Taking Inverse Laplace Transformation on both sides

t 2et t 5et
Y  e t  te t  
2 60

Linear algebra

Basic Discussion about linear algebra & Some Definition with example:
Linear algebra is vital in multiple areas of science in general. Because linear
equations are so easy to solve, practically every area of modern science contains
models where equations are approximated by linear equations.
Linear Algebra is one of the most important parts of mathematics which has not only
interesting pure mathematical ideas but also a lot of applications in physics and
engineering. So it seems reasonable to have a Complete, Clear, Brief, and Dedicated
finition for this important branch of mathematics.
Information in science, business, and mathematics is often organized into rows and
columns to form rectangular arrays called “matrices” (plural of “matrix”). Matrices
often
appear as tables of numerical data that arise from physical observations, but they
occur in
various mathematical contexts as well. For example, we will see in this chapter that
all of
the information required to solve a system of equations such as
5� + � = 3
2� − � = 4
5 1 3
is embodied in the matrix
2 −1 4
and that the solution of the system can be obtained by performing appropriate
operations
on this matrix. This is particularly important in developing computer programs for
solving
systems of equations because computers are well suited for manipulating arrays of
numerical information. However, matrices are not simply a notational tool for solving
systems of equations; they can be viewed as mathematical objects in their own right,
and
there is a rich and important theory associated with them that has a multitude of
practical
applications. It is the study of matrices and related topics that forms the mathematical
field
that we call “linear algebra.”
Augmented matrix: Given a system of n equations and m unknowns there will be one
of three

�1
�2
.
Augmented by the matrix B= is called augmented matrix of A and is writen as
.
.
��
�∗.
Free variable: The variable which does not appear at the beginning of equation
system or any equation is called free variable.
Free variable= Number of variable-Number of equation
possibilities for solutions to the system.
1. There will be no solution , if 0 = a
2. There will be exactly one solution.
3. There will be infinitely many solutions , if 0 = 0.
If there is no solution to the system we call the system inconsistent and if there is at
least
one solution to the system we call it consistent.
Consistent and inconsistent: A system of non-homogeneous linear equation is said
to be consistent if the rank of the coefficient matrix and the rank of the augmented
matrix are equal. Otherwise it is said to be inconsistent.
Problem : Define Linear equation and homogeneous linear equation with example.

Solution :
Linear equation:
In two dimensions a line in a rectangular xy-coordinate system can be represented by
an equation of �� + �� = � (a,b not both 0), where a and b are constants then the
equation is called linear equation.
Example : � + 7� = 8; 6� + 3� = 5.
homogeneous linear equation:

If the linear equation �1 �1 + �2 �2 + … + �� �� = � …(1)

In the special case where b =0, Equation (1) has the form
�1 �1 + �2 �2 + … + �� ��= 0
which is called a homogeneous linear equation in the variables .

[ A linear equation does not involve any products or roots of variables. All variables
occur only to the first power and do not appear, for example, as arguments of
trigonometric,
logarithmic, or exponential functions. The following are linear equations:
� + 3� = 7; �1 − 2�2 − 3�3 + 4 = 0.
The following are not linear equations:
� + 3�2 = 4
3� + 2� –�� = 5
���� + � = 0 and √(� ) + 2� + � = 1.
Linear Systems with Two and Three Unknowns:

Linear systems in two unknowns arise in connection with intersections of lines. For
example, consider the linear system
�1 � + �2 � = �
�1 � + �2 � = �
in which the graphs of the equations are lines in the xy-plane. Each solution (x, y) of
this system corresponds to a Figure : 1 point of intersection of the lines, so there are
three possibilities .
1. The lines may be parallel and distinct, in which case there is no intersection and
consequently
no solution
2. The lines may intersect at only one point, in which case the system has exactly one
solution.
3. The lines may coincide, in which case there are infinitely many points of
intersection (the points on the
common line) and consequently infinitely many solutions.
 Solving System of Linear Equations

Problem: Solve the system of Linear equations

� – � + �� = �
� − �� + � = �

�� –� –� = �

Solution : Given that,

�– � + �� = � … ��
� − �� + � = � … ��
�� –� –� = � … ��
R'2  R2  R1
R'3  R3  2 R2

� –� + �� = �

− �− � = �
� –�� = �
'
R3  R2  R3 � − � + �� = � … (�)

−�− � = � … (�)
− �� = � … (�)
Above equations are echelon form where three variable and three equation exit.

So, there is a unique solution.

(3)  z =-1/3
 (2)  -y – (-1/3) = 2  y = -2+1/3=-5/3

(1)  x – (-5/3) +2 (-1/3) = 4  x=3

Hence the required solution (�, �, �) = (3, -5/3, -1/3)

Problem: Solve the system of linear equation:

2x  3y  2z  5
x  y  3z  2
4x  y  4z  1
2 x  3 y  2 z  5.......R 1
Solution: Given that, x  y  3z  2.......R 2
4 x  y  4 z  1.......R 3
2 x  3 y  2 z  5.....; R 1
5 y  8 z  1......R 2 R2'  R1  2 R2 
7 y  8 z  9......R 3 2 R1  R3 
 2 x  3 y  2 z  5......R 1
5 y  8 z  1......R 2
16 z  38......R 3 R3'  7 R2  5 R3 

Hence, number of equation is equal to the number of variables. So, there is only one
solution. From this equation, we get,

-16z=-38
19
=>z=
8
And
5y-8z=1
19
=>5y-8 =1
8
=>5y=1+19
=>y=4

Or, 2x+y-2z=5
19
=>2x+3*4-2*= =5
8
19
=>2x=5-12+=
8
9
=>2x=
4
9
=>x=-
8
 9 19
Ans: Hence the required solution (�, �, �) = ( −
, − 4, )
8 8
Problem: Solve the system of linear equation:
x  y  2z  1
x  2y  z  5
2x  y  z  4

x  y  2 z  1.......R 1
Solution: Given that, x  2 y  z  5.......R 2
2 x  y  z  4.......R 3
 x  y  2 z  1......R 1
y  z  4......R 2  R2'  R1  R2 
 y  5 z  2......R 3  R3'  2 R1  R3 
 x  y  2 z  1......R 1
y  z   4......R 2
6 z  6......R 3 R3'  R2  R3 
Hence, number of equation is equal to the number of variables. So,
there is only one solution. From this equation, we get,

6� =− 6
=> � =− 1
���
� + � =− 4
=> � − 1 =− 4
=> � =− 4 + 1
=> � =− 3
�� , � − � + 2� = 1
=> � + 3 − 2 = 1
=> � = 1 − 1
=> � = 0

Ans: Hence the required solution (�, �, �) = (0, − 3, − 1)

Problem: Solve the system of Linear equations

� + 2 � − 3� = 3
2� − � + 4� = 6
4� + 3� –2� = 12
Solution: Given that,

� + 2 � − 3� = 3 … �1
2� − � + 4� = 6 … �2
4� + 3� –2� = 12 … �3
 R '2  R2  2 R1

R '3  R3  4 R1

� + 2 � − 3� = 3

−5 � + 10 � = 0

−5 � + 10 � = 0

� + 2 � − 3� = 3

−5 � + 10 � = 0

Here we get three variable and two equation (from echelon form )

So, there is more than one solution exit.

Number of free variable = 3-2 = 1. Which is z .

Let z = 1 then (2)  −5 � + 10 � = 0

−5 � + 10 = 0

−5 � = − 10

� = 2

then (1) 

� + 2 � − 3� = 3

� + 2 . 2 − 3.1 = 3

� = 2
Hence the required solution is (�, �, �) = (2, 2, 1) (Ans:)

Problem: Define Matrix, Square matrix, Diagonal matrix, Identity matrix, Transpose
of a matrix, Singular matrix, Non singular matrix, Rank of a matrix with example .

Solution :
Matrix: A matrix is a rectangular array of numbers usually arranged in rows and
columns enclosed by pair of brackets.
The numbers of which a matrix composed are called entries or matrix elements.
1 2 3
Example: A = 4 5 6
7 8 9
Square matrix: If the numbers of rows in a matrix equal to the matrix in columns,
then it is called the square matrix.

Example : A = 1 2 .
3 4
Diagonal matrix : A square matrix all of whose elements except those of leading
diagonal are zero is called diagonal matrix.
1 0 0
Example : A = 0 2 0
0 0 3
Scalar matrix: A diagonal matrix whose diagonal are equal is called Identity
matrix.
2 0 0
Example : A = 0 2 0
0 0 2
Identity matrix / unit matrix: If each number in the principal diagonal of a square
matrix is equal to one and all the other numbers are equal to zero is called Identity
matrix.
1 0 0
Example: A = 0 1 0
0 0 1
Transpose of a matrix: If the column of a given matrix A is changed into row or the
row into column, the matrix in thus formed is called the transpose of a matrix A and it
is generally denoted by �� .
1 2 3 1 4 7
Example : let A = 4 5 6 and �� = 2 5 8 .
7 8 9 3 6 9
3  5 4 
 
Problem: Find the adjoint of the matrix   5 2  7
1 4 3 
.

Solution :

We know ,

 a11 a12 a13   a11 a 21 a31 

 a 23   a12 a32 
AdjA = Transpose of   a 21 a 22 a 22
a31 a32 a33  a13 a 23 a33 

2 7 5 7 5 2
Where a11  ; a12   ; a13 
4 3 1 3 1 4
 = 6-(-28) = 34 = - (15+7) = - 22 = 20-2= 18

5 4 3 4 3 5
a21   ; a22  ; a23  
4 3 1 3 1 4

= - (-15-16) =9-4 = - ( 12+5)

= 31 =5 = - 17

5 4 3 4 3 5
a31  ; a32   ; a33 
2 7 5 7 5 2

= 35 -8 = - (21-20) = 9+25

= 27 = 41 = 31

Therefore, the coefficient matrix A is

34  22 18 
   31 5  17
27 41 31 

 34 31 27

  22 5 41
 18  17 31

4  6 4 
 
Problem: Find the adjoint of the matrix   5 6  8
8 7 5 

Solution:
 4 6 4 
Given that, A   5 6 8
 8 7 5 
�� ����, � = [�������� �� ������ �]^�……(1). Now, finding the cofactor of
matrix A are following
a11  30  56  86
a12  (25  64)  89
a13  35  48  13
a21  (30  28)  58
a22  20  32  12
a23  (28  48)  76
a31  48  24  24
a32  (32  20)  52
a33  24  30  54
Putting these values in equation (1) we get,
T
86 89 13
Adj A=  58 12 76 
 24 52 54 
 86 58 24
=  89 12 52  (Ans)

 13 76 54 
3  1 4 
 
Problem: Find the adjoint of the matrix   4 7  6
3 9 2 
.

Solution:

 3 1 4 
Given that, A   4 7 6
 3 9 2 
�� ����, � = [�������� �� ������ �]^�……(1). Now, finding the cofactor of
matrix A are following
a11  14  54  68
a12  (8  18)  26
a13  36  21  15
a21  (2  36)  38
a22  6  12  6
a23  (27  3)  30
a31  6  28  22
a32  (18  16)  34
a33  21  4  25
Putting these values in equation (1)we get,
 T
 68 26 15 
Adj A=  38 6 30 
 
 22 34 25 
 68 38 22
=  26 6 34  (Ans)
 15 30 25 
Singular matrix: If the value of the determinant of a matrix is equal to zero then is called

singular matrix. If A 0

Non Singular matrix: If the value of the determinant of a matrix is not equal to zero then is
called nonsingular matrix. If � ≠ 0

1 2 1
 
Problem : Find the inverse of the matrix   2 1 1
3 0 2

1 2 1
 
Solution : Given that ,   2 1 1
3 0 2

��� �
Now , A-1 = ,
A ≠ 0 … (1)
A

1 2 1
Where , A 2 1 1.
3 0 2

1 1 2 1 2 1
= 1 2 + 1
0 2 3 2 3 0

= 1(2-0) -2(4-3) +1(0-3)

= 2-2-3 = -3 …(2)

we know,
  a11 a12 a13   a11 a 21 a31 
 a 23   a12 a32 
AdjA = Transpose of   a 21 a 22 a 22
a31 a32 a33  a13 a 23 a33 

1 1 2 1 2 1
Where a11  ; a12   ; a13 
0 2 3 2 3 0

= 2-0=2 ; = -(4-3)= -1; = 0-3= -3

2 1 1 1 1 2
a21   ; a22  ; a23  
0 2 3 2 3 0

= - (4-0)= -4; = 2-3= -1; = - (0-6)=6

2 1 1 1 1 2
a31  ; a32   ; a33 
1 1 2 1 2 1

= 2-1=1; = - (1-2)=1; = 1-4= -3

Therefore, the coefficient matrix A is

2 −1 −3 2 −4 1
A= −4 −1 6 and adj A= −1 −1 1
1 1 −3 −3 6 −3

From equation (1), we get,

2 −4 1
1
�−1 =− 3 −1 −1 1
−3 6 −3

6 2 4  1 1  2
  6 2 1 
Problem: If    1 6  4 and  
1
  then find   .
 3 1 6  5 1 3 

Solution :
 1 2 1
 
Given that ,   2 1 1
3 0 2

We know that,

��� �
A-1 = ,
A ≠ 0 … (1)
A

A  6(36  4)  2(6  12)  4(1  18)

Now,
 152  0

So, this matrix is non-singular. we can find an inverse matrix.

Now, finding the cofactor of matrix A are following

a11  36  4  40
a12  (6  12)  6
a13  1  18  19
a21  (12  4)  8
a22  36  12  24
a23  (6  6)  0
a31  8  24  32
a32  (24  4)  20
a33  36  2  38

T
 40 6 19 
Adj A=  8 24 0 

 32 20 38 

 40 8 32

= 6 24 20

 
 19 0 38 

From equation (1) we get,

  40 8 32 
 152 152 152 
 40 8 32  
1  6 24 20 
1
A  6 24 20  =
152    152 152 152 
 19 0 38   
 19 0
38 
 152 152 

Now,

 40 8 32 
 152 152 152  1 1 2 
 
6 24 20  
A B
1
6 2 1
 152 152 152   
   5 1 3 
 19 0
38 
 152 152 

 40 48 160 40 16 32 80 8 96 
 152  152  152 152  152  152 152  152  152 
 
 6 144 100 6 48 20 12 24 60 
      
152 152 152 152 152 152 152 152 152 
 
 19  0  190 19
0
38 38
0
114 
 152 152 152 152 152 152 
 168 24 24 
 152 152 152 
 
238 62 96 
 (Ans)
 152 152 152 
 
 171 19
1 
 152 152 

Solve the following system of linear equations using inverse matrix method.

(i ) 2 x  3 y  z  12 (ii ) 2 x  3 y  5 z  11 (iii ) 4 x  2 y  z  16

3 x  4 y  11z  46 5 x  2 y  7 z  12 6x  y  4z  0
5x  0 y  4 z  5  4x  3y  z  5 2x  y  2z  8
(iv) 2x  y  z  4 (v ) 2 x  2 y  3 z  3 (vi ) x  y  2 z  20
x  2y  z  5 yz  2 x  2y  30
x  y  2z  1 x  y z  4 x  yz  0

Inverse Matrix Method:

4 x  2 y  z  16
6x  y  4z  0
2x  y  2z  8

Given system of linear equations can be written as in the following matrix form:
 4  2 1   x  16 
    
 6  1  4 . y    0  --------------------------------------------(1)
 2 1  2  z   8 
    
4  2 1   x 16 
     
Let A   6  1  4  ; X   y  and B   0 
 2 1  2 z 8
     
Using above matrix notation the new form of equation (1) is:
A. X  B
 A 1  A. X   A 1 .B
 I . X  A 1 .B
 X  A 1.B -------------------------------------------------------(2)
We know that, Inverse of the matrix is defined by A 1 , which can be written as:

1 1
A 1  . (Adjiont of A)  . (Adjiont of A)
Determinant of A A

Here, determinant of A,

4 2 1
A6 1  4
2 1 2
1  4 6 4 6 1
4  (  2) 1
1 2 2 2 2 1
 4(2  4)  2(12  8)  1(6  2)
 24  8  8
 24
Now,

Adjiont of the matrix A

=Transpose of the cofactor matrix of A
T
 1 4 6 4 6 1 
  
 1 2 2 2 2 1 
 2 1 4 1 4 2 
=  
 1 2 2 2 2 1 
 2 1 4 1 4 2 
  
 1 4 6 4 6  1 
 2  4   12  8 6  2  T
 
=   4  1  8  2  4  4 
 8  1   16  6  4  12

T
 6 4 8 
 
=   3  10  8 
 9 22 8 

6  3 9 
 
=  4  10 22 
8 8 8 
 
Now from (2) we have
 x  6  3 9 16   96  0  72   168   7 
  1    1   1    
 y   4  10 22  0    64  0  176    240   10 
z 24    24   24    
   8  8 8  8  128  0  64   192   8 
x  7 , y  10, z  8 (Answer)

Rank of a matrix: let A be a matrix. Then applying some linear operation. We get
some row reducing or column reducing form. So, number of independent row or
column of a matrix is called rank of a matrix.
1 2 3
Example: A = 4 5 6 ; Rank (A) = 2.
0 0 0
1 3 2 5 4
1 4 1 3 5 
Problem: Determine the rank of a matrix   
1 4 2 4 3
 
2 7  3 6 13 .
 1 3 2 5 4
1 4 1 3 5 
Solution: Given that,  
1 4 2 4 3
 
2 7  3 6 13

1 3 2 4 5
0 1 3  2 1 
R’2 = R2 - R1 
1 4 2 4 3
 
2 7  3 6 13

1 3 2 4 5
0 1 3  2 1 
R’3 = R3 - R1 
0 1 4  1  1
 
2 7  3 6 13 

1 3 2 5 4
0 1 3  2 1 
R’4 = R4 - 2R1 
0 1 4  1  1
 
0 1 1 4 5 

1 3 2 5 4
0 1 3  2 1 
R’’3 = R’3-R’2 
0 0 1 1  2
 
0 1 1 4 5 

1 3 2 4 5
0 1 3  2 1 
R’’4 = R’4-R’2 
0 0 1 1  2
 
0 0 2 2 4 

1 3 2 54
0 1 3  2 1 
R’’’4 = R4+2R3 
0 0 1 1  2
 
0 0 0 0 0
Here, Non- zero row is 3 or independent row is 3.

So, rank (A) = 3.

1 2 −1 0
Problem: Find the rank of � = 3 1 4 2.
1 −3 6 2

Solution:
Operate �'3 = �3 − �1 and �'2 = �2 − 3�1

Operate �'3 = �3 − �2
1 2 −1 0
�~ 0 −5 7 2
0 0 0 0
�
Operate �'2 = −52
−1 0
1 2 7 2
�~ 0 1 − −
0 0 5 5
0 0
Which is a row reduced echelon form. Since there are only two nonzero rows so
� � = 2.
Eigen value and Eigen vector:

If A is an matrix, then a nonzero vector v in is called an eigen vector of A (or of the

matrix

operator ) if is a scalar multiple of v; that is, Av = .v

for some scalar . The scalar . is called an eigen value of A (or of ), and v is said to be

an

Characteristic equation:

If A is an matrix, then is an eigenvalue of A if and only if it satisfies the

equation I  A  0 This is called the characteristic equation of A.

Problem:

Find (i) the characteristic matrix (ii) the characteristic equation (iii) the eigenvalues
  3 1
of the matrix A   
1 1 

 3 1
Solution: Given that A   
1 1 

The characteristic equation is I  A  0

=> � − 3 1
=0
−1 �−1

=> � − 1 � − 3 + 1 = 0

=>�2 − 4� + 4 =0

=> � − 2 � − 2 = 0

=>� = 2, 2

And the eigenvalues are

� = 2, 2

Problem:

Find (i) the characteristic matrix (ii) the characteristic equation (iii) the eigenvalues

 2 0 0  3 2 4
   
of the matrix (a) A   1 1 0  , B   2 0 2 
 1 4 0   4 2 3
   

(a) Solution:

Given that,

 2 0 0
 
A   1 1 0 
 1 4 0 
 

The characteristic matrix is:

 1 0 0  2 0 0
  I  A     0 1 0    1 1 0 
 0 0 1   1 4 0 
   
  2 0 0

 1   1 0 
 1 4  


The characteristic equation is I  A  0

  2 0 0

 1   1 0  =0
 1 4  


 1 0
  2 0
4 
    2      1  0
   0,1, 2

the eigenvalues are

� = 0,1,2

(b) Solution:

Given that

 3 2 4
 
B   2 0 2
 4 2 3
 

The characteristic matrix is:

1 0 0  3 2 4
  I  A     0 1 0    2 0 2 
 0 0 1  4 2 3
   
   3 2 4 
 
  2  2 
 4 2   3 
 

The characteristic equation is I  A  0

   3 2 4 
 
 2  2  =0
 4 2   3 
 

   3 ( 2  3  4)  2(2  6  8)  4(4  4 )  0
    3   4  (  1)  4(  1)  16(  1)  0
 (  1)( 2  7  8)  0
    1   1  8   0
    1,  1,8

the eigenvalues are

� =− 1, − 1, 8