HOW DO ORGANISMS REPRODUCE

Reproduction - Reproduction is the biological process by which new individual organisms or "offspring"
are produced from their "parent" or parents. Reproduction is a fundamental feature of all known life; each
individual organism exists as the result of reproduction.
Reproduction is not necessary to maintain the life of an individual organism, unlike the essential life
processes such as nutrition, respiration, or excretion. On the other hand, if an individual organism is going to
create more individuals, a lot of its energy will be spent in the process. It is essential for the continuation of
species.

Importance of reproduction -
1.It increases the population of a species.
2. It allows perpetuation of species.
3. If the organisms would not reproduce, the species to which they belong to would be extinct once they are
dead.
4. Reproducing organisms create new individuals that look very much like themselves.

Evolution - The new DNA copy cannot work with the cellular apparatus it inherits. Such a newborn cell
will simply die. On the other hand, there could still be many other variations in the DNA copies that would
not lead to such a drastic outcome. Thus, the surviving cells are similar to, but subtly different from each
other. This inbuilt tendency for variation during reproduction is the basis for evolution.

Importance of DNA copying in reproduction - DNA copying has following importance in reproduction:
• It maintains the characteristics of species.
• It maintains the continuity of life.
• From this, the characteristics and features of organisms are transformed to their progeny.
• It produces variations in organisms which is the basis of evolution of new species.

Variation and its importance - Variations are the differences present between the individuals of the same
species or different species. - The variation between different species is greater than that of the variation
between the individuals of the same species.
It helps a species to survive, it also helps us to determine who is who, it helps organisms to adapt to their
environment as well as to changes which do occur in the environment, however it also helps a species to
emerge strong if favoured by natural selection.

Why is variation beneficial to the species but not necessarily for the individual?
The various populations of organisms interact with many types of ecological niches. This is important for
them to survive in given conditions. In case of any damage caused to the ecological conditions of the
population, the population gets adversely affected. The organisms which are able to survive, may reproduce
to develop population which is adapted or suited to the varied conditions. Hence variation is beneficial to
species, but not to the individuals.

Different modes of reproduction - The modes by which various organisms reproduce depend on the body
design of the organisms. There are two types of reproduction.
1. Asexual reproduction
2. Sexual reproduction

Asexual reproduction and the different modes of asexual reproduction - Asexual reproduction is a mode
of reproduction in which a new offspring is produced by a single parent. The new individuals produced are
genetically and physically identical to each other. Asexual reproduction is observed in both multicellular and
unicellular organisms. This process does not involve any kind of gamete fusion and there won’t be any
change in the number of chromosomes either. Various modes of asexual reproduction are :
1.Fission - For unicellular organisms, cell division, or fission, leads to the creation of new individuals. Many
different patterns of fission have been observed.
a) Binary Fission - Many bacteria and protozoa simply split into two equal halves during cell division. In
organisms such as Amoeba, the splitting of the two cells during division can take place in any plane.

Some unicellular organisms show somewhat more organisation of their bodies, such as is seen in
Leishmania (which cause kala-azar), which have a whip-like structure at one end of the cell. In such
organisms, binary fission occurs in a definite orientation in relation to these structures.

b) Multiple Fission - Single-celled organisms, such as the malarial parasite, Plasmodium, divide into many
daughter cells simultaneously by multiple fission.

2.Fragmentation - In multi-cellular organisms with relatively simple body organisation, simple

reproductive methods can still work. Spirogyra, for example, simply breaks up into smaller pieces upon
maturation. These pieces or fragments grow into new individuals.
3.Regeneration - Many fully differentiated organisms have the ability to give rise to new individual
organisms from their body parts. If the individual is somehow cut or broken up into many pieces, many of
these pieces grow into separate individuals. For example, simple animals like Hydra and Planaria can be cut
into any number of pieces and each piece grows into a complete organism. This is known as regeneration.
Regeneration is carried out by specialised cells. These cells proliferate and make large numbers of cells.
From this mass of cells, different cells undergo changes to become various cell types and tissues. These
changes take place in an organised sequence referred to as development.

4. Budding - Organisms such as Hydra use regenerative cells for reproduction in the process of budding. In
Hydra, a bud develops as an outgrowth due to repeated cell division at one specific site (Fig. 7.4). These
buds develop into tiny individuals and when fully mature, detach from the parent body and become new
independent individuals.

5.Vegetative propagation - There are many plants in which parts like the root, stem and leaves develop into
new plants under appropriate conditions. Unlike in most animals, plants can indeed use such a mode for
reproduction. This property of vegetative propagation is used in methods such as layering or grafting to
grow many plants like sugarcane, roses, or grapes for agricultural purposes. Plants raised by vegetative
propagation can bear flowers and fruits earlier than those produced from seeds. Such methods also make
possible the propagation of plants such as banana, orange, rose and jasmine that have lost the capacity to
produce seeds. Another advantage of vegetative propagation is that all plants produced are genetically
similar enough to the parent plant to have all its characteristics.

6.Spore formation - Spore formation is another means of asexual reproduction very common in most of the
fungi. During unfavourable conditions, the organism develops sac-like structures called sporangium that
contain spores. When the conditions are favourable, the sporangium burst opens and spores are released that
germinate to give rise to new organisms. The thread-like structures that develop are the hyphae of the bread
mould(Rhizopus). They are not reproductive parts. On the other hand, the tiny blob-on-a-stick structures are
involved in reproduction. The blobs are sporangia, which contain cells, or spores, that can eventually
develop into new Rhizopus individuals. The spores are covered by thick walls that protect them until they
come into contact with another moist surface and can begin to grow.

Differences between binary fission and multiple fission

How will an organism be benefited if it reproduces through spores?

An organism is benefited by reproducing through the spores because spores are surrounded by a thick layer
which protects them in adverse conditions. When the favourable conditions occur, these spores start to grow
again. In this way they successfully live in unfavourable conditions.

Can you think of reasons why more complex organisms cannot give rise to new individuals through
regeneration?
In complex multicellular organisms, specialised cells make up tissues, tissue make up organs, organs make
up organ systems and finally organ systems make up organisms. Since complex multicellular organisms
have a very high degree of organisation in their body, they cannot be reproduced from their cut body parts by
the process of regeneration. For example, a dog is a complex multicellular organism which cannot be
regenerated from its cut body part say, a cut tail. This is because the cells present in the cut tail of a dog
cannot produce dog’s organs like heart brain, lungs, stomach, intestines and limbs, etc, needed for the
making of a complete dog.
Why is DNA copying an essential part of the process of reproduction?
DNA copying is essential part of the process of reproduction so that the characteristics of the parent
organisms are transmitted to its offspring and at the same time some occasional variations are also produced
in the offspring. The changes in the copy of DNA provide an organism the capability to survive in changing
conditions.

Sexual reproduction - Sexual reproduction is a natural way of reproduction and takes place in all
multicellular organisms. This process involves two individuals to produce offspring. In this, the male and the
female gametes fuse together and give rise to a new cell called zygote.

Need of sexual reproduction - The advantages of sexual reproduction:

 produces genetic variation in the offspring.
 the species can adapt to new environments due to variation, which gives them a survival advantage.
 a disease is less likely to affect all the individuals in a population.
 have a greater survival rate as compared to asexual reproduction as organisms have variation which
is adapted to various environments.
Differences between a male gamete and a female gamete
Male gamete (germ cell) Female gamete (germ cell)
1.Smaller in size. 1.Larger in size.
2. Motile 2. Non motile
3.Does not contain stored food. 3.Contains stored food.

Differences between asexual and sexual reproduction

Structure of a flower - A typical flower consists of the following 4 whorls:
a) Calyx/ Sepals – Calyx is the outermost whorl which is made of sepals that are green in colour. They
protect the flower in the bud stage and can also photosynthesise.
b) Corolla/ Petals – Corolla lies inside the calyx and consists of petals. Petals are colourful and attract
insects for pollination and protect the reproductive parts.
c) Androecium/ Stamens – Androecium (male reproductive part) lies inner to the corolla and made of
stamens. Each stamen consists of a stalk – the filament and a swollen part on the top of stamen – the anther.
Anther contains pollen grains and each pollen grain have two male gametes.
d) Gynoecium/ Pistils – It is the female reproductive part and consists of pistils. Each pistil consists of a
swollen bottom part called ovary which has ovules which in turn contains egg cells. The middle elongated
part called style through which the pollen tube grows to reach the ovary. The terminal part of the pistil
which is sticky is called stigma that receives pollen grains from the anther during pollination.

Reproductive parts of the flower - The reproductive parts of angiosperms are located in the flower.
Stamens and pistil are the reproductive parts of a flower which contain the germ-cells. Stamen is the male
reproductive part and it produces pollen grains that are yellowish in colour. Pistil is present in the centre of a
flower and is the female reproductive part. It is made of three parts. The swollen bottom part is the ovary,
middle elongated part is the style and the terminal part which may be sticky is the stigma. The ovary
contains ovules and each ovule has an egg cell. The male germ-cell produced by pollen grain fuses with the
female gamete present in the ovule. This fusion of the germ-cells or fertilisation gives us the zygote which is
capable of growing into a new plant. The flower may be unisexual (papaya, watermelon) when it contains
either stamens or pistil or bisexual (Hibiscus, mustard) when it contains both stamens and pistil.
Pollination and its types - Pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from an anther of a plant to the stigma
of a plant, later enabling fertilisation and the production of seeds, most often by an animal or by wind.
Pollination are of two types:
a)Self pollination - Self-pollination occurs when the pollen from the anther is deposited on the stigma of the
same flower or another flower on the same plant.
b) Cross pollination - Cross-pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther of one flower to the
stigma of another flower on a different plant of the same species.
Differences between self and cross pollination
Fertilisation in plants - After the pollen lands on a suitable stigma, it has to reach the female germ-cells
which are in the ovary. For this, a tube grows out of the pollen grain and travels through the style to reach
the ovary. After fertilisation, the zygote divides several times to form an embryo within the ovule. The ovule
develops a tough coat and is gradually converted into a seed. The ovary grows rapidly and ripens to form a
fruit. Meanwhile, the petals, sepals, stamens, style and stigma may shrivel and fall off. The seed contains the
future plant or embryo which develops into a seedling under appropriate conditions. This process is known
as germination.

Draw the diagram of fertilisation in a flower.

Differences between pollination and fertilisation

Differences between unisexual and bisexual flowers

Changes observed in both boys and girls during adolescence
1.Thick hair growing in new parts of the body such as armpits and the genital area between the thighs, which
can also become darker in colour.
2. Thinner hair can also appear on legs and arms, as well as on the face.
3. The skin frequently becomes oily and begin to develop pimples.
4. They begin to be conscious and aware of their own bodies.

Changes observed in girls during adolescence

In girls, breast size begins to increase, with darkening of the skin of the nipples at the tips of the breasts.
Also, girls begin to menstruate at around this time.

Changes observed in boys during adolescence

Boys begin to have new thick hair growth on the face and their voices begin to crack. Further, the penis
occasionally begins to become enlarged and erect, either in daydreams or at night.

Puberty - The onset of changes that lead to sexual maturity is called puberty. Puberty is the time when
adolescent boys and girls reach sexual maturity and become capable of reproducing.

Male reproductive system - The male reproductive system consists of portions which produce the germ-
cells and other portions that deliver the germ cells to the site of fertilisation.
a) Testes - The formation of germ-cells or sperms takes place in the testes. These are located outside the
abdominal cavity in scrotum because sperm formation requires a lower temperature than the normal body
temperature. Testes also secrete the hormone, testosterone. In addition to regulating the formation of sperms,
testosterone brings about changes in appearance seen in boys at the time of puberty.
b) Vas deferens - The sperms formed are delivered through the vas deferens which unites with a tube
coming from the urinary bladder. The urethra thus forms a common passage for both the sperms and urine.
c) Accessory glands - Along the path of the vas deferens, glands like the prostate and the seminal vesicles
add their secretions so that the sperms are now in a fluid which makes their transport easier and this fluid
also provides nutrition. The sperms are tiny bodies that consist of mainly genetic material and a long tail that
helps them to move towards the female germ-cell.
d) Penis - The penis is the external male organ that serves as the copulatory organ to transfer the male
gametes or sperms to the inside of the female body.
Female reproductive system -
a)Ovary- The female germ-cells or eggs are made in the ovaries. They are also responsible for the
production of some hormones
b) Oviduct/ fallopian tubes - The egg is carried from the ovary to the womb(uterus) through a thin oviduct or
fallopian tube. It is also the place where fertilisation takes place.
c) Uterus - The two oviducts unite into an elastic bag-like structure known as the uterus. Development of the
embryo takes place in the uterus. The uterus opens into the vagina through the cervix.
d) Vagina – It receives sperms from the male during sexual intercourse. It is a passage through which the
fully developed foetus is born and hence called birth canal.

Sexual reproduction in humans - The sperms enter through the vaginal passage during sexual intercourse.
They travel upwards and reach the oviduct where they may encounter the egg. The fertilised egg (zygote)
starts dividing and form a ball of cells or embryo. The embryo is implanted in the lining of the uterus where
they continue to grow and develop organs to become foetus. The uterus prepares itself every month to
receive and nurture the growing embryo. The lining thickens and is richly supplied with blood to nourish the
growing embryo. The embryo gets nutrition from the mother’s blood with the help of a special tissue called
placenta. This is a disc which is embedded in the uterine wall. It contains villi on the embryo’s side of
the tissue. On the mother’s side are blood spaces, which surround the villi. This provides a large
surface area for glucose and oxygen to pass from the mother to the embryo. The developing embryo
will also generate waste substances which can be removed by transferring them into the mother’s
blood through the placenta. The development of the child inside the mother’s body takes approximately
nine months. The child is born as a result of rhythmic contractions of the muscles in the uterus.

What happens when the egg is not fertilised?

If the egg is not fertilised, it lives for about one day. Since the ovary releases one egg every month, the
uterus also prepares itself every month to receive a fertilised egg. Thus its lining becomes thick and spongy.
This would be required for nourishing the embryo if fertilisation had taken place. Now, however, this lining
is not needed any longer. So, the lining slowly breaks and comes out through the vagina as blood and
mucous. This cycle takes place roughly every month and is known as menstruation. It usually lasts for about
two to eight days.

Reproductive health - Reproductive health refers to the state of complete physical, mental and social well-
being in all aspects related to the reproductive system. It deals with the reproductive processes and
functioning of reproductive system at all stages of life and not merely the absence of disease.

Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) - Many diseases can be sexually transmitted. These include bacterial
infections such as gonorrhoea and syphilis, and viral infections such as warts and HIV-AIDS. These are
called STDs.

Different methods of contraception - The different methods of contraception are as follows :

(i)Mechanical Barrier method : In this method, condom, diaphragm and cervical caps are used. These
prevent the entry of sperms in the female genital tract during sexual intercourse.
(ii) Chemical method : In this method a woman uses two kinds of pills (oral and vaginal pills). The oral
pills are hormonal preparations which suppress the release of ovum in fallopian tube. These are called oral
contraceptives. The vaginal pills/ creams are spermicidal. The chemicals in these spermicidals kill the
sperms during their journey in the vaginal tract.
(iii)Intrauterine contraceptive devices : Intrauterine contraceptive devices such as copper-T are placed
safely in the uterus by a skilled doctor. It prevents the sperms to reach the uterus.
(iv)Surgical method : In this method, a small part of vas deferens of male and fallopian tube of female is
cut or tied by surgery. It is called vasectomy in males and tubectomy in females.

Population size - Reproduction is the process by which organisms increase their populations. The rates of
birth and death in a given population will determine its size. The size of the human population is a cause for
concern for many people. This is because an expanding population makes it harder to improve everybody’s
standard of living.

What could be the reasons for adopting contraceptive methods ?

The reasons for adopting contraceptive devices are as follows :
1. To control the birth rate and prevent the increase in population.
2. To reduce the adverse effects on mother’s body due to frequent pregnancy.
3. To provide safety from sexually transmitted diseases.
4. Spacing the birth of children.
5. Restricting the number of children born.