, increase
of impurities, increase of of temperature, charge density
temperature, decrease of mean free
path
The total conductivity The total conductivity
 =  e ,  e -conductivity due to  =  e +  h ,  e -conductivity due to
electrons electrons,  h -conductivity due to holes

17. Draw the energy band structure of n-type semiconductor. (Nov 2013).
ENERGY BAND STRUCTURE OF N-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR:

T= 0 K T>0K

18. Draw the energy band structure of p-type semiconductor. (Nov 2013).
ENERGY BAND STRUCTURE OF p-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR:

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T= 0 K T >0 K
19. What is doping in semiconductors? (Nov 2013).
DOPING: The process of adding impurities like Ga, In, P, As etc to a pure or intrinsic
semiconductor is called doping.
20. State the characteristics of semiconductors.(or) List or write the properties of
semiconductors.(June 2011, Apr 2003, Nov 2013)
PROPERTIES OF SEMICONDUCTORS
• The resistivity lies between 10-4 to 0.5 ohm – meter.
• They are formed by covalent bonds.
• At 0K, they behave as insulators.
• They have empty conduction band and almost filled valence band.
• They possess diamond cubic crystalline structure.
• They have negative temperature coefficient of resistance.
• In semiconductors both the electron and holes are charge carriers and will take part in
conduction.
• The conductivity of a semiconductor increases both due to the temperature and impurities.
• The energy gap Eg is in between conductor and insulator.

21. What is Hall effect in semiconductors? (Nov 2013, Nov 2011)

(or) What is meant by Hall Effect? Write an expression for Hall Co-efficient.(May 2005)

HALL EFFECT:
When a piece of conductor (metal or semiconductor) carrying a current is placed in a transverse
magnetic field, an electric field is produced inside the conductor in a direction normal to both the
current and the magnetic field. This phenomenon is known as Hall effect.
Expression for Hall Co-efficient:

VH t
RH =
IB
VH - Hall Voltage, t- thickness, I - Current, B - Magnetic Field

22. What is the Hall Voltage(𝑽𝑯 )? (Nov 2011)

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If a magnetic field B is applied normal to the wafer (sample) surface and hence to the direction of
current flow in it, then a transverse potential difference is produced between two opposite faces. It is
known as Hall voltage 𝑉𝐻 .
23. Define Hall Coefficient. (June 2010)
HALL COEFFICIENT:
Hall field per unit current density per unit magnetic induction is called Hall coefficient.
Expression for Hall Co-efficient:

VH t
RH = VH - Hall Voltage, t- thickness, I - Current, B - Magnetic
IB
Field
24. What are the applications of Hall effect? (or) Mention any four applications of Hall effect.

APPLICATIONS OF HALL EFFECT:

• It is used to determine whether the material is p-type or n-type semiconductor.
• It is used to find the carrier concentration.
• It is used to find the mobility of charge carriers.
• It is used to design magnetic flux meters.
25. Compared with Germanium, Silicon is widely used to manufacture the elemental device.
Why?(May 2013).
• Silicon is an indirect band gap semiconductor.
• Life times of charge carriers are more.
• Silicon is the second most abundant element of the earth's crust.
26. Find the resistance of an intrinsic Ge rod 1 cm long, 1mm wide and 1 mm thick at 300K. (Dec
2001)
Given: For Ge 𝑛𝑖 = 2.5 × 1019 /𝑚3 ; 𝜇𝑒 = 0.39𝑚−2 𝑉 −1 𝑠 −1 ; 𝜇ℎ = 0.19𝑚−2 𝑉 −1 𝑠 −1 at 300K

We Know Conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor is  = ni e(  e +  h )

𝜎 = 2.5 × 1019 × 1.6 × 10−19 [0.39 + 0.19]

𝜎 = 2.32𝛺 −1 𝑚−1
𝜌𝑙 𝑙
We know resistance 𝑅 = ⁡(𝑜𝑟) 𝜎𝐴
𝐴

1 × 10−2
𝑅=
2.32 × (1 × 10−3 × 1 × 10−3 )

𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒⁡𝑅 = 4310𝛺

27. Calculate the conductivity of germanium at 200oC.Given that 300 K, ne=23x1018 m-3, μe=0.364 m2V-
s and μh=0.19 m2V-1s-1. (May 2006)
1 -1

Solution:

 = ni e( e +  h )

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𝜎 = 23 × 1018 × 1.6 × 10−19 [0.364 + 0.19]

𝜎 = 2.03⁡𝛺 −1 𝑚−1

PART-B

1. State the merits, postulates and demerits of classical free electron theory and quantum free electron
theory.
2. Derive an expression for density of states in metal.
3. Explain in details about the Fermi energy and Fermi Dirac distribution at various temperatures
4. Get an expression for the carrier concentration of an intrinsic semiconductor.
5. Derive the expression for density of electrons in the conduction band of Intrinsic semiconductor.
6. Derive the expression for density of holes in the valence band of Intrinsic semiconductor and deduce
the expression for intrinsic carrier concentration.
7. Obtain band gap expression for intrinsic semiconductor by discussing variation of fermi level with
temperature and electrical conductivity.
8. (i) Define Hall effect. (ii) Describe an experiment for the measurement of the Hall coefficient. (iii)
Write the applications of Hall effect.

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