COMPUTER NETWORK (CST-021)

UNIT – 1

DATA COMMUNICATION COMPONENTS

A computer network is a collection of interconnected devices that share

resources and information. These devices can include computers, servers,
printers, and other hardware. Networks allow for the efficient exchange of
data, enabling various applications such as email, file sharing, and
internet browsing.

Basics building blocks of a Computer network are Nodes and Links. A

Network Node can be illustrated as Equipment for Data Communication
like a Modem, Router, etc., or Equipment of a Data Terminal like
connecting two computers or more. Link in Computer Networks can be
defined as wires or cables or free space of wireless networks.

*WHAT DO COMPUTER NETWORK DO?

Modern computer networks can:

 Work Virtually: The physical network can be divided into

smaller virtual networks. In these virtual networks, devices are
connected and can send data through multiple physical routes. For
example, many business networks use the internet this way.

 Connect on a Large Scale: Modern networks link many smaller,

spread-out networks into one big, powerful system. Automation and
monitoring tools help manage and adjust the network as needed,
allowing it to grow or shrink based on demand.

 Adapt Quickly: Many networks are controlled by software, so

changes can be made quickly through a digital dashboard. This
allows traffic to be managed easily.

 Keep Data Secure: Built-in security features like encryption and

access control protect data. Additional protections like antivirus
software, firewalls, and malware protection can be added to
strengthen network security.

*Basic Terminologies of Computer Networks

 Network: A network is a collection of computers and devices that

are connected together to enable communication and data
exchange.
 Nodes: Nodes are devices that are connected to a network. These
can include computers, Servers, Printers, Routers, Switches, and
other devices.

 Protocol: A protocol is a set of rules and standards that govern how

data is transmitted over a network. Examples of protocols include
TCP/IP, HTTP, and FTP.

 Topology: Network topology refers to the physical and logical

arrangement of nodes on a network. The common network
topologies include bus, star, ring, mesh, and tree.

 Service Provider Networks: These types of Networks give

permission to take Network Capacity and Functionality on lease from
the Provider. Service Provider Networks include Wireless
Communications, Data Carriers, etc.

 IP Address: An IP address is a unique numerical identifier that is

assigned to every device on a network. IP addresses are used to
identify devices and enable communication between them.

 DNS: The Domain Name System (DNS) is a protocol that is used to

translate human-readable domain names (such as www.google.com)
into IP addresses that computers can understand.

 Firewall: A firewall is a security device that is used to monitor and

control incoming and outgoing network traffic. Firewalls are used to
protect networks from unauthorized access and other security
threats.

*Types of Enterprise Computer Networks

 LAN: A Local Area Network (LAN) is a network that covers a small

area, such as an office or a home. LANs are typically used to
connect computers and other devices within a building or a campus.

 WAN: A Wide Area Network (WAN) is a network that covers a large

geographic area, such as a city, country, or even the entire world.
WANs are used to connect LANs together and are typically used for
long-distance communication.

 Cloud Networks: Cloud Networks can be visualized with a Wide

Area Network (WAN) as they can be hosted on public or private
cloud service providers and cloud networks are available if there is a
demand. Cloud Networks consist of Virtual Routers, Firewalls, etc.

*Types of Computer Network Architecture

Computer Network falls under these broad Categories:

 Client-Server Architecture: Client-Server Architecture is a type of
Computer Network Architecture in which Nodes can be Servers or
Clients. Here, the server node can manage the Client Node
Behaviour.

 Peer-to-Peer Architecture: In P2P (Peer-to-Peer) Architecture,

there is not any concept of a Central Server. Each device is free for
working as either client or server.

*Network Topology

The Network Topology is the layout arrangement of the different

devices in a network. Some types of network topologies are:

 Bus Topology: In bus topology all devices are connected to a

single central cable called a bus. Data is sent along this cable and
all devices share the same connection. Simple and cheap to set up
but if the main cable fails the whole network goes down.

 Star Topology: In star topology all devices are connected to a

central node called hub or switch. The hub controls the flow of data
between devices. If one device fails the rest of the network is
unaffected. But, if the central hub fails the whole network stops
working.

 Ring Topology: In ring topology devices are connected in a circular

loop with each device connected to two others. Data travels in one
direction (or sometimes both) passing through each device until it
reaches its destination. A failure in one device can affect the whole
network.

 Mesh Topology: In mesh topology every device is connected to

every other device in the network. It provides multiple paths for
data so if one path fails another can take over.

 Tree Topology: Tree topology is the combination of star and bus

topology. Tree topology is good for organizing large networks and
allows for easy expansion.

 Hybrid Topology: Hybrid topology is the combination of two or

more different topologies (like star and mesh). It is flexible and can
be customized based on the network’s specific needs.
# DATA COMMUNICATION

Data Communication is defined as exchange of data between two devices

via some form of transmission media such as a cable, wire or it can be air
or vacuum also. For occurrence of data communication, communicating
devices must be a part of communication system made up of a
combination of hardware or software devices and programs.

*Data Communication System Components :

There are mainly five components of a data communication system:

1. Message

2. Sender

3. Receiver

4. Transmission Medium

5. Set of rules (Protocol)

All above mentioned elements are described below:

Figure – Components of Data Communication System

1. Message :
This is most useful asset of a data communication system. The
message simply refers to data or piece of information which is to be
communicated. A message could be in any form, it may be in form
of a text file, an audio file, a video file, etc.

2. Sender :
To transfer message from source to destination, someone must be
there who will play role of a source. Sender plays part of a source in
data communication system. It is simple a device that sends data
message. The device could be in form of a computer, mobile,
telephone, laptop, video camera, or a workstation, etc.

3. Receiver :
It is destination where finally message sent by source has arrived. It
is a device that receives message. Same as sender, receiver can
also be in form of a computer, telephone mobile, workstation, etc.

4. Transmission Medium :
In entire process of data communication, there must be something
which could act as a bridge between sender and receiver,
Transmission medium plays that part. It is physical path by which
 data or message travels from sender to receiver. Transmission
medium could be guided (with wires) or unguided (without wires),
for example, twisted pair cable, fiber optic cable, radio waves,
microwaves, etc.

5. Set of rules (Protocol) :

To govern data communications, various sets of rules had been
already designed by the designers of the communication systems,
which represent a kind of agreement between communicating
devices. These are defined as protocol. In simple terms, the protocol
is a set of rules that govern data communication. If two different
devices are connected but there is no protocol among them, there
would not be any kind of communication between those two
devices. Thus the protocol is necessary for data communication to
take place.

# Representation of data
At present Information comes in different forms such as follows.

1. Numbers

2. Text

3. Images

4. Audio

5. Video
*Numbers –
Numbers are not represented as ASCII but by bit patterns. Numbers are
directly converted into binary representation to specify mathematical
operations. The 0s and 1s used to represent digital data. The number
system that humans normally use is in base 10.
Number File Formats –
Integer, Fixed point, Date, Boolean, Decimal, etc.
Example :
if we want to write the number 60338 in expanded form you might have
written it as 60338=60000+300+30+8.

*Text –
Text is also represented as bit pattern or sequence of bits(such as
0001111). Various types of bits are assigned to represent text symbols. A
code where each number represents a character can be used to convert
text into binary.
Text File Formats –
.doc,.docx, .pdf, .rtf, .txt, etc.

Example :
The letter ‘a’ has the binary number 0110 0001.

*Audio –
Audio signal is a representation of sound or music. Audio differs from all
i.e. from text, number and images. Audio is a series of binary numbers for
digital signals. It is continuous but not discrete.
Audio File Formats –
MP3, M4A audio file type, FLAC, WAV, WMA, AAC, etc.

*Video –
Video refers to the recording, broadcasting, copying or playback. Video
can either be produced or it is continuous and sometimes it is a
combination of multiple images produced in motion.
Video File Formats –
MP4, MOV, AVI, FLV, etc.

*Images –
Images are also represented as bit patterns. An image is composed of
matrix of pixels with different values of pixels each where each pixel is
represented as dots. Size of the picture is dependent on its resolution.
Consider a simple black and white image. If 1 is black (or on) and 0 is
white (or off), then a simple black and white picture can be created using
binary.
Image File Formats –
Image can be in the format of jpeg, PNG, TIFF, GIF, etc.

# Flow Network:- Flow network, also known as a network flow or simply

a flow diagram, is a mathematical and graphical representation used to
model and analyze the flow of resources (such as goods, information, or
even traffic) through a network of interconnected nodes and is controlled.
They are particularly valuable for solving optimization problems related to
the efficient allocation or transfer of resources in a network.

-Basic concepts and components of flow network:-

1. Nodes (vertices): Nodes represent points or locations in a network

where resources can be entered, exited, or processed. In many
cases, nodes are associated with physical locations or units such as
factories, warehouses, or computers.

2. Edges (arcs): Edges are directed connections between nodes that

define possible paths or routes for resource movement. Each edge
 has a volume that represents the maximum amount of current that
it can carry.

3. Flow: Flow refers to the amount of resources (such as goods, data,

or vehicles) that move through a network from one node to another.
Flow is usually represented as a numerical value assigned to each
edge and must obey volume constraints.

4. Source and sink: a flow network has two special nodes called
source and sink (or destination). A source node is where resources
come from, and a sink node is where resources should be delivered.
The goal is to find a viable flow from source to sink by optimizing
certain criteria such as maximizing flow or minimizing cost.

5. Capacity limits: Each edge has capacity limits that limit the
amount of current it can carry. The flow through the edge must not
exceed its capacity. This limit ensures that the network operates
within physical or logistical limits.

6. Conservation of Current: Current networks follow the principle of

conservation of current, which states that the total amount of
current entering a node must equal the total amount of current
leaving that node. This ensures that no resources are created or
destroyed on the network.

7. Max flow and min cut:- The minimum cut represents the smallest
set of edges whose removal would cut off the source of the sink and
is closely related to the maximum flow problem.

*Advantages:-

1. Modeling Complex Systems: Flow networks provide a powerful

abstraction for modeling and analyzing complex systems where
units (nodes) interact through channels (edges). This abstraction
simplifies the representation of various real-world problems such as
transportation networks, communication networks, and supply chain
logistics.

2. Efficient resource allocation: River networks are used to model

efficient resource allocation. Flow algorithms can determine how
resources such as goods, data, or energy should be distributed
across a network to maximize efficiency and minimize cost.

3. Transport and logistics: Flow networks are widely used in

transport and logistics to optimize the movement of goods, people,
or information. They help solve problems such as transporting goods
 from suppliers to customers or routing data packets through
computer networks.
4. Network Design and Capacity Planning: Flow networks help
design efficient network structures and determine optimal
capacities for edges and nodes. This is important in the design of
infrastructures such as telecommunications networks, road systems
and data centers.
5. Financial and economic applications: Flow networks are used in
financial modeling and financial analysis. They help optimize
investments, cash flow management and resource allocation in
financial markets and supply chains.
6. Flow Visualization: Flow networks provide a clear and intuitive
way to visualize the movement of resources through a system. This
visualization can help stakeholders understand and make informed
decisions about system performance and improvements.

*Disadvantages :-

1. Oversimplification: Streamlines are abstractions that simplify

complex systems, which can lead to oversimplification. In some
cases, important details and nuances of the problem may be
overlooked, leading to inaccurate modeling or suboptimal solutions.

2. Steady-state assumptions: Many electrical models assume

steady-state conditions where currents remain constant over time.
In reality, many systems experience dynamic and time-varying
behavior that these models may not adequately capture.

3. Nonlinear behavior: Flow networks often assume linear

relationships between variables, such as linear cost functions or
linear capacity constraints. However, many real-world systems
behave non-linearly, which can make modeling and optimization
difficult.

4. Scalability Issues: Solving large-scale streaming network

problems can be computationally challenging. As the network size
and the number of nodes and edges increases, the computational
complexity of finding optimal flows can become prohibitive.

5. Integer flow problems: In some applications, flow rates must be

integers (e.g. the number of objects being transported in a
network). Solving integer flow problems can be more difficult than
solving continuous flow problems because they require special
algorithms.

6. Network changes and maintenance: Real-world networks can

change over time, such as adding or removing nodes and edges.
 Adapting flow network models to such changes can be difficult and
requires frequent updating.
7. Limited application to off-grid problems: Flow networks are
specifically designed to model problems involving the flow of
resources in a grid-like structure. They may not be suitable for
modeling other types of problems that do not fit within this
framework.

#Various connection topology:-

Topology defines the structure of the network of how all the components
are interconnected to each other. There are two types of topology:
physical and logical topology.

Physical topology is the geometric representation of all the nodes in a

network. There are six types of network topology which are Bus Topology,
Ring Topology, Tree Topology, Star Topology, Mesh Topology, and Hybrid
Topology.

Logical network Topology refers to the transmission of data between

devices present in the network irrespective of the way devices are
connected.

1) Bus Topology:-

o The bus topology is designed in such a way that all the stations are
connected through a single cable known as a backbone cable.
o Each node is either connected to the backbone cable by drop cable
or directly connected to the backbone cable.
o When a node wants to send a message over the network, it puts a
message over the network. All the stations available in the network
will receive the message whether it has been addressed or not.
o The bus topology is mainly used in 802.3 (ethernet) and 802.4
standard networks.
o The configuration of a bus topology is quite simpler as compared to
other topologies.
o The most common access method of the bus topologies
is CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access).

*Advantages of Bus topology:

 o Low-cost cable: In bus topology, nodes are directly connected to
the cable without passing through a hub. Therefore, the initial cost
of installation is low.

o Moderate data speeds: Coaxial or twisted pair cables are mainly

used in bus-based networks that support upto 10 Mbps.

o Familiar technology: Bus topology is a familiar technology as the

installation and troubleshooting techniques are well known, and
hardware components are easily available.

o Limited failure: A failure in one node will not have any effect on
other nodes.

*Disadvantages of Bus topology:

o Extensive cabling: A bus topology is quite simpler, but still it

requires a lot of cabling.

o Difficult troubleshooting: It requires specialized test equipment

to determine the cable faults. If any fault occurs in the cable, then it
would disrupt the communication for all the nodes.

o Signal interference: If two nodes send the messages

simultaneously, then the signals of both the nodes collide with each
other.

o Reconfiguration difficult: Adding new devices to the network

would slow down the network.

o Attenuation: Attenuation is a loss of signal leads to communication

issues. Repeaters are used to regenerate the signal.

2) Ring Topology :-

o Ring topology is like a bus topology, but with connected ends.

o The node that receives the message from the previous computer
will retransmit to the next node.

o The data flows in one direction, i.e., it is unidirectional.

 o The data flows in a single loop continuously known as an endless
loop.

o It has no terminated ends, i.e., each node is connected to other

node and having no termination point.

o The data in a ring topology flow in a clockwise direction.

o The most common access method of the ring topology is token

passing.
o Token passing: It is a network access method in which token
is passed from one node to another node.
o Token: It is a frame that circulates around the network.

*Advantages of Ring topology:

o Network Management: Faulty devices can be removed from the

network without bringing the network down.

o Product availability: Many hardware and software tools for

network operation and monitoring are available.

o Cost: Twisted pair cabling is inexpensive and easily available.

Therefore, the installation cost is very low.

o Reliable: It is a more reliable network because the communication

system is not dependent on the single host computer.

*Disadvantages of Ring topology:

o Difficult troubleshooting: It requires specialized test equipment

to determine the cable faults. If any fault occurs in the cable, then it
would disrupt the communication for all the nodes.

o Failure: The breakdown in one station leads to the failure of the

overall network.

o Reconfiguration difficult: Adding new devices to the network

would slow down the network.

o Delay: Communication delay is directly proportional to the number

of nodes. Adding new devices increases the communication delay.

3) Star Topology:-
 o Star topology is an arrangement of the network in which every node
is connected to the central hub, switch or a central computer.

o The central computer is known as a server, and the peripheral

devices attached to the server are known as clients.

o Coaxial cable or RJ-45 cables are used to connect the computers.

o Hubs or Switches are mainly used as connection devices in

a physical star topology.

o Star topology is the most popular topology in network

implementation.

*Advantages of Star Topology

 If N devices are connected to each other in a star topology, then the

number of cables required to connect them is N. So, it is easy to set
up.

 Each device requires only 1 port i.e. to connect to the hub, therefore
the total number of ports required is N.

 It is Robust. If one link fails only that link will affect and not other
than that.

 Easy to fault identification and fault isolation.

 Star topology is cost-effective as it uses inexpensive coaxial cable.

*Disadvantages of Star Topology

 If the concentrator (hub) on which the whole topology relies fails,

the whole system will crash down.
 The cost of installation is high.
 Performance is based on the single concentrator i.e. hub.
A common example of star topology is a local area network (LAN) in an
office where all computers are connected to a central hub. This topology is
also used in wireless networks where all devices are connected to a
wireless access point.

4) Tree Topology:-

o Tree topology combines the characteristics of bus topology and star

topology.

o A tree topology is a type of structure in which all the computers are

connected with each other in hierarchical fashion.

o The top-most node in tree topology is known as a root node, and all
other nodes are the descendants of the root node.

o There is only one path exists between two nodes for the data
transmission. Thus, it forms a parent-child hierarchy.

*Advantages of Tree Topology

 It allows more devices to be attached to a single central hub thus it

decreases the distance that is traveled by the signal to come to the
devices.

 It allows the network to get isolated and also prioritize from different
computers.

 We can add new devices to the existing network.

 Error detection and error correction are very easy in a tree

topology.

Disadvantages of Tree Topology

 If the central hub gets fails the entire system fails.

 The cost is high because of the cabling.

  If new devices are added, it becomes difficult to reconfigure.

A common example of a tree topology is the hierarchy in a large

organization. At the top of the tree is the CEO, who is connected to the
different departments or divisions (child nodes) of the company. Each
department has its own hierarchy, with managers overseeing different
teams (grandchild nodes). The

team members (leaf nodes) are at the bottom of the hierarchy, connected
to their respective managers and departments.

5) Mesh Topology:-

o Mesh technology is an arrangement of the network in which

computers are interconnected with each other through various
redundant connections.

o There are multiple paths from one computer to another computer.

o It does not contain the switch, hub or any central computer which
acts as a central point of communication.

o The Internet is an example of the mesh topology.

o Mesh topology is mainly used for WAN implementations where

communication failures are a critical concern.

o Mesh topology is mainly used for wireless networks.

o Mesh topology can be formed by using the formula:

Number of cables = (n*(n-1))/2; Where n is the number of nodes
that represents the network.

-Mesh topology is divided into two categories:

o Fully connected mesh topology

o Partially connected mesh topology

 o Full Mesh Topology: In a full mesh topology, each computer is
connected to all the computers available in the network.

o Partial Mesh Topology: In a partial mesh topology, not all but

certain computers are connected to those computers with which
they communicate frequently.

*Advantages of Mesh Topology

 Communication is very fast between the nodes.

 Mesh Topology is robust.

 The fault is diagnosed easily. Data is reliable because data is

transferred among the devices through dedicated channels or links.

 Provides security and privacy.

*Disadvantages of Mesh Topology

 Installation and configuration are difficult.

 The cost of cables is high as bulk wiring is required, hence suitable

for less number of devices.

 The cost of maintenance is high.

A common example of mesh topology is the internet backbone, where

various internet service providers are connected to each other via
dedicated channels. This topology is also used in military communication
systems and aircraft navigation systems.

6) Hybrid Topology:-
 o The combination of various different topologies is known as Hybrid
topology.

o A Hybrid topology is a connection between different links and nodes

to transfer the data.

o When two or more different topologies are combined together is

termed as Hybrid topology and if similar topologies are connected
with each other will not result in Hybrid topology. For example, if
there exist a ring topology in one branch of ICICI bank and bus
topology in another branch of ICICI bank, connecting these two
topologies will result in Hybrid topology.

*Advantages of Hybrid Topology

o Reliable: If a fault occurs in any part of the network will not affect
the functioning of the rest of the network.

o Scalable: Size of the network can be easily expanded by adding

new devices without affecting the functionality of the existing
network.

o Flexible: This topology is very flexible as it can be designed

according to the requirements of the organization.

o Effective: Hybrid topology is very effective as it can be designed in

such a way that the strength of the network is maximized and
weakness of the network is minimized.

*Disadvantages of Hybrid topology

o Complex design: The major drawback of the Hybrid topology is the

design of the Hybrid network. It is very difficult to design the
architecture of the Hybrid network.
 o Costly Hub: The Hubs used in the Hybrid topology are very
expensive as these hubs are different from usual Hubs used in other
topologies.

o Costly infrastructure: The infrastructure cost is very high as a

hybrid network requires a lot of cabling, network devices, etc.

*Why is Network Topology Important?

Network Topology is important because it defines how devices are

connected and how they communicate in the network. Here are some
points that defines why network topology is important.

 Network Performance: Upon choosing the appropriate topology

as per requirement, it helps in running the network easily and hence
increases network performance.

 Network Reliability: Some topologies like Star, Mesh are reliable

as if one connection fails, they provide an alternative for that
connection, hence it works as a backup.

 Network Expansion : Chosing correct topology helps in easier

expansion of Network as it helps in adding more devices to the
network without disrupting the actual network.

 Network Security: Network Topology helps in understanding how

devices are connected and hence provides a better security to the
network.

# OSI Model and its layers :-

The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Model is a set of rules that

explains how different computer systems communicate over a network.
OSI Model was developed by the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO) . OSI Model provides a clear structure for data
transmission and managing network issues. The OSI Model is widely used
as a reference to understand how network systems function.

*Layers of the OSI Model

There are 7 layers in the OSI Model and each layer has its specific role in
handling data

 Physical Layer
 Data Link Layer
 Network Layer
 Transport Layer
  Session Layer
 Presentation Layer
 Application Layer

*Layer 1 – Physical Layer

The lowest layer of the OSI

reference model is
the Physical Layer. It is
responsible for the actual
physical connection between the devices. The physical layer
contains information in the form of bits. Physical Layer is
responsible for transmitting individual bits from one node to the
next. When receiving data, this layer will get the signal received and
convert it into 0s and 1s and send them to the Data Link layer,
which will put the frame back together.

Functions of the Physical Layer

 Bit Synchronization: The physical layer provides the

synchronization of the bits by providing a clock. This clock controls
both sender and receiver thus providing synchronization at the bit
level.

 Bit Rate Control: The Physical layer also defines the transmission
rate i.e. the number of bits sent per second.

 Physical Topologies: Physical layer specifies how the different,

devices/nodes are arranged in a network i.e. bus topology, star
topology, or mesh topology.

 Transmission Mode: Physical layer also defines how the data

flows between the two connected devices. The various transmission
modes possible are Simplex, half-duplex and full duplex.

*Layer 2 – Data Link Layer (DLL)

The data link layer is responsible for the node-to-node delivery of the
message. The main function of this layer is to make sure data transfer is
error-free from one node to another, over the physical layer. When a
packet arrives in a network, it is the responsibility of the DLL to transmit it
to the Host using its MAC address. Packet in the Data Link layer is referred
to as Frame. Switches and Bridges are common Data Link Layer devices.

The Data Link Layer is divided into two sublayers:

 Logical Link Control (LLC)

 Media Access Control (MAC)

Functions of the Data Link Layer

 Framing: Framing is a function of the data link layer. It provides a

way for a sender to transmit a set of bits that are meaningful to the
receiver. This can be accomplished by attaching special bit patterns
to the beginning and end of the frame.

 Physical Addressing: After creating frames, the Data link layer

adds physical addresses (MAC addresses) of the sender and/or
receiver in the header of each frame.

 Error Control: The data link layer provides the mechanism of error
control in which it detects and retransmits damaged or lost frames.

 Flow Control: The data rate must be constant on both sides else
the data may get corrupted thus, flow control coordinates the
amount of data that can be sent before receiving an
acknowledgment.

 Access Control: When a single communication channel is shared

by multiple devices, the MAC sub-layer of the data link layer helps
to determine which device has control over the channel at a given
time.
*Layer 3 – Network Layer
The network layer works for the transmission of data from one host to
the other located in different networks. It also takes care of packet
routing i.e. selection of the shortest path to transmit the packet, from the
number of routes available. The sender and receiver’s IP address are
placed in the header by the network layer. Segment in the Network layer
is referred to as Packet. Network layer is implemented by networking
devices such as routers and switches.
Functions of the Network Layer

 Routing: The network layer protocols determine which route is

suitable from source to destination. This function of the network
layer is known as routing.

 Logical Addressing: To identify each device inter-network

uniquely, the network layer defines an addressing scheme. The
sender and receiver’s IP addresses are placed in the header by the
network layer. Such an address distinguishes each device uniquely
and universally.

*Layer 4 – Transport Layer

The transport layer provides services to the application layer and

takes services from the network layer. The data in the transport layer
is referred to as Segments. It is responsible for the end-to-end
delivery of the complete message. The transport layer also provides
the acknowledgment of the successful data transmission and re-
transmits the data if an error is found. Protocols used in Transport
Layer are TCP, UDP NetBIOS, PPTP.

-At the sender’s side, the transport layer receives the formatted
data from the upper layers, performs Segmentation, and also
implements Flow and error control to ensure proper data
transmission. It also adds Source and Destination port number in its
header and forwards the segmented data to the Network Layer.

 Generally, this destination port number is configured, either by

default or manually. For example, when a web application requests
a web server, it typically uses port number 80, because this is the
default port assigned to web applications. Many applications have
default ports assigned.

At the Receiver’s side, Transport Layer reads the port number from
its header and forwards the Data which it has received to the
respective application. It also performs sequencing and reassembling of
the segmented data.

Functions of the Transport Layer

 Segmentation and Reassembly: This layer accepts the message

from the (session) layer and breaks the message into smaller units.
Each of the segments produced has a header associated with it.
The transport layer at the destination station reassembles the
message.
  Service Point Addressing: To deliver the message to the correct
process, the transport layer header includes a type of address
called service point address or port address. Thus, by specifying
this address, the transport layer makes sure that the message is
delivered to the correct process.

*Layer 5 – Session Layer

Session Layer in the OSI Model is responsible for the establishment of

connections, management of connections, terminations of sessions
between two devices. It also provides authentication and security.
Protocols used in the Session Layer are NetBIOS, PPTP.

Functions of the Session Layer

 Session Establishment, Maintenance, and Termination: The

layer allows the two processes to establish, use, and terminate a
connection.

 Synchronization: This layer allows a process to add checkpoints

that are considered synchronization points in the data. These
synchronization points help to identify the error so that the data is
re-synchronized properly, and ends of the messages are not cut
prematurely, and data loss is avoided.

 Dialog Controller: The session layer allows two systems to start

communication with each other in half-duplex or full duplex.

*Layer 6 – Presentation Layer:-

The presentation layer is also called the Translation layer. The data
from the application layer is extracted here and manipulated as per the
required format to transmit over the network. Protocols used in the
Presentation Layer are JPEG, MPEG, GIF, TLS/SSL, etc.

Functions of the Presentation Layer

 Translation: For example, ASCII to EBCDIC.

 Encryption/ Decryption: Data encryption translates the data into

another form or code. The encrypted data is known as the
ciphertext, and the decrypted data is known as plain text. A key
value is used for encrypting as well as decrypting data.

 Compression: Reduces the number of bits that need to be

transmitted on the network.
*Layer 7 – Application Layer:-

At the very top of the OSI Reference Model stack of layers, we find the
Application layer which is implemented by the network applications.
These applications produce the data to be transferred over the network.
This layer also serves as a window for the application services to access
the network and for displaying the received information to the user.
Protocols used in the Application layer are SMTP, FTP, DNS, etc.

Functions of the Application Layer

The main functions of the application layer are given below.

 Network Virtual Terminal (NVT): It allows a user to log on to

a remote host.

 File Transfer Access and Management (FTAM): This

application allows a user to access files in a remote host,
retrieve files in a remote host, and manage or control files
from a remote computer.

 Mail Services: Provide email service.

 Directory Services: This application provides distributed

database sources and access for global information about
various objects and services.

*Protocols Used in the OSI Layers

Protocol
Layer Working Data Unit Protocols

Establishing
1 –
Physical
Physical Bits USB, SONET/SDH, etc.
Connections
Layer
between Devices.

2 – Data Node to Node

Link Delivery of Frames Ethernet, PPP, etc.
Layer Message.

3 – Transmission of Packets IP, ICMP, IGMP, OSPF,

Network data from one host etc.
 Protocol
Layer Working Data Unit Protocols

to another, located
Layer in different
networks.

Segments
Take Service from
4 – (for TCP)
Network Layer and
Transpor or TCP, UDP, SCTP, etc.
provide it to the
t Layer Datagrams
Application Layer.
(for UDP)

Establishes
Connection,
5 –
Maintenance, NetBIOS, RPC, PPTP,
Session Data
Ensures etc.
Layer
Authentication and
Ensures security.

Data from the

6 – application layer is
Presenta extracted and TLS/SSL, MIME, JPEG,
Data
tion manipulated in the PNG, ASCII, etc.
Layer required format for
transmission.

Helps in identifying
7 –
the client and FTP, SMTP, DNS, DHC
Applicati Data
synchronizing P, etc.
on Layer
communication.

*Advantages of OSI Model

The OSI Model defines the communication of a computing system into 7

different layers. Its advantages include:

 It divides network communication into 7 layers which makes it

easier to understand and troubleshoot.

 It standardizes network communications, as each layer has fixed

functions and protocols.

 Diagnosing network problems is easier with the OSI model.

  It is easier to improve with advancements as each layer can get
updates separately.

* Disadvantages of OSI Model

 The OSI Model has seven layers, which can be complicated and
hard to understand for beginners.
 In real-life networking, most systems use a simpler model called
the Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP), so the OSI Model is not always
directly applicable.
 Each layer in the OSI Model adds its own set of rules and
operations, which can make the process more time-consuming and
less efficient.

 The OSI Model is more of a theoretical framework, meaning it’s

great for understanding concepts but not always practical for
implementation.

#Type of data communication

As we know that data communication is communication in which we can
send or receive data from one device to another. The data
communication is divided into three types:

1. Simplex Communication: It is one-way communication or we can

say that unidirectional communication in which one device only
receives and another device only sends data and devices uses their
entire capacity in transmission. For example, IoT, entering data
using a keyboard, listening music using a speaker, etc.

2. Half Duplex communication: It is a two-way communication, or

we can say that it is a bidirectional communication in which both
the devices can send and receive data but not at the same time.
When one device is sending data then another device is only
receiving and vice-versa. For example, walkie-talkie.
3. Full-duplex communication: It is a two-way communication or
we can say that it is a bidirectional communication in which both
the devices can send and receive data at the same time. For
example, mobile phones, landlines, etc.

# Protocols and Standards:-

Protocols and standards are important in computer networks. They are

like the rules and guidelines that allow different devices and systems to
communicate and work together smoothly. Protocols define how data is
sent, received, and processed, while standards ensure that various
technologies are compatible with each other. This coordination is critical
for the Internet and other networks to function constantly and efficiently.
Network protocol ensures that different technologies and components of
the network are compatible with one another, reliable, and able to
function together .

--Protocol:-

A protocol is a set of rules that determines how data is sent and received
over a network. The protocol is just like a language that computers use
to talk to each other, ensuring they understand and can respond to each
other’s messages correctly.
Protocols help make sure that data
moves smoothly and securely
between devices on a network.

To make communication successful

between devices, some rules and
procedures should be agreed upon at the sending and receiving ends of
the system. Such rules and procedures are called Protocols

*Types of Protocol

 Network Layer Protocols : Network layer protocols operate in

the network layer which is also known as the Layer 3 of the
network architecture. Network layer protocols are responsible for
packet routing, forwarding, and addressing of data packets
throughout the network. IP and ICMP are the network layer
protocols
 Transport Layer Protocols: Transport layer protocols work in the
transport layer which provides end-to-end service ensuring data
transfer across apps on different devices. TCP and UDP are the
most popular transport layer protocols.
 Application Layer Protocol: Application layer protocol working in
the application layer of the network architecture provides
communication between applications running on different devices.
The application layer protocols enable cross-device
communication. They format, exchange, and interpret application
data. HTTP, FTP, and SMTP are examples.
 Wireless Protocols: Wireless protocols basically used in wireless
communication which enables data transfer through wireless
networks. Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, and LTE protocols are examples.
 Routing Protocols: Routing protocol establishes the best/optimal
network pathways throughout the network for fastest data
transmission. Routers share information to develop and maintain
routing tables. RIP, OSPF, and BGP are examples.
 Security Protocols : security protocol protects data
confidentiality, integrity, and authenticity while transmission of
 data over the network. They include SSL and TLS, encryption
methods, and authentication protocols for providing data security.
 Internet Protocols : IP identifies devices uniquely. Internet
protocol provides data communication through routing and
forwarding data packets from one device to another by unique
addressing scheme.

* Here are some key protocols that are widely used in computer
networks:

 TCP (Transmission Control Protocol): Ensures data is sent and

received accurately by breaking it into packets, sending them, and
reassembling them at the destination.

 IP (Internet Protocol): Addresses and routes the packets to make

sure they reach the right destination.

 HTTP/HTTPS (HyperText Transfer Protocol/Secure): HTTP

used for transferring web pages on the internet. When you browse
a website, your browser uses HTTP to request and display web
pages. And HTTPs is a secure version of HTTP that encrypts data to
protect it from being intercepted.

 FTP (File Transfer Protocol): Used for transferring files between

computers on a network. It allows users to upload and download
files.SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol): Used for sending
emails. It transfers emails from a client to a server or between
servers.
 DNS (Domain Name System): It is used to translates human-
readable domain names (like www.example.com) into IP addresses
that computers use to identify each other on the network.
 DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol): Automatically
assigns IP addresses to devices on a network, ensuring each device
has a unique address.

 SSH (Secure Shell): Provides a secure way to access and manage

devices over a network. It encrypts the data, making it safe from
eavesdropping.

 SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol): Used for

managing and monitoring network devices like routers, switches,
and servers. It collects and organizes information about these
devices

*Standards:-

Standards are the set of rules for data communication that are needed
for the exchange of information among devices. It is important to follow
Standards which are created by various Standard Organizations like
IEEE, ISO, ANSI, etc.

Types of Standards

 De Facto Standard: The meaning of the word ” De Facto ” is ”

By Fact ” or “By Convention”. These are the standards that have
not been approved by any Organization but have been adopted as
Standards because of their widespread use. Also, sometimes these
standards are often established by Manufacturers.

 De Jure Standard: The meaning of the word “De Jure” is “By

Law” or “By Regulations”.Thus, these are the standards that have
been approved by officially recognized bodies like ANSI, ISO, IEEE,
etc. These are the standards that are important to follow if it is
required or needed.

# Internet Protocol (IP):-

Internet Protocol (IP) is a set of rules that allows devices to

communicate with each other over the Internet. It is like the address
system used for sending data. Every device connected to the internet
has a unique IP address that helps data know where to go and where it
is coming from .

--IP Addressing:-

An IP address represents an Internet Protocol address. A unique address

that identifies the device over the network. It is almost like a set of rules
governing the structure of data sent over the Internet or through a local
network. An IP address helps the Internet to distinguish between
different routers, computers, and websites. It serves as a specific
machine identifier in a specific network and helps to improve visual
communication between source and destination.

*Working of Internet Protocol

Step by step working of internet protocol:

 Dividing Data into Packets: When you send information over the
internet, IP split it into small parts called packets. Each packet
contains a piece of the data and the address of where it needs to
go.

 Addressing: Every device connected to the internet has its own IP

address. This address helps identify where the data is being sent
from and where it should be delivered.
  Routing the Packets: As the packets travel across the internet,
they pass through several devices called routers. These routers
help direct the packets toward the correct destination, like how
mail is sorted at different post offices.

 Reassemble the Data: Once all the packets arrive at the

destination, they are put back together to recreate the original
message or file.

 Handling Missing Packets: If some packets don’t arrive, the

system can request that they be sent again, making sure the
complete data is received.

This process helps data move efficiently across the internet, no matter
how far it needs to travel or how many networks it passes through.

*Types of Internet Protocol

Internet Protocols are of different types having different uses. These are
mentioned below:

1. TCP/IP(Transmission Control Protocol/ Internet Protocol)

2. SMTP(Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)

3. PPP(Point-to-Point Protocol)

4. FTP (File Transfer Protocol)

5. SFTP(Secure File Transfer Protocol)

6. HTTP(Hyper Text Transfer Protocol)

7. HTTPS(HyperText Transfer Protocol Secure)

8. TELNET(Terminal Network)

9. IPv4

10. IPv6

*TCP/IP(Transmission Control Protocol/ Internet Protocol):-

In TCP/IP, the IP protocol ensures that

each computer that is connected to
the Internet is having a specific serial
number called the IP address. TCP
specifies how data is exchanged over the internet and how it should be
broken into IP packets. It also makes sure that the packets have
information about the source of the message data, the destination of the
message data, the sequence in which the message data should be re-
assembled, and checks if the message has been sent correctly to the
specific destination. The TCP is also known as a connection-oriented
protocol.

*SMTP(Simple Mail Transfer Protocol):-

SMTP protocol is important for sending

and distributing outgoing emails. This
protocol uses the header of the mail to
get the email id of the receiver and
enters the mail into the queue of
outgoing mail. And as soon as it delivers the mail to the receiving email
id, it removes the email from the outgoing list. The message or the
electronic mail may consider the text, video, image, etc. It helps in
setting up some communication server rules.

*PPP(Point-to-Point Protocol):-

PPP is a communication protocol that is used to create a direct

connection between two communicating devices. This protocol defines
the rules using which two devices will authenticate with each other and
exchange information with each other. For example, A user connects his
PC to the server of an Internet Service Provider and also uses PPP.
Similarly, for connecting two routers for direct communication it uses
PPP.

*FTP (File Transfer Protocol):-

This protocol is used for transferring files

from one system to the other. This works
on a client-server model. When a
machine requests for file transfer from
another machine, the FTO sets up a
connection between the two and authenticates each other using their ID
and Password. And, the desired file transfer takes place between the
machines.

*SFTP(Secure File Transfer Protocol) :-

SFTP which is also known as SSH FTP refers to File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
over Secure Shell (SSH) as it encrypts both commands and data while in
transmission. SFTP acts as an extension to SSH and encrypts files and
data then sends them over a secure shell data stream. This protocol is
used to remotely connect to other systems while executing commands
from the command line.

* HTTP(Hyper Text Transfer Protocol):-

HTTP protocol is used to transfer hypertexts

over the internet and it is defined by the
www(world wide web) for information transfer.
This protocol defines how the information
needs to be formatted and transmitted. And, it also defines the various
actions the web browsers should take in response to the calls made to
access a particular web page. Whenever a user opens their web browser,
the user will indirectly use HTTP as this is the protocol that is being used
to share text, images, and other multimedia files on the World Wide
Web.

* HTTPS(HyperText Transfer Protocol Secure):-

HTTPS is an extension of the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP). It is

used for secure communication over a computer network with
the SSL/TLS protocol for encryption and authentication. So, generally, a
website has an HTTP protocol but if the website is such that it receives
some sensitive information such as credit card details, debit card details,
OTP, etc then it requires an SSL certificate installed to make the website
more secure. So, before entering any sensitive information on a website,
we should check if the link is HTTPS or not. If it is not HTTPS then it may
not be secure enough to enter sensitive information.

*TELNET(Terminal Network):-

TELNET is a standard TCP/IP protocol used for virtual terminal service

given by ISO. This enables one local machine to connect with another.
The computer which is being connected is called a remote computer and
which is connecting is called the local computer. TELNET operation lets
us display anything being performed on the remote computer in the local
computer. This operates on the client/server principle. The local
computer uses the telnet client program whereas the remote computer
uses the telnet server program.

*IPv4:-

The fourth and initially widely used version of the Internet Protocol is
called IPv4 (Internet Protocol version 4). It is the most popular version of
the Internet Protocol and is in charge of distributing data packets
throughout the network. Maximum unique addresses for IPv4 are
4,294,967,296 (232), which are possible due to the use of 32-bit
addresses. The network address and the host address are the two
components of each address. The host address identifies a particular
device within the network, whereas the network address identifies the
network to which the host belongs. In the “dotted decimal” notation,
which is the standard for IPv4 addresses, each octet (8 bits) of the
address is represented by its decimal value and separated by a dot (e.g.
192.168.1.1).

*IPv6:-

The most recent version of the Internet Protocol, IPv6, was created to
address the IPv4 protocol’s drawbacks. A maximum of 4.3 billion unique
addresses are possible with IPv4’s 32-bit addresses. Contrarily, IPv6 uses
128-bit addresses, which enable a significantly greater number of unique
addresses. This is significant because IPv4 addresses were running out
and there are an increasing number of devices that require internet
access. Additionally, IPv6 offers enhanced security features like
integrated authentication and encryption as well as better support for
mobile devices. IPv6 support has spread among websites and internet
service providers, and it is anticipated to gradually displace IPv4 as the
main internet protocol.

**IP range classes are ranges of IP addresses that are identified

by the first octet of the address.

The 32-bit IP address is divided into five sub-classes. These are given
below:

 Class A (0-127 , for large companies)

 Class B (128-191 , for medium sized companies)

 Class C (192-233 , for small networks)

 Class D (224-239 , reserved for multicasting)

 Class E (240-255 )
# Transmission Media:-

 A transmission medium is a physical path between the transmitter

and the receiver i.e. it is the channel through which data is sent
from one device to another.
 The main functionality of the transmission media is to carry the
information in the form of bits through LAN(Local Area Network).
 It is a physical path between transmitter and receiver in data
communication.
 In a copper-based network, the bits in the form of electrical signals.
 In a fibre based network, the bits in the form of light pulses.
 In OSI(Open System Interconnection) phase, transmission media
supports the Layer 1. Therefore, it is considered to be as a Layer 1
component.
 The characteristics and quality of data transmission are determined
by the characteristics of medium and signal.

**Some factors need to be considered for designing the

transmission media:

o Bandwidth: All the factors are remaining constant, the greater the
bandwidth of a medium, the higher the data transmission rate of a
signal.
o Transmission impairment: When the received signal is not
identical to the transmitted one due to the transmission
impairment. The quality of the signals will get destroyed due to
transmission impairment.
o Interference: An interference is defined as the process of
disrupting a signal when it travels over a communication medium
on the addition of some unwanted signal.

**Transmission Media is broadly classified into the following

types:
 1. Guided Media:-
Guided Media is also referred to as Wired or Bounded
transmission media. Signals being transmitted are
directed and confined in a narrow pathway by using
physical links.
Features:
 High Speed
 Secure
 Used for comparatively shorter distances

There are 3 major types of Guided Media:

--Twisted Pair Cable

It consists of 2 separately insulated conductor wires wound about

each other. Generally, several such pairs are bundled together in a
protective sheath. They are the most widely used Transmission
Media. Twisted Pair is of two types:

o Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP):-

:UTP consists of two insulated copper wires twisted around one

another. This type of cable has the ability to block
interference and does not depend on a physical
shield for this purpose. It is used for telephonic
applications.

Advantages of Unshielded Twisted Pair

 Least expensive
  Easy to install

 High-speed capacity

Disadvantages of Unshielded Twisted Pair

 Lower capacity and performance in comparison to STP

 Short distance transmission due to attenuation

o Shielded Twisted Pair (STP):

Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) cable consists of a special jacket (a

copper braid covering or a foil shield) to block external
interference. It is used in fast-data-rate Ethernet and in voice and
data channels of telephone lines.

Advantages of Shielded Twisted Pair

 Better performance at a higher data rate in comparison to UTP

 Eliminates crosstalk

 Comparatively faster

Disadvantages of Shielded Twisted Pair

 Comparatively difficult to install and manufacture

 More expensive

 Bulky

---Coaxial Cable:-

Coaxial cable has an outer plastic

covering containing an insulation
layer made of PVC or Teflon and 2
parallel conductors each having a separate insulated protection cover.
The coaxial cable transmits information in two modes: Baseband
mode(dedicated cable bandwidth) and Broadband mode(cable bandwidth
is split into separate ranges). Cable TVs and analog television networks
widely use Coaxial cables.

Advantages of Coaxial Cable

 Coaxial cables has high bandwidth .

 It is easy to install.

 Coaxial cables are more reliable and durable.

 Less affected by noise or cross-talk or electromagnetic inference.

 Coaxial cables support multiple channels

Disadvantages of Coaxial Cable

 Coaxial cables are expensive.

 The coaxial cable must be grounded in order to prevent any

crosstalk.

 As a Coaxial cable has multiple layers it is very bulky.

 There is a chance of breaking the coaxial cable and attaching a “t-

joint” by hackers, this compromises the security of the data.

--Optical Fiber Cable:-

Optical Fibre Cable uses the concept total

internal reflection of light through a core made
up of glass. The core is surrounded by a less
dense glass or plastic covering called the
coating. It is used for the transmission of large volumes of data. The
cable can be unidirectional or bidirectional. The WDM (Wavelength
Division Multiplexer) supports two modes, namely unidirectional and
bidirectional mode.

Advantages of Optical Fibre Cable

 Increased capacity and bandwidth

 Lightweight
  Less signal attenuation

 Immunity to electromagnetic interference

 Resistance to corrosive materials

Disadvantages of Optical Fibre Cable

 Difficult to install and maintain

 High cost

Applications of Optical Fibre Cable

 Medical Purpose: Used in several types of medical instruments.

 Defence Purpose: Used in transmission of data in aerospace.

 For Communication: This is largely used in formation of internet

cables.

 Industrial Purpose: Used for lighting purposes and safety

measures in designing the interior and exterior of automobiles.

--Stripline
Stripline is a transverse electromagnetic (TEM) transmission line medium
invented by Robert M. Barrett of the Air Force Cambridge Research
Centre in the 1950s. Stripline is the earliest form of the planar
transmission line. It uses a conducting material to transmit high-
frequency waves it is also called a waveguide. This conducting material
is sandwiched between two layers of the ground plane which are usually
shorted to provide EMI immunity.

--Stripline

Stripline is a transverse electromagnetic (TEM) transmission line medium

invented by Robert M. Barrett of the Air Force Cambridge Research
Centre in the 1950s. Stripline is the earliest form of the planar
transmission line. It uses a conducting material to transmit high-
frequency waves it is also called a waveguide. This conducting material
is sandwiched between two layers of the ground plane which are usually
shorted to provide EMI immunity.

2. Unguided Media:- It is also referred to as Wireless or Unbounded

transmission media . No physical medium is required for the transmission
of electromagnetic signals.

Features of Unguided Media

  The signal is broadcasted through air

 Less Secure

 Used for larger distances

There are 3 types of Signals transmitted through unguided

media:

*Radio Waves:-

Radio waves are easy to generate and can

penetrate through buildings. The sending and
receiving antennas need not be aligned. Frequency
Range:3KHz – 1GHz. AM and FM radios and cordless phones use Radio
waves for transmission.

*Microwaves:-

It is a line of sight transmission i.e. the sending

and receiving antennas need to be properly
aligned with each other. The distance covered
by the signal is directly proportional to the
height of the antenna. Frequency Range:1GHz
– 300GHz. Micro waves are majorly used for mobile phone
communication and television distribution.

*Infrared:-

Infrared waves are used for very short distance

communication. They cannot penetrate through obstacles.
This prevents interference between systems. Frequency
Range:300GHz – 400THz. It is used in TV remotes, wireless
mouse, keyboard, printer, etc.

**Difference Between Radio Waves, Micro Waves, and Infrared

Waves
 Infrared
Basis Radiowave Microwave wave

These are omni- These are These are

directional in unidirectional in unidirectional
Direction nature. nature. in nature.

At low frequency, At low frequency,

they can penetrate they can They cannot
through solid penetrate through penetrate
objects and walls solid objects and through any
but high frequency walls. at high solid object
Penetratio they bounce off frequency, they and walls.
n the obstacle. cannot penetrate.

Frequency
Frequency range: Frequency range: range: 300
Frequency 3 KHz to 1GHz. 1 GHz to 300 GHz. GHz to 400
range GHz.

These offers poor These offers These offers

Security security. medium security. high security.

Attenuatio Attenuation is Attenuation is Attenuation is

n high. variable. low.

Some frequencies Some frequencies

There is no
in the radio-waves in the microwaves
need of
require require
government
government government
license to use
Governme license to use license to use
these waves.
nt License these. these.

Usage Setup and usage Setup and usage Usage Cost is

Cost Cost is moderate. Cost is high. very less.

These are not

These are used in These are used in used in long
long distance long distance distance
Communic communication. communication. communicatio
ation n.

**Causes of Transmission Impairment:- Transmission impairment

refers to the loss or distortion of signals during data transmission,
leading to errors or reduced quality in communication. Common causes
include signal distortion, attenuation, and noise all of which can affect
the clarity and reliability of transmitted data.

 Attenuation: It means loss of energy. The strength of signal

decreases with increasing distance which causes loss of energy in
overcoming resistance of medium. This is also known as
attenuated signal. Amplifiers are used to amplify the attenuated
signal which gives the original signal back and compensate for this
loss.

 Distortion: It means changes in the form or shape of the signal.

This is generally seen in composite signals made up with different
frequencies. Each frequency component has its own propagation
speed travelling through a medium. And thats why it delay in
arriving at the final destination Every component arrive at different
time which leads to distortion. Therefore, they have different
phases at receiver end from what they had at senders end.

 Noise: The random or unwanted signal that mixes up with the

original signal is called noise. There are several types of noise such
as induced noise, crosstalk noise, thermal noise and impulse noise
which may corrupt the signal.

**Applications of Transmission Media in Computer Networks:-

Transmission Media Application

Unshielded Twisted
Local Area Networks (LAN), telephones
Pair (UTP)

Shielded Twisted Industrial networks, environments with

Pair (STP) high interference

Long-distance communication, internet

Optical Fiber Cable
backbones

Coaxial Cable Cable TV, broadband internet, CCTV

Printed Circuit Boards (PCBs), microwave

Stripline
circuits
Transmission Media Application

Antennas, satellite communication, RF

Microstripline
circuits

Wireless communication, AM/FM radio,

Radio
mobile phones

Remote controls, short-range

Infrared
communication

Satellite communication, radar, long-

Microwave
distance links

# Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) :- A MAN is larger than a LAN but

smaller than a WAN. This is the type of computer network that connects
computers over a geographical distance through a shared communication
path over a city, town, or metropolitan area. This network mainly uses
FDDI, CDDI, and ATM as the technology with a range from 5km to 50km.
Its transmission speed is average. It is difficult to maintain and it comes
with a high cost. Examples of MAN are networking in towns, cities, a single
large city, a large area within multiple buildings, etc.

Advantages of MAN

 MAN offers high-speed connectivity in which the speed ranges from

10-100 Mbps.

 The security level in MAN is high and strict as compared to WAN.

 It support to transmit data in both directions concurrently because

of dual bus architecture.

 MAN can serve multiple users at a time with the same high-speed
internet to all the users.

 MAN allows for centralized management and control of the network,

making it easier to monitor and manage network resources and
security.

Disadvantages of MAN
  The architecture of MAN is quite complicated hence, it is hard to
design and maintain.

 This network is highly expensive because it required the high cost to

set up fiber optics.

 It provides less fault tolerance.

 The Data transfer rate in MAN is low when compare to LANs.

# Wide Area Network (WAN):-

WAN is a type of computer network that

connects computers over a large
geographical distance through a shared
communication path. It is not restrained to
a single location but extends over many
locations. WAN can also be defined as a
group of local area networks that
communicate with each other with a range above 50km. Here we use
Leased-Line & Dial-up technology. Its transmission speed is very low and it
comes with very high maintenance and very high cost. The most common
example of WAN is the Internet.

Advantages of WAN

 It covers large geographical area which enhances the reach of

organisation to transmit data quickly and cheaply.

 The data can be stored in centralised manner because of remote

access to data provided by WAN.

 The travel charges that are needed to cover the geographical area
of work can be minimised.

 WAN enables a user or organisation to connect with the world very

easily and allows to exchange data and do business at global level.

Disadvantages of WAN

 Traffic congestion in Wide Area Network is very high.

 The fault tolerance ability of WAN is very less.

 Noise and error are present in large amount due to multiple

connection point.
  The data transfer rate is slow in comparison to LAN because of large
distances and high number of connected system within the network.

# WWAN:-

WWAN (Wireless Wide Area Network) is a WAN

(Wide Area Network) and the only thing is that the
connectivity is wireless. It provides regional,
nationwide and global wireless coverage. Where
Wide Area Network can be wired or wireless the
Wireless Wide Area Network connections are
completely wireless.

WLAN (Wireless Local Area Network) differs from WWAN (Wireless Wide
Area Network) technology wise for example when WLAN uses WiFi to
connect and transfer data, WWAN uses telecommunication cellular
network technologies such as 2G, 3G, 4G LTE, and 5G to transfer data.

WWAN not only always refers to a wide area rather a closed area with
large geographic coverage is also considered as WWAN.

Characteristics of WWAN :

1. Reduced transmission speed as compared to physical connection.

2. It is based on IEEE 802.16 standards.

3. On increase of distance, decrease of throughput occurs and vice

versa.

4. Getting faster due to Gigabit-Class LTE.

Advantages of WWAN :

 Global wireless coverage

 Flexible with cloud management, deploying and relocating

 Better security than WLAN

 Diverse, cost effective backup for data applications.

 Quick deployment for new applications.

Disadvantages of WWAN :

 Replacement of lost WWAN may be costly.

 To maintain the reliable network connectivity.

 To build a cost effective solution is a challenge.

  Decreased throughput during large coverage area.

# LAN:- A Local area network (LAN) is a network that is used to link

devices in a single office, building, or campus of up to a short distance.
LAN is restricted in size. In LAN networks internet speed is from 10 Mbps
to 100 Mbps (But now much higher speeds can be achieved). The most
common topologies used in LAN networks are bus, ring, and star.

LANs are convenient because they allow devices

to communicate quickly and efficiently, without
needing to go through the internet.

It is a computer network that covers a small

area such as a building or campus up to a few
kilometers in size. LANs are commonly used to connect personal
computers and workstations in company offices to share common
resources, like printers, and exchange information.

**Types of LAN

There are different architectures in LAN as discussed below-

 Client/Server LANs: Multiple devices (the clients) are connected to a

main server in a client/server LAN. The server controls network
traffic, device access, application access, and file storage. Any
connected device that runs apps or accesses the Internet qualifies
as a client. Clients can use wired or wireless connections to connect
to the server.

 Peer-to-Peer LANs: Peer-to-peer LANs are commonly smaller because

they shortage a central server and can’t support huge workloads
like client/server LANs can. Every device on a peer-to-peer LAN
collaborates equally to the network’s operation. Through wired or
wireless connections to a switch or router, the devices share data
and resources. Peer-to-peer networks are the norm in homes.

 Ethernet: It is most widely used architecture. ethernet specifies the

network speed, cable type and network interface adapters. This
type of architecture used in both wired or wireless networks.

 Token ring: Token ring is a type of local area network (LAN) setup
that was once widely used but is now less common. It manages
network access through the use of tokens and has an operating
speed of 100 megabits per second.
 Cloud-managed: A cloud-managed LAN depend on a centralized
cloud service to handle tasks such as access control, policy
enforcement, network setup, and various security and performance
issues. This approach simplifies management in diverse network
environments, making it ideal for businesses.

**What are the Benefits of a LAN?

 Privacy: LAN is a private network, thus no outside regulatory body

controls it, giving it a privacy.

 High Speed: LAN offers a much higher speed(around 100 mbps)

and data transfer rate comparatively to WAN.

 Supports different transmission mediums: LAN support a

variety of communications transmission medium such as an
Ethernet cable (thin cable, thick cable, and twisted pair), fiber and
wireless transmission.

 Inexpensive and Simple: A LAN usually has low cost, installation,

expansion and maintenance and LAN installation is relatively easy
to use, good scalability.

**What are the Drawback of LAN?

 The initial setup costs of installing Local Area Networks is high

because there is special software required to make a server.

 Communication devices like an ethernet cable, switches, hubs,

routers, cables are costly.

 LAN administrator can see and check personal data files as well
as Internet history of each and every LAN user. Hence, the privacy
of the users are violated

 LANs are restricted in size and cover only a limited area

 Since all the data is stored in a single server computer, if it can be

accessed by an unauthorized user, can cause a serious data security
threat.

** Wired LAN :- A wired local area network is a network in which a

group of linked devices are connected with a cable connection in a
single physical space (e.g., a house, office, floor of a building, or entire
building). These computer networks can be found in buildings, from a
few workstations in one office to hundreds or even thousands of
devices. They are the most common means of connecting computers
and provide shared access to file servers, printers, and other services.
Wired LAN can have many different sizes, from a single-user network at
home to an enterprise network in an office or school with thousands of
users and devices. This kind of network has its own set of advantages
and disadvantages.

**Wireless LAN :- As the name implies, this type of LAN connects

devices within a restricted region using high-frequency radio waves
rather than cables. Also termed as Wireless Local Networks, or WLANs,
are wireless computer networks and their users within these wireless
LAN connections are free to roam about this constrained space, which
includes places like homes, offices, schools, train stations, and so on.
The most common and rather the foundation of the majority of WLANs
is Wi-Fi as standardized by IEEE 802.11.

Feature Wired LAN Wireless LAN

Connectio Uses physical cables

Uses radio waves (Wi-Fi)
n Medium (Ethernet)

Usually slower than wired LAN

Generally faster (1
Speed (varies from 150 Mbps to
Gbps or more)
several Gbps)

Lower latency (better Higher latency due to

Latency
for gaming, VoIP) interference

Less secure (prone to hacking,

More secure (harder
Security needs encryption like
to intercept data)
WPA2/WPA3)

Higher (cables,
Installatio Lower (just routers and access
switches,
n Cost points)
infrastructure)

Limited (devices need

High (devices can move freely
Mobility to be physically
within range)
connected)

More reliable (less

Less reliable (affected by
Reliability interference, stable
walls, interference)
connection)

Maintenan Requires cable Easier to maintain, no

ce management physical cables
 Feature Wired LAN Wireless LAN

Harder to expand
Easy to expand (add more
Scalability (new cables and ports
access points)
needed)

Prone to interference from

Interferen No interference
other devices (microwaves,
ce issues
Bluetooth)

**Virtual LAN:- Virtual LAN (VLAN) is a concept in which we can divide

the devices logically on layer 2 (data link layer). Generally, layer 3 devices
divide the broadcast domain but the broadcast domain can be divided by
switches using the concept of VLAN.

A logical overlay network known as a virtual LAN (VLAN) is used to isolate

traffic for individual groups of devices that share a physical LAN .

A VLAN functions at the Ethernet level, or Layer 2, of the network. By

dividing a single switched network into a collection of overlaying virtual
networks, VLANs fulfill various functional and security needs. By
partitioning, it is not necessary to have separate physical networks for
each use case.

**The purpose of a VLAN

VLANs are used by network engineers for many purposes, such as the
following:

o In order to enhance performance.

o To increase security.

o To make administration easier.

o Enhance output.

VLANs may reduce the amount of traffic that a particular endpoint sees
and processes, which can enhance performance for devices on them. By
dividing broadcast domains, VLANs lower the total number of hosts that a
particular device may receive broadcasts from. For instance, phones won't
receive any workstation-generated broadcast traffic if all desktop voice
over IP phones are connected to one VLAN and all workstations are
connected to another. Each may restrict the network traffic to only what is
relevant.

**VLAN ranges:
  VLAN 0, 4095: These are reserved VLAN which cannot be seen or
used.
 VLAN 1: It is the default VLAN of switches. By default, all switch
ports are in VLAN. This VLAN can’t be deleted or edit but can be
used.
 VLAN 2-1001: This is a normal VLAN range. We can create, edit
and delete these VLAN.
 VLAN 1002-1005: These are CISCO defaults for fddi and token
rings. These VLAN can’t be deleted.
 Vlan 1006-4094: This is the extended range of Vlan.

**VLAN types
VLANs may be use-based (often referred to as dynamic) or port-based
(sometimes referred to as static).

1. Static or port based VLAN:

By designating ports on a network switch to a VLAN, network engineers

may build port based VLANs. Each of the ports is exclusively on one VLAN,
and they may only communicate on the designated VLANs. Even while
port based VLANs are sometimes referred to as static VLANs, it's crucial to
keep in mind that they aren't really static since the VLANs that are
assigned to the port may be modified at any moment, either manually or
automatically by the network.

2. Dynamic or use based VLAN:

By dynamically allocating traffic to a VLAN according to the kind of traffic

or the device generating the traffic, network engineers may establish use
based VLANs. Based on the network protocols being used or the
identification of the device connected (as shown by a security certificate),
a port may be allocated to a VLAN. A single port may be connected to
many dynamic VLANs. The VLAN allocated to a port may vary depending
on what device is connected to it or even how the device is currently
being utilized.

**VLANs offer several features and benefits, including:

 Improved network security: VLANs can be used to separate

network traffic and limit access to specific network resources. This
improves security by preventing unauthorized access to sensitive
data and network resources.
 Better network performance: By segregating network traffic into
smaller logical networks, VLANs can reduce the amount of broadcast
traffic and improve network performance.
 Simplified network management: VLANs allow network
administrators to group devices together logically, rather than
physically, which can simplify network management tasks such as
configuration, troubleshooting, and maintenance.
  Flexibility: VLANs can be configured dynamically, allowing network
administrators to quickly and easily adjust network configurations as
needed.
 Cost savings: VLANs can help reduce hardware costs by allowing
multiple virtual networks to share a single physical network
infrastructure.
 Scalability: VLANs can be used to segment a network into smaller,
more manageable groups as the network grows in size and
complexity.

Some of the key features of VLANs include:

 VLAN tagging: VLAN tagging is a way to identify and distinguish

VLAN traffic from other network traffic. This is typically done by
adding a VLAN tag to the Ethernet frame header.
 VLAN membership: VLAN membership determines which devices are
assigned to which VLANs. Devices can be assigned to VLANs based
on port, MAC address, or other criteria.
 VLAN trunking: VLAN trunking allows multiple VLANs to be carried
over a single physical link. This is typically done using a protocol
such as IEEE 802.1Q.
 VLAN management: VLAN management involves configuring and
managing VLANs, including assigning devices to VLANs, configuring
VLAN tags, and configuring VLAN trunking .

**Types of connections in VLAN –

There are three ways to connect devices on a VLAN, the type of

connections are based on the connected devices i.e. whether they are
VLAN-aware(A device that understands VLAN formats and VLAN
membership) or VLAN-unaware(A device that doesn’t understand VLAN
format and VLAN membership).

1. Trunk Link –
All connected devices to a trunk link must be VLAN-aware. All
frames on this should have a special header attached to it called
tagged frames.
2. Access link –
It connects VLAN-unaware devices to a VLAN-aware bridge. All
frames on the access link must be untagged.
3. Hybrid link –
It is a combination of the Trunk link and Access link. Here both
VLAN-unaware and VLAN-aware devices are attached and it can
have both tagged and untagged frames.

**Advantages –

 Performance –
The network traffic is full of broadcast and multicast. VLAN reduces
the need to send such traffic to unnecessary destinations.
 Formation of virtual groups –
As there are different departments in every organization namely
sales, finance etc., VLANs can be very useful in order to group the
devices logically according to their departments.
 Security –
In the same network, sensitive data can be broadcast which can be
accessed by the outsider but by creating VLAN, we can control
broadcast domains, set up firewalls, restrict access. Also, VLANs
can be used to inform the network manager of an intrusion. Hence,
VLANs greatly enhance network security.
 Flexibility –
VLAN provide flexibility to add, remove the number of host we
want.
 Cost reduction –
VLANs can be used to create broadcast domains which eliminate
the need for expensive routers.
By using Vlan, the number of small size broadcast domain can be
increased which are easy to handle as compared to a bigger
broadcast domain.

Disadvantages of VLAN

1. Complexity: VLANs can be complex to configure and manage,

particularly in large or dynamic cloud computing environments.
2. Limited scalability: VLANs are limited by the number of available
VLAN IDs, which can be a constraint in larger cloud computing
environments.
 3. Limited security: VLANs do not provide complete security and can
be compromised by malicious actors who are able to gain access to
the network.
4. Limited interoperability: VLANs may not be fully compatible with
all types of network devices and protocols, which can limit their
usefulness in cloud computing environments.
5. Limited mobility: VLANs may not support the movement of
devices or users between different network segments, which can
limit their usefulness in mobile or remote cloud computing
environments.
6. Cost: Implementing and maintaining VLANs can be costly,
especially if specialized hardware or software is required.
7. Limited visibility: VLANs can make it more difficult to monitor and
troubleshoot network issues, as traffic is isolated in different
segments.

**Real-Time Applications of VLAN

Virtual LANs (VLANs) are widely used in cloud computing environments to

improve network performance and security. Here are a few examples of
real-time applications of VLANs:

1. Voice over IP (VoIP) : VLANs can be used to isolate voice traffic

from data traffic, which improves the quality of VoIP calls and
reduces the risk of network congestion.
2. Video Conferencing : VLANs can be used to prioritize video traffic
and ensure that it receives the bandwidth and resources it needs for
high-quality video conferencing.
3. Remote Access : VLANs can be used to provide secure remote
access to cloud-based applications and resources, by isolating
remote users from the rest of the network.
4. Cloud Backup and Recovery : VLANs can be used to isolate
backup and recovery traffic, which reduces the risk of network
congestion and improves the performance of backup and recovery
operations.
5. Gaming : VLANs can be used to prioritize gaming traffic, which
ensures that gamers receive the bandwidth and resources they
need for a smooth gaming experience.
6. IoT : VLANs can be used to isolate Internet of Things (IoT) devices
from the rest of the network, which improves security and reduces
the risk of network congestion.

## Techniques for Bandwidth utilization:-

Bandwidth, or precisely network bandwidth, is the maximum rate at
which data transfer occurs across any particular path of the network.
Bandwidth is basically a measure of the amount of data that can be sent
and received at any instance of time. That simply means that the higher
the bandwidth of a network, the larger the amount of data the network
can be sending to and from across its path.

Bandwidth utilization is the wise use of available bandwidth to achieve

specific goal .

There are following techniques used for bandwidth utilization :-

1.Multiplexing:- Multiplexing is a technique used to combine and send

the multiple data streams over a single medium. The process of
combining the data streams is known as multiplexing and hardware used
for multiplexing is known as a multiplexer.

Multiplexing is achieved by using a device called Multiplexer (MUX) that

combines n input lines to generate a single output line. Multiplexing
follows many-to-one, i.e., n input lines and one output line.

Demultiplexing is achieved by using a device called Demultiplexer

(DEMUX) available at the receiving end. DEMUX separates a signal into
its component signals (one input and n outputs). Therefore, we can say
that demultiplexing follows the one-to-many approach.

Why Multiplexing?

o The transmission medium is used to send the signal from sender to

receiver. The medium can only have one signal at a time.

o If there are multiple signals to share one medium, then the medium
must be divided in such a way that each signal is given some
portion of the available bandwidth. For example: If there are 10
signals and bandwidth of medium is100 units, then the 10 unit is
shared by each signal.

o When multiple signals share the common medium, there is a

possibility of collision. Multiplexing concept is used to avoid such
collision.

o Transmission services are very expensive.

**Concept of Multiplexing

The 'n' input lines are

transmitted through a
 multiplexer and multiplexer combines the signals to form a
composite signal.

o The composite signal is passed through a Demultiplexer and

demultiplexer separates a signal to component signals and transfers
them to their respective destinations.

Advantages of Multiplexing:

o More than one signal can be sent over a single medium.

o The bandwidth of a medium can be utilized effectively.

Multiplexing techniques can be classified as:-

1.Frequency-division Multiplexing (FDM):-

o It is an analog technique.

o Frequency Division Multiplexing is a technique in which the available

bandwidth of a single transmission medium is subdivided into
several channels.

o In the above diagram, a single transmission medium is subdivided

into several frequency channels, and each frequency channel is
given to different devices. Device 1 has a frequency channel of
range from 1 to 5.
 o The input signals are translated into frequency bands by using
modulation techniques, and they are combined by a multiplexer to
form a composite signal.

o The main aim of the FDM is to subdivide the available bandwidth

into different frequency channels and allocate them to different
devices.

o Using the modulation technique, the input signals are transmitted

into frequency bands and then combined to form a composite
signal.
o The carriers which are used for modulating the signals are known
as sub-carriers. They are represented as f1,f2..fn.
o FDM is mainly used in radio broadcasts and TV networks.

Advantages Of FDM:

o FDM is used for analog signals.

o FDM process is very simple and easy modulation.

o A Large number of signals can be sent through an FDM

simultaneously.

o It does not require any synchronization between sender and

receiver.

Disadvantages Of FDM:

o FDM technique is used only when low-speed channels are required.

o It suffers the problem of crosstalk.

o A Large number of modulators are required.

o It requires a high bandwidth channel.

Applications Of FDM:

o FDM is commonly used in TV networks.

 o It is used in FM and AM broadcasting. Each FM radio station has
different frequencies, and they are multiplexed to form a composite
signal. The multiplexed signal is transmitted in the air.

**Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)) :-

o Wavelength Division
Multiplexing is same
as FDM except that
the optical signals are
transmitted through
the fibre optic cable.
o WDM is used on fibre optics to increase the capacity of a single
fibre.
o It is used to utilize the high data rate capability of fibre optic cable.
o It is an analog multiplexing technique.
o Optical signals from different source are combined to form a wider
band of light with the help of multiplexer.
o At the receiving end, demultiplexer separates the signals to transmit
them to their respective destinations.
o Multiplexing and Demultiplexing can be achieved by using a prism.
o Prism can perform a role of multiplexer by combining the various
optical signals to form a composite signal, and the composite signal
is transmitted through a fibre optical cable.
o Prism also performs a reverse operation, i.e., demultiplexing the
signal.

**Time Division Multiplexing:-

o It is a digital technique.

o In Frequency Division Multiplexing Technique, all signals operate at

the same time with different frequency, but in case of Time Division
Multiplexing technique, all signals operate at the same frequency
with different time.

o In Time Division Multiplexing technique, the total time available in

the channel is distributed among different users. Therefore, each
user is allocated with different time interval known as a Time slot at
which data is to be transmitted by the sender.

o A user takes control of the channel for a fixed amount of time.

 o In Time Division Multiplexing technique, data is not transmitted
simultaneously rather the data is transmitted one-by-one.

o In TDM, the signal is transmitted in the form of frames. Frames

contain a cycle of time slots in which each frame contains one or
more slots dedicated to each user.

o It can be used to multiplex both digital and analog signals but

mainly used to multiplex digital signals.

There are two types of TDM:

o Synchronous TDM

o Asynchronous TDM

--Synchronous TDM:-

o A Synchronous TDM is a technique in which time slot is preassigned

to every device.
o In Synchronous TDM, each device is given some time slot
irrespective of the fact that the device contains the data or not.
o If the device does not have any data, then the slot will remain
empty.
o In Synchronous TDM, signals are sent in the form of frames. Time
slots are organized in the form of frames. If a device does not have
data for a particular time slot, then the empty slot will be
transmitted.
o The most popular Synchronous TDM are T-1 multiplexing, ISDN
multiplexing, and SONET multiplexing.
o If there are n devices, then there are n slots.

Disadvantages Of Synchronous TDM:

o The capacity of the channel is not fully utilized as the empty slots
are also transmitted which is having no data. In the above figure,
the first frame is completely filled, but in the last two frames, some
slots are empty. Therefore, we can say that the capacity of the
channel is not utilized efficiently.
 o The speed of the transmission medium should be greater than the
total speed of the input lines. An alternative approach to the
Synchronous TDM is Asynchronous Time Division Multiplexing.

-- Asynchronous TDM :-

o An asynchronous TDM is also known as Statistical TDM.

o An asynchronous TDM is a technique in which time slots are not

fixed as in the case of Synchronous TDM. Time slots are allocated to
only those devices which have the data to send. Therefore, we can
say that Asynchronous Time Division multiplexor transmits only the
data from active workstations.

o An asynchronous TDM technique dynamically allocates the time

slots to the devices.

o In Asynchronous TDM, total speed of the input lines can be greater

than the capacity of the channel.

o Asynchronous Time Division multiplexor accepts the incoming data

streams and creates a frame that contains only data with no empty
slots.

o In Asynchronous TDM, each slot contains an address part that

identifies the source of the data.

o The difference between Asynchronous TDM and Synchronous TDM is

that many slots in Synchronous TDM are unutilized, but in
Asynchronous TDM, slots are fully utilized. This leads to the smaller
transmission time and efficient utilization of the capacity of the
channel.

o In Synchronous TDM, if there are n sending devices, then there are n

time slots. In Asynchronous TDM, if there are n sending devices,
then there are m time slots where m is less than n (m<n).

o The number of slots in a frame depends on the statistical analysis of

the number of input lines.

Concept Of Asynchronous TDM

In the above diagram, there are 4 devices,

but only two devices are sending the data,
i.e., A and C. Therefore, the data of A and
C are only transmitted through the
transmission line.
Frame of above diagram can be represented as:

The above figure shows that the data

part contains the address to determine
the source of the data.

## Spread Spectrum:- Spread Spectrum is a wireless communication

technology that distributes the transmitted signal across a larger
bandwidth than the original signal. This approach improves
communication security and dependability by increasing the signal’s
resistance to interference, eavesdropping, and jamming .

Spread spectrum is a method of transmitting radio signals over a wide

range of frequencies. It spreads the signal over a broader bandwidth than
the minimum required to send the information, which provides
advantages such as increased resistance to interference, improved
security, and enhanced privacy.

The use of spread-spectrum techniques in communication to ensure

secure transmission .

This method uses air as a medium

and extends bandwidth to create
a protective envelope for signals,
reducing the risk of interception
or jamming. The ‘spread code’ is a
patterned series of numbers that enlarges the original signal’s bandwidth.
This method is typically used in situations where secure transmission is
crucial.

Principles of Spread Spectrum process

 To allow redundancy, it is necessary that the bandwidth allocated to

each station should be much larger than needed.

 The spreading process occurs after the signal is created by the

source.

Conditions of Spread Spectrum are

 The spread spectrum is a type of modulation where modulated

signal BW is much larger than the baseband signal BW i.e. spread
spectrum is a wide band scheme.
  A special code (pseudo noise) is used for spectrum spreading and
the same code is to be used to despread the signal at the receiver.

Characteristics of Spread Spectrum

 Higher channel capacity.

 Ability to resist multipath propagation.

 They cannot easily intercept any unauthorized person.

 They are resistant to jamming.

 The spread spectrum provides immunity to distortion due to

multipath propagation.

 The spread spectrum offers multiple access capabilities.

Techniques used for Spread Spectrum

 Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)

 Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)

**Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS):-

In FHSS , different carrier

frequencies are modulated by the
source signal i.e. M carrier
frequencies are modulated by the
signal. At one moment signal
modulates one carrier frequency and
at the subsequent moments, it modulates other carrier frequencies .

A pseudorandom code generator generates Pseudo-random Noise of some

pattern for each hopping period Th. The frequency corresponding to the
pattern is used for the hopping period and is passed to the frequency
synthesizer. The synthesizer generates a carrier signal of that frequency.
The figure above shows the spread signal via FHSS.

Advantages of FHSS

 Synchronization is not greatly dependent on distance.

 Processing Gain is higher than DSSS.

Disadvantages of FHSS

 The bandwidth of the FHSS system is too large (in GHz).

 Complex and expensive Digital frequency synthesizers are required.

Applications of FHSS

 FHSS is used in Bluetooth

 Military Communications

 Walkie-Talkies

 Wireless Local Area Networks (WLANs)

 Remote Controls

**Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS):-

In Direct Sequence Spread

Spectrum, the bandwidth of the
original signal is also expanded
by a different technique. Here,
each data bit is replaced with n
bits using a spreading code
called chips, and the bit rate of the chip is called as chip-rate. The chip
rate is n times the bit rate of the original signal.

In wireless LAN, the sequence with n = 11 is used. The original data is

multiplied by chips (spreading code) to get the spread signal. The
required bandwidth of the spread signal is 11 times larger than the
bandwidth of the original signal.

Advantages of DSSS

 The DSSS System combats the jamming most effectively.

 The performance of DSSS in presence of noise is superior to FHSS.

 Interference is minimized against the signals.

Disadvantages of DSSS

 Processing Gain is lower than FHSS.

 Channel Bandwidth is less than FHSS.

 Synchronization is affected by the variable distance between the

transmitter and receiver.

Applications of DSSS

 GPS (Global Positioning System)

 CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access) Cellular Networks

 Satellite Communication

 Wireless Sensor Networks

UNIT:-2