CHAPTER 1

THE POWER SYSTEM

IR. RISNIDAR CHAN BAHAUDIN MT.
PROF ISMAIL DAUT
=======
 The knowledge that students can
obtain from this topic are:
1. Explain the major problem in electric power system
such as load flow, optimal power flow, symmetrical
fault, unsymmetrical fault and stability.
2. To representation the components on electric power
system
3. Design the single-line diagram, impedance diagram
and admittance diagram of the electric power
system
4. Calculate the per-unit of the electric power system
components
 Power System Notation
Power system components are usually
shown as
“Single-line diagrams.” Previous circuit redrawn
17.6 MW 16.0 MW
28.8 MVR -16.0 MVR

59.7 kV 40.0 kV

17.6 MW
16.0 MW
28.8 MVR
16.0 MVR

Arrows are
Generators are Transmission lines
used to
shown as circles are shown as a
single line show loads
 Notation - Power

Power: Instantaneous consumption of energy

Power Units:

Watts = voltage x current for dc (W)

kW – 1 x 103 Watt

MW – 1 x 106 Watt

GW – 1 x 109 Watt

Installed U.S. generation capacity is about
775 GW ( about 2.9 kW per person)

Maximum load of Champaign/Urbana about
300 MW
 Notation - Energy

Energy: Integration of power over time;
energy is what people really want from a
power system

Energy Units

Joule = 1 Watt-second (J)

kWh – Kilowatthour (3.6 x 106 J)

Btu – 1055 J;

1 MBtu=0.292 MWh

U.S. electric energy consumption is about
3600 billion kWh (about 13,333 kWh per
person, which means on average we each
use 1.5 kW of power continuously)
 Power System Examples

Electric utility: can range from quite small, such
as an island, to one covering half the continent

there are four major interconnected ac power
systems in North American, each operating at 60 Hz
ac; 50 Hz is used in some other countries.

Airplanes and Spaceships: reduction in weight
is primary consideration; frequency is 400 Hz.

Ships and submarines

Automobiles: dc with 12 volts standard

Battery operated portable systems
 Utility Restructuring

Driven by significant regional variations in
electric rates

Goal of competition is to reduce rates through
the introduction of competition

Eventual goal is to allow consumers to choose
their electricity supplier
 1.2. THE MODERN POWER
SYSTEMS
The power system of to day is a complex interconnected
network.
The advantages of interconnection system are
1. We need a few machines to draw peak load, only
2. A few machines be operated at no load be up
against the sudden load.
3. The power can supplied from the other company
which is lower cost.
4. Possibly, buy the power energy is costless than self
generated.
 But, the problems are:

The short circuit current will be greater in the

power system, and with the result that the
circuit breaker ratings must be increased.

The influence of short circuit may be flow to
part of interconnected system, so the
protecting relays must be excellent in point of
interconnected.

The frequency must be same for all parts of
the system

All synchronous generator on the system
must be synchronize
 A power system can be subdivided
into four major parts:

1. Generation
2. Transmission and Sub transmission
3. Distribution
4. Loads.
 1.3. THE PROBLEMS IN
POWER SYSTEM

Load flow

Optimal Power Flow and
Economic Operation of power
systems

Short-Circuit

Stability
 1.4.1. SINGLE LINE DIAGRAM
OF POWER SYSTEM

.

T1
T 3
2

Load B
2

Load A

Fig 1.4.1 Single line diagram of an Electrical Power system

 1.4.2. IMPEDANCE DIAGRAM

.
T1 Trsm T2

XT1 RTrsm XTrsm XT2

L
O
L
Xg1 Xg2 Xg3 A
O
D
A
D
B
A
E1g E 2g E 3g
 1.5. THE PER-UNIT SYSTEM

The per-unit value of any quantity is defined as :

actual quality
quantity in per − unit =
base value of quantity

S
S per − unit =
SB

V
Vper−unit =
VB
Cont’d

. I
I per − unit =
I B
Z
Z per − unit =
ZB
where:
1. the numerators ( actual values) are phasor quantities
or complex values and
2. the denominators (base values) are always real
numbers.
 Per Unit Calculations

A key problem in analyzing power systems is
the large number of transformers.

It would be very difficult to continually have to refer
impedances to the different sides of the
transformers

This problem is avoided by a normalization of
all variables.

This normalization is known as per unit
analysis.
Per Unit Conversion Procedure, 1ø

Pick a 1 ø VA base for the entire system,
SB

Pick a voltage base for each different
voltage level, VB. Voltage bases are
related by transformer turns ratios.
Voltages are line to neutral.

Calculate the impedance base,
ZB= (Vb)2/SB

Calculate the current base, IB = VB/ZB

Convert actual values to per unit
A minimum of four base quantities are required
to completely define a per-unit system

1. volt-ampere
2. voltage
3. Current
4. impedance
 In three-phase system:

.
S B
I B =
V
3V B
B
3
Z B =
I B

2 2
(VB ) (kVB )
ZB = =
SB MVAB
 Example 1.5.1

Given a 100-V sinusoidal source in series with a
3-Ω resistor, a 8-Ω inductor and a 4-Ω
capacitor.

Solve the problem in per-unit on base of Vbase =
100V and Sbase = 500VA.

Calculate the complex power delivered to each
of the four elements in the circuit in per-unit

Solution
Solution

S base 500

. I base = = = 5A
V base 100
V base 100
Z base = = = 20 Ω
I base 5
2
V base ( 100 ) 2
Z base = = 20 Ω
S base 500
We convert the circuit values to per-unit

.

0
V 100 ∠ 0 0
V pu = = = 1∠ 0 = 1 + j0
V base 100
R 3
R pu = = = 0 . 15
Z base 20
X L 8
X Lpu = = = 0 . 40
Z base 20
X C 4
X Cpu = = = 0 . 20
Z base 20
The circuit is shown in Fig. 1.5.3 where
all values in per-unit

.
0.15 J0.40

-j0.20
1+j0 Ipu

Fig 1.5.3 Circuit example 1.5.1 all values in per-unit

Z per−unit = 0.15 + j(0.4 − 0.2) = 0.15 + j0.20 = 0.25∠53.10

V pu 1∠ 0 0 0
I pu = = = 4 . 0 ∠ − 53 . 1
Z pu 0 . 25 ∠ + 53 . 1 0
 Cont’d

.S Rpu = I 2 R = ( 4 ) 2 ( 0 . 15 ) = 2 . 4 + j 0 )

2
S Lpu = jI X L = j ( 4 ) 2 ( 0 .4 ) = 0 + j 6 .4

2 2
S Cpu = − jI X C = − j ( 4 ) (. 0 . 2 ) = 0 − j 3 . 2

S pu = S Rpu + S Lpu + S Cpu = 2 . 4 + j 6 . 4 − j 3 . 2

= 2 . 4 + j 3 . 2 = 4 . 0 ∠ + 53 . 1 0
 1.5.1. CHANGE OF BASE

For power system analysis, all
impedances must be expressed in per-
unit on a common system base.
old ZΩ Z Bold
Z pu = old = Z Ω old 2
ZB (VB )
newd
new ZΩ Z B
Z pu = new = Z Ω newd 2
ZB (VB )
2
S new
V old

Z new
pu =Z old
pu
B
old
B
new

S B V
B 
If the voltage bases are the
same

.
new
new old S B
Z pu =Z pu old
S B
 Example 1.5.2

The reactance of the generator designated X”

is given as 0.25 per-unit based on the
generator nameplate rating of 18 kV, 500
MVA. The base for calculation is 20 kV, 100
MVA. Find X” on the new base.
Solution:
By Eq 1.5.14:
2
 18   100 
X " = 0.25    = 0.0405 per − unit
 20   500 
or by converting the given value to ohms and dividing by
the new base impedance,

:

2
0.25(18 / 500)
X "= 2
= 0.0405 per − unit
20 / 100

Note:
Resistance and reactance of a device in
percent or per-unit are usually available
from the manufacturer
 The advantages of the per-unit system for
analysis are described as follow:

The per-unit system gives us a clear idea of relative
magnitudes of various quantities, such as voltage, current,
power and impedance.

The per-unit impedance of equipment of the same general
type based on their own ratings fall in a narrow range
regardless of the rating of the equipment. Whereas their
impedance in ohms vary greatly with the rating.

The per-unit values of impedance, voltage and current of a
transformer are the same regardless of whether they are
referred to the primary or the secondary side. This is the
great advantage since the different voltage levels disappear
and the entire system reduces to a system of simple
impedance.

The per-unit systems are ideal for the computerized analysis
and simulation of complex power system problems.

The circuit laws are valid in per-unit systems, and the power
and voltage equations as given by (1.5) and (1.6) are
simplified since the factors of 3 and are eliminated in the
per-unit system.
1.5.2. PER-UNIT IMPEDANCES IN SINGLE-
PHASE TRANSFORMER CIRCUIT.

For transformer:

The ohmic values of resistance and reactance

depend on whether they are measured on the
high- or low-voltage side of the transformer.

The per-unit values of impedance of a
transformer is the same regardless of whether
it is determined from ohmic values referred to
the high-voltage or low-voltage sides of the
transformer.
 Example1.5.3

A single-phase transformer is rated 110/440 V,
2.5 kVA. Leakage reactance measured from the
low-voltage side is 0.06 Ω. Determine leakage
reactance in per-unit.

Solution.

From equation below
(base voltage, kVL− N ) 2 x1000
base impedance, Ω =
base kVA1ϕ
We have:
0.110 2 x1000
low − voltage base impedance = = 4.84Ω
2.5
 In per-unit:
0.06

. X = = 0.0124 per − unit
4.84

If leakage reactance had been measured on the high-voltage side, the value would be

2
 440 
X = 0.06  = 0.96Ω
 110 
High-voltage base impedance:

0.440 2 x1000
X = = 77.5Ω
2.5
In per-unit

0.96
X = = 0.0124 per − unit
77.5
So, a great advantage in making per-unit computations
is realized by the proper selection of different bases for
circuits connected to each other through a transformer.

The voltage bases for the circuits

connected through the transformer
must have the same ratio as the
turns ratio of the transformer
windings.

The base voltage only for the
component in between two
transformers
 Example 1.5.4
Three parts of a single-phase electric system are
designated A, B and C and are connected to each
other through transformers, as shown in Fig. 1.4. The
transformers are rated as follows:

A-B 10,000 kVA, 13.8/138 kV, leakage reactance
10%

B-C 10,000 kVA, 138/69 kV, leakage reactance 8%
If the base in circuit b is chosen as 10,000 kVA, 138
kV, find the per-unit impedance of the 300Ω resistive
load in circuit C referred to circuit C, B, and A. Draw
the impedance diagram neglecting magnetizing circuit,
transformer resistances and line impedances.
Solution

Base voltage for circuit A:
0.1x 138 = 13.8 kV

Base voltage for circuit C:
0.5 x 138 = 69 kV

Base impedance of circuit C:
1-10 2-1

300Ω
A B C

A-B B-C

Fig 1.5.4. Circuit for example 1.5.4.

Per-unit impedance of load in circuit C:
300
= 0 . 63 per-unit.
476

The per-unit impedance of the load

referred to any part of the system will be
the same because:

The selection of base in various parts of
the system is determined by the turns
ratio of the transformers

The base kilovoltamperes is the same in
all parts of the system
 138 2 x 1000
Base impedance of circuit B: = 1900 Ω
10 , 000

Impedance of load referred to circuit B:

300 x 22 = 1200 Ω

Per-unit impedance of load referred to B:

1200
= 0.63 per − unit
1900

Base impedance of circuit A:

13 .8 2 x1000
= 19 Ω
10 ,000
Impedance of load referred to circuit A:

300 x 22 x 0.12 = 12 Ω

Per-unit impedance of load to referred to A:

12
= 0.63 per − unit
19

Since chosen bases for kilovolts and

kilovoltamperes agree with the transformer
ratings, the transformer reactances in per-unit
are 0.08 and 0.1, respectively.
 Fig 1.5 is the required impedance diagram with
impedances marked in per-unit.

.
J0,1 J0.08

0.63+j0

Remember:
The kilovoltampere base should be the same in all parts of the system,
and the selection of the base kilovolts in one part of the system
determines the base kilovolts to be assigned,
according to the turns ratios of the transformers,
to the other parts of the system.
1.6. THE PER-UNIT SYSTEM IN
THREE-PHASE TRANSFORMERS
The possible connection of the three-
phase transformer is:

∆-Y

Y - ∆

Y – Y

∆ - ∆
The theory is the same for a three-phase transformer
as
for a three-phase bank of a single-phase transformer
Advantage of a three-phase transformer
then three single-phase transformers:

The three-phase unit has the advantage of
requiringless iron to form the core, and is
therefore more economical then three single-
phase units and occupies less space.

Advantage of three single-phase
transformers then a three-phase
transformer:

The three single-phase units have the
advantage of replacement of only one unit of
the three-phase bank in case of a failure
rather than losing the whole three-phase
bank.
The connection diagram of three-phase transformer:

.

A B C

H1 H2 H3

h1 h2 h3

a b c

Fig.1.6.1 (a) Y – Y connection diagram

Example 1.6.1
Three single-phase transformer, each rated 400
MVA, 13.8/199.2 kV, with leakage reactance X
= 0.10 per-unit, are connected to form a
three-phase bank. Winding resistances and
exciting current are neglected. The high-
voltage windings are connected in Y. A three-
phase load operating under balanced positive-
sequence conditions on the high-voltage side
absorbs 1000 MVA at 0.90 p.f. lagging, with
V AN = 199.2∠0 0 kV. Determine the voltage VAN at
the low-voltage bus if the low-voltage windings
are connected (a) in Y, (b) in ∆.
 Solution
The per-unit network is shown in Fig 1.6.2.
Using the transformer bank ratings as base
quantities,
Sbase3Ф = 1200 MVA, VbaseHL-L = 345kV,
and
IbaseHL-L =1200/(345)√3) =2.008kA.
The per-unit load voltage and load current are
then
VAN = 1.0∠00 per − unit
1000/(345 3)
IA = ∠ − cos−1 0.9 = 0.8333∠ − 25.84 per − unit
2.008
 Fig1.6.2 (a) Y – connected low-voltage windings

.
jX IA=1.0

+ +
J0.10

VAN

Fig1.6.2 (a) Y – connected low-voltage windings -

-

Ia jX Ia IA=1.0

+ +
J0.10

VAN=1.0

VAN EAN

Fig1.6.2. (b) ∆ – connected low-voltage windings

- -

. (a). For the Y – Y transfomer, Fig 1.6.2 (a),

I a = I A = 0.8333∠ − 25.84 0 per − unit

Van = V AN + ( jX ) I A
= 1.0∠0 0 + ( j 0.10)(0.8333∠ − 25.84 0 )

= 1.0 + 0.08333∠64.16 0 = 1.0363 + j 0.0750 = 1.039∠4.139 0 per − unit

Further, since VbaseXL-N = 13.8 kV for the low-voltage Y windings,

Van = 1.039(13.8) = 14.34kV ,

and
Van = 14.34∠4.139 0 kV
b) For the ∆ - Y transformer, Fig 1.7(b)
− j 300
Ean = e VAN = 1.0∠ − 300 per− unit

.
− j 300
Ia = e I A = 0.8333∠(−25.840 − 300 ) = 0.8333∠ − 55.840 per− unit
Van = EAN + ( jX)I A
= 1.0∠ − 300 + ( j0.10)(0.8333∠ − 55.840 ) = 1.039∠ − 25.8610 per− unit

Further, since Vbase XL-N = 13.8/√3 = 7.967 kv for the low-voltage ∆ windings,

Van = (1.039)(7.967) = 8.278 kV ,

and

Van = 8.278∠ − 25.8610 per − unit

The criterion for the selection of base voltage involves the square
of the ratio of line-to-line voltages and not the square of the turns
ratio of the individual windings of the Y - ∆ transformer.
Conclusion:
1. To transfer the ohmic value of impedance
from the voltage level on one side of a three-
phase transformer to the voltage level on the
other, the multiplying factor is the square of
the ratio of line-to-line voltages regardless of
whether the transformer connection is Y – Y
or Y - ∆.
2. In per-unit calculations involving
transformers in three-phase circuits we
require the base voltages on the two sides of
the transformer to have the same ratio as
the rated line-to-line voltages on the two
sides of transformer. The kilovoltampere
base is the same on each side.
Example 1.6.2

Three transformers, each rated 25 MVA,
38.1/3.81 kV, are connected Y - ∆ with a
balanced load of three 0.6Ω, Y – connected
resistor. Choose a base of75 MVA, 66 kV for
the high-voltage side of the transformer and
specify the base for the low-voltage side.
Then, determine the load resistance RL in
ohms referred to the high-voltage side and
the per-unit value of this resistance on the
chosen base.

Solution:
Since √3x38.1 kV is equals 66 kV, the rating
of the transformer as the three-phase bank is
75 MVA, 66Y/3.81∆ kV. So, base for the low-
voltage side is 75 MVA, 3.81 kV.

By equation
 By equation
(base voltage, kVL− L ) 2

. Base impedance =
baseMVA3φ
2
So, base impedance on the low-voltage side is:
( 3.81 )
= 0.1935Ω
75
0. 6
and on the low-voltage side RL = = 3.10 per − unit
0.1935
2
Base impedance on the high-voltage side is
( 66 )
= 58.1Ω
75
The resistance referred to the high-voltage side is
2
 66 
0.6  = 180Ω
 3.81 
180
RL = = 3.10 per − unit
58.1
1.7. PER-UNIT IMPEDANCES OF THE
THREE-WINDING TRANSFORMERS

Selection base:

Sbase is selected for all three windings

Voltage bases are selected in proportion

to the rated voltages of the windings

N2
I2
I1 +

E2
- I3
+
E1
+
E3
-
N1 -
N3

Fig 1.7.1(a)Basic core and coil configuration

Fig 1.7.1(b). Per-unit equivalent circuit
– ideal transformer

. I2pu

I1pu +

E2pu

E1pu I3pu
+
E3pu

- -
-
 Fig 1.7.1 (c). Per-unit equivalent
circuit – ideal transformer

.
I2pu

I1pu
+

E2pu

E1pu I3pu
+

E3pu

- -
-
Note:

Two-winding transformer have the same
kilovoltampere rating for both the primary
and secondary windings, BUT all three
windings of a three-winding transformer may
have different kilovoltampere ratings.

The impedance of each winding of a three-
winding transformer may be given in percent
or per-unit based on the rating of its own
winding, or tests may be made to determine
the impedances.

In any case, all the per-unit impedances
must be expressed on the same
kilovoltampere base

Three single-phase transformer ≠ Three-
phase transformer

Three-phase transformer ≠ Three-winding
transformer
Three impedances may be measured by the
standard short-circuit test, as follows:

Zps leakage impedance measured in
primary with secondary short-circuited
and tertiary open

Zpt leakage impedance measured in
primary with tertiary short-circuited and
open secondary

Zst leakage impedance measured in
secondary with tertiary short-circuited
and primary open
The impedances of each separate winding

Zps = Zp + Zs

Zpt = Zp + Zt

Zst = zs + Zt

Where:

Zp = impedance of the primary winding

Zs = impedance of the secondary winding

Zt = impedance of the tertiary winding
The Zp, Zs and Zt:

.
1
Z p = (Z ps + Z pt − Z st )
2
1
Z s = (Z ps + Z st − Z st )
2
1
Z t = (Z pt + Z st − Z ps )
2
Example 1.7.1

A constant voltage source (infinite bus) supplies a
purely resistive 5MW, 2.3kV three-phase load and a
7.5MVA, 13.2 kV synchronous motor having a
subtransient reactance of X” = 20%. The source is
connected to the primary of the three-winding
transformer described in Fig 1.9. The motor and the
resistive load are connected to the secondary and
tertiary of the transformer. Draw the impedance
diagram of the system and mark the per-unit
impedances for a base of 66kV, 15 MVA in the
primary. Neglect exciting current and all resistance
except that the resistive load.

Solution

The constant-voltage source can be represented by a
generator having no internal impedance.

The resistance of the load is 1.0 pu on a base of 5
MVA, 2.3kV in the tertiary. Expressed on a 15 MVA,
2.3 kV base, the load resistance is:
 The load resistance is:

. R = 1. 0 x
15
= 3.0 pu
5

The reactance of the motor on a base of 15 MVA, 13.2 kV is:

J0.05

J0.02 J0.40
15
+ X " = 0.20 = 0.40 pu
E‫أل‬ J0.07
+ 7.5
Em
3.0
-
- Fig.1.7.2. Impedance diagram for example 1.7.1

The great advantage of using per-unit values is that

no computations are required to refer impedance
from one side of a transformer to the other.
The following points should be kept in mind:

A base kilovolts and base kilovoltamperes is selected in one
part of the system. The base values for a three-phase system
are understood to be line-to-line kilovolts and three-phase
kilovoltamperes or megavoltamperes.

For other parts of the system, that is, n other side of
transformer, the base kilovolts for each part is determined
according to the line-to-line voltage ratios of transformers. The
base kilovoltamperes will be the same in all parts of the
system. It will be helpful to mark the base kilovolts of each part
of the system on one-line diagram.

Impedance information available for three-phase transformers
will usually be in per-unit or in percent on the base determined
by their own ratings.

For three single-phase transformers connected as a three-
phase unit the three-phase ratings are determined from the
single-phase rating of each individual transformer. Impedance
in percent for the three-phase unit is the same as that for each
individual transformer.

Per-unit impedance given on a base other than that determined
for the part of the system in which the element is located must
be changed to the proper base by Eq1.5.15
1.9. PROBLEM

1-1 Why are one-line diagrams used to
represent power system?

1-2 What symbols can appear on a one-
line diagram?

1-3 One-line diagram of the power
system in Problem 1-3 as below
M2

T1 T2
G1
L
2

M3

Fig 1.8.1 System for problem 1-3

Find the per-phase equivalent circuit of the power system shown in Fig 1.8.1

Data system
Component MVA KV R X

.
Generator 30 13.8 0.1 per-unit Xs = 1.0 per-unit

Transformer1 35 13.2/115 0.01 per-unit 0.10 per-unit

Transmission 25Ω 100 Ω

Transformer 2 30 120/12.5 0.01 per-unit 0.08 per unit

Motor 2 20 12.5 0.1 per-unit Xs 1.1 per-unit

Motor 3 10 12.5 0.1per-unit Xs 1.1 per-unit

Cont’d

1-4. A generator (which may be represented by an

e.m.f series with an inductive reactance) is
rated 500 MVA, 22 kV. Its Y-connected windings
have a reactance of 1.1 per-unit. Find the Ohmic
value of the reactance of the windings.

1-5 The generator in Prob.1-4 is in a circuit for
which the bases are specified as 100MVA, 20kV.
Starting with the per-unit value given in Prob. 1-
4, find the per-unit value of reactance of the
generator windings on the specified base.