DISCRETE MATHEMATICS • Truth tables are used to show how these

• It is a branch of mathematics that only operators can combine propositions to

accepts discrete values. compound propositions.
• Develops mathematical reasoning.
• Used for counting things, studying

(XOR)
p⊕q

F
T
T
F
interactions between finite sets, and
analyzing processes with a finite number of
steps.

(IF AND, ONLY IF)

LOGIC is the study of reasoning

p↔q
• It is concerned with the validity of arguments,

T
F
F
T
the truth of statements, and the relationship
between different propositions.

PROPOSITION is a declarative sentence that can

p→q
(IF)

T
F
T
T
be either true or false, but not both.

Ex.
PROPOSITION NOT PROPOSITION
The earth is flat. Questions(?) (OR)
pVq

Cats are mammals. Commands

T
T
T
F
It will rain tomorrow. Exclamation(!)

PROPOSITIONAL LOGIC (Sentential logic)

• branch of logic that deals with
(AND)
pꓥq

T
F
F
F
propositions—declarative statements that
can be classified as either true or false.
~q /¬q

• Propositions are often represented in small

(NOT)

F
T
F
T
letters.
• The value of a proposition (p) is called its
TRUTH VALUE.
p
T

F
q

T or 1
F or 0

COMPOUND PROPOSITIONS
• proposition constructed by combining one
T

F
p

(1) or more existing propositions.

• we can build compound propositions using
logical connectives.
In the last column, if the truth values are SETS - well-defined and un-ordered
All TRUE – the statement is a TAUTOLOGY collection or aggregate objects.
All FALSE – the statement is a CONTRADICTION
Mixed values – the statement is a CONTINGENCY Universal Set (U) - The set that contains all
elements relevant to a particular discussion or
LOGICAL EQUIVALENCE – 2 different compound problem.
propositions that have the SAME/IDENTICAL truth
values in every model. Represented with (≡) Venn Diagram - a way of visually representing sets
Ex. of items or numbers by using their logical
1. relationships to decide how they should be
𝑃: ¬(𝑝 ↔ 𝑞) CONTINGENCY grouped together.
p q (𝑝 ↔ 𝑞) ¬(𝑝 ↔ 𝑞)
T T T F
T F F T
F T F T
F F T F

Q: p ∧ ¬q CONTINGENCY
p q ¬q p ∧ ¬q
T T F F
T F T T
F T F F
F F T F • Invented by an English mathematician, John
Is P logically equivalent to Q? NO 𝑃 ≢ 𝑄 Venn (1834-1923) to illustrate ideas in his
2. If it is sunny or the temperature is above 20°C, text on symbolic logic, published 1881.
then Sarah will go to the park.
Propositions: Elements(Є)
p: it is sunny • It denotes “belongs to” or “is an element
q: the temperature is above 20°C of” a set.
r: Sarah will go to the park Ex. A = {4, 5, 6} then 4 ∈ A, 7 ∉ A
Symbol: (p ∨ q) → r
Truth table: Cardinal number – number of elements in a set.
p q r (p ∨ q) (p ∨ q) → r • Symbolized by n(A) or |A|.

T T T T T Infinite Set – sets that are not countable

T T F T F - can be denoted by {…}
T F T T T Ex. A = {x|x > 1}
T F F T F
F T T T T Finite Set – sets that are countable
Ex. A = {1,2,3}
F T F T F
F F T F T
Set Representation
F F F F T Roster Method – listing - A = {1,2,3,4,5}
Set Builder Notation – stating rules or condition. SET INTERSECTION
A = {x|x > 0, x <6} • Set made from common values of 2
different subsets of the universal set
Set Equality – 2 set with same values • Denoted by ∩
Ex. • Expressed as 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = {𝑥 ∈ 𝑈|𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 ∧
A={9,2,7,-3} B={7,9,-3,2} Equal x ∈ B}
A={1,2} B={1,1,1,2,2,2,2,2} Equal
A={1,2,3} B={1,3,5} Not Equal

Subset
- Set contained in a larger set or in an equal set.
- Denoted by ⊆
A={4,5,6} B={1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9} A⊆B SET UNION
A={...,-8, B={...,-8,-6,-4, A⊈B
• Set made of elements from the universal set
-4,0,4,8,...} -2,0,2,4,6,8}
where it is either from subset A or B or both
Proper Subset • Denoted by ∪
• It is a subset that is not equal to the set it • Expressed as 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 = {𝑥 ∈ 𝑈|𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 ∨
belongs to. x ∈ B}
• Denoted with ⊂
A={4,5,6} B={1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9} A⊂B

Number of distinct subsets = 2n

Number of distinct proper subsets = 2n – 1

Note: List all distinct subsets when finding the no. SET DIFFERENCE
of subsets/proper subsets. • Set made by elements from a subset
without the common elements in another
Null Set – empty set/ set with no elements subset
• Denoted by {} or ∅ • Denoted by A-B
• Expressed as A-𝐵 = {𝑥 ∈ 𝑈|𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 ∧
SET OPERATIONS x ∉ B}
SET COMPLEMENT
• Set of all elements that are in the universal
set (U) that isn’t in a specific subset.
• Denoted by A’ or A ̅
• Expressed as A' = {x ∈ U | x ∉ A}

SYMMETRIC DIFFERENCE
• Set made from elements of both subsets
without the common elements of both
subsets
• Denoted as A ⊕ B, (A-B) ∪ (B-A)
 If student's grade is greater than or equal to 60
Print "passed"
else
Print "failed"

Pseudocode

RECURSION
ALGORITHMS • technique in programming that calls itself
• Finite set of instructions that specify a • has the capability to save the condition it
sequence of operations to be carried out was in or the particular process it was
• All the tasks that can be carried out by a serving when calling itself
computer can be stated as algorithms • can be written using ASSIGNMENT
STATEMENT, IF-ELSE STATEMENT and WHILE
CRITERIA STATEMENT
1. INPUT TYPES
2. OUTPUT 1. DIRECT – the function calls itself directly
3. DEFINITENESS – clear within the body
4. FINITENESS – countable
5. EFFECTIVENESS – feasible Ex. Factorial Calculator

Ex. Design an algorithm to add two numbers and FUNCTION Factorial(n)

display the result IF n == 0 OR n == 1 THEN
RETURN 1
STEP 1 - START ELSE
STEP 2 - GET values a & b RETURN n * Factorial(n - 1) // Recursive call
STEP 3 - c←a+b ENDIF
STEP 4 - DISPLAY c END FUNCTION
STEP 5 - STOP
2. INDIRECT – 2 or more functions call within a
PSEUDOCODE loop
• Textual representation of a flowchart
• Could be translated into a program Ex. Even and Odd Number Checker

Ex. FUNCTION isEven(n)

Problem: Create a program that will display if the IF n == 0 THEN
grade is passed or failed. RETURN TRUE // Base case: 0 is even
ELSE
Purpose of the program RETURN isOdd(n - 1) // Calls isOdd function
This program will allow the user to ENDIF
determine if the student passed or failed based on END FUNCTION
the grade.
FUNCTION isOdd(n)
IF n == 0 THEN
RETURN FALSE // Base case: 0 is not odd
ELSE
RETURN isEven(n - 1) // Calls isEven function
ENDIF
END FUNCTION

STEPWISE REFINEMENT
• process by which a programmer refines an
initial idea to a problem’s solution into more
specific terms
• The last phase of refinement results in a
program ready to be coded for execution

ANALYSIS OF ALGORITHM
• Determining the number of resources such
as time and storage to execute a program
• Usually in terms of CPU time and memory