74 ◆ Control Systems

3.6 ô Frequency-Domain Approach to Control System Design

The frequency-response characteristics are modified and tuned in such a way that they meet the desired
specifications of the system by using the frequency-domain techniques. Control system design by using
frequency-domain techniques can be done with Nyquist plots or Bode plots. The commonly used approach
is the Bode plot as it is easier to modify it to meet the desired specifications. The desired specifications could
be frequency- or transient-response specifications along with the steady-state error requirement. In case
transient-response specifications are given, by using the correlation between time and frequency responses,
it can be translated into suitable frequency-domain specification and the design can be carried out.
The transient-response characteristics are observed in the high-frequency region, while the steady-
state characteristics are noted from the low-frequency region. The relative stability aspect is covered in the
mid-frequency region. Henceforth, the lead compensator modifies the Bode plot in the high-frequency
region to attain the desired transient-response characteristics. The lag compensator modifies the Bode
plot in the low-frequency region to achieve the desired steady-state response characteristics and improve
the system’s performance. On the other hand, a lag-lead compensator can be used to modify both the
high-frequency and low-frequency regions of the Bode plot so as to improve the transient and steady-state
response characteristics and attain the desired performance. In case of frequency-domain-based design, the
experimental data can be directly used for carrying out the design.
Section 2.9 of Unit 2 has provided the basic configurations of the lag, lead, and lag-lead compensators
along with their transfer function and pole-zero mapping in s-plane. This section will detail the frequency
response of these compensators and the procedure for designing these compensators by using a Bode plot
with necessary examples.

3.6.1 Phase-Lag Compensator Design Using Bode Plot

Basically, a phase-lag compensator network improves the steady-state accuracy, attenuates high frequencies,
and allows the low frequencies to pass through. From Section 2.9.3 of Unit 2, the transfer function of the lag
compensator is given by,

é (1 + st ) ù
Gc ( s ) = ê ú (3.60)
ë (1 + a st ) û
where t represents the time constant.
The sinusoidal transfer function of lag compensator Gc(s) is given as,

é (1 + jwt ) ù
Gc ( jw ) = ê ú (3.61)
ë (1 + a jwt ) û
The magnitude and phase angle of Gc( jw) becomes,

1 + (wt )2
Gc ( jw ) = (3.62)
1 + (awt )2
ÐGc ( jw) = tan–1(wt) – tan–1(awt)(3.63)
Based on the sinusoidal transfer function shown in Eq. (3.61), the two corner frequencies are located at,
1 1
wc 1 = and wc 2 = (3.64)
at t

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 Frequency Response Analysis ◆ 75

The Bode plot of the phase-lag compensator is given in Fig. 3.44. In this plot, the magnitude plot of
Gc( jw) is a straight line through 0 dB upto corner frequency w c1, and then it has a slope of –20 dB/decade
æ1ö
until corner frequency w c2, and after w c2, it becomes a straight line with a constant gain of 20log ç ÷ . In phase
èa ø
plot as shown in Fig. 3.44, as w is varied from 0 to ¥, the phase angle gets decreased from 0 to
a negative maximum value (fm) for w = wm and then it raises from this maximum value to 0.

0 dB
—
20log√a 20loga
−20
|Gc( jw)| dB
/de
(dB) cad
e

0°

fm
−45°
∠Gc( jw)
(degrees)
−fm

−90°
1 1 1
wc1 = wm = — wc2 =
at t√a t

Fig. 3.44 Bode plot of phase-lag compensator.

The maximum phase lag occurs at the frequency wm, which is the geometric mean of the two corner
frequencies and is obtained as,

Frequency of maximum phase lag wm = wc 1wc 2 

1 .1
=
at t
é 1 ù
\ wm = ê ú (3.65)
ët a û

At w = wm, f ® fm, so,

é1 - a ù
tan fm = ê ú (3.66)
ë2 a û

é1 - a ù
or sin fm = ê ú (3.67)
ë1 + a û

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 76 ◆ Control Systems

From Eqs. (3.66) and (3.67), the maximum phase lag angle (fm) can be obtained as,

é1 - a ù é1 - a ù
fm = tan -1 ê ú or fm = sin -1 ê ú (3.68)
ë2 a û ë1 + a û

As a > 1, the phase angle is negative.

The value of a can be determined from the maximum phase lag angle (fm) using,

é 1 - sin fm ù
a=ê ú (3.69)
ë 1 + sin fm û

3.6.1.1 Procedure for Phase-Lag Compensator Design

The design steps adopted for designing a phase-lag compensator using Bode plot are as follows:
1. For the given desired specifications, select the value of gain K to meet the steady-state error require-
ment in the uncompensated system.
2. Sketch the Bode plot of the uncompensated system.
3. From the Bode plot, find the PM of the uncompensated system. If the PM does not meet the require-
ment, it is required to design the lag compensator.
4. Select a suitable value for the PM of the compensated system.
Let, fn = PM of compensated system
fd = desired PM according to specifications given.
Then, fn = fd + e (3.70)
where, e = additional phase lag contribution to shift the gain crossover frequency.
Allow, e from 5° to 15°, that is, e is a safety margin that the compensator will provide phase lag at the
new gain crossover frequency (w 'gc ) .

5. To find the new gain crossover frequency (w 'gc ): The new gain crossover frequency w 'gc is the frequency
pertaining to a PM of fn in the Bode plot of uncompensated system. If fgc is the phase of G( jw) at the
new gain crossover frequency, w 'gc , then,
fn = 180° + fgc
(or) fgc = –180° + fn (3.71)
Hence, the new gain crossover frequency, w 'gc is the frequency at which the phase of G( jw) is fgc.
6. Find the parameter, a, of the lag compensator. The magnitude of G( jw) at the new gain crossover
frequency w 'gc gives the value of a of the compensator.
Evaluate the dB gain at the new gain crossover frequency, w 'gc,

K 'gc = 20log a
K 'gc
log a =
20
( K gc' /20)
(3.72)
a = 10
That is, the lag compensator should provide an attenuation equal to the gain value of the uncompen-
sated system at w 'gc.

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 Frequency Response Analysis ◆ 77

7. Find the transfer function of the phase-lag compensator.

To obtain the t (time constant) of the compensator, select the upper corner frequency of the compen-
sator to be one octave to one decade below w 'gc. That is, locate the zero of the compensator arbitrarily
1
at th of that of the new gain crossover frequency w 'gc.
10
1 w 'gc 10
\ Zero of the phase-lag compensator zc = = and t =
t 10 w 'gc
1
\ Pole of the phase-lag compensator pc =
at
Hence, the transfer function of the phase-lag compensator becomes,
é a (1 + st ) ù
Gc ( s ) = ê ú (3.73)
ë (1 + sat ) û
8. Find the overall transfer function of the compensated system. The block diagram of the phase lag
compensated system is shown in Fig. 3.45.

R(s) 1 a(1 + st) Plant Y(s)

+ Gc(s) =
− a 1 + sat G(s)

Fig. 3.45 Block diagram of the phase-lag compensated system.

The open-loop transfer function of the overall phase-lag compensated system becomes,

1
Go ( s ) = Gc ( s )G ( s )
a
é 1 + st ù
Go ( s ) = ê ú G ( s ) (3.74)
ë 1 + sat û

9. Evaluate the PM of the compensated system. Find the phase angle of the compensated system at the
new gain crossover frequency w 'gc using the compensated transfer function Go(s).

Let, f 'gc = phase of Go( jw) at w = w 'gc

\ Phase margin of compensated system = fon = 180° + f 'gc (3.75)

The design gets accepted if the PM of the compensated system satisfies the given desired specifica-
tions; else, the design procedure is repeated until the given specifications are met. To repeat the pro-
cedure, the value of e shall be suitably changed.
Alternatively, sketch the Bode plot of the compensated system. Test whether the desired specifica-
æ1ö
tions are met; if not, redesign for a new choice of ç ÷ until the specifications are met.
èt ø

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 78 ◆ Control Systems

■ EXAMPLE 3.26 ■
é K ù
The open-loop transfer function of a unity feedback type-1 system is given by, G ( s ) = ê ú.
ë s ( s + 1) û
Design a suitable phase-lag compensator so that the PM is at least 48° and the steady-state error is less
than or equal to 0.5 for ramp input.

Solution
1. To find gain K of the given transfer function.
Given, ess £ 0.5 for ramp input.

1
ess =
Kv

1 1
\ Velocity-error constant, K v = = =2
ess 0.5

we know, K v = lim sG ( s ) H ( s )
s ®0

For the given G(s) and H(s) = 1,

K
K v = lim s × ×1
s ®0 s ( s + 1)
Kv = K = 2

Thus, the gain K = 2 and the transfer function becomes,

é 2 ù
G(s) = ê ú
ë s ( s + 1) û

2. Sketch the Bode plot for the uncompensated system.

é 2 ù
G(s) = ê ú
ë s ( s + 1) û

For s = jw,

é 2 ù
G ( jw ) = ê ú
ë jw ( jw + 1) û

For constructing log-magnitude plot:

The system gain is, K = 2

20logK = 20log2 = +6.02 dB

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 Frequency Response Analysis ◆ 79

The factors corresponding to the open-loop transfer function are tabulated in Table 3.20.

Table 3.20 Factors of G(s).

Factors Corner frequency Nature and slope Resultant slope

(rad/sec) (dB/decade) (dB/decade)
2 – +6.02 dB line slope –
0 dB/decade
æ 1 ö
ç ÷ – –20 dB/decade –20 dB/decade
è jw ø

æ 1 ö
ç ÷ wc = 1 rad/sec –20 dB/decade –40 dB/decade
è jw + 1 ø

The log-magnitude plot is shown in Fig. 3.46.

To sketch phase-angle plot:
The total phase angle of the system is given by,

f(w) = –90° – tan–1w

The phase angle f(w) for various values of w is tabulated in Table 3.21.

Table 3.21 Phase-angle values.

w 0.1 0.2 0.5 1 2 5 10 20 100

f (w
w) –95.71° –101.31° –116.57° –135° –153.43° –168.7° –174.3° –177.13° –179.43°

The phase-angle plot as evaluated for f(w) is shown in Fig. 3.46.

3. From the Bode plot, the PM of the uncompensated system is 38° but the required PM is 48°.
So, now lag compensation is carried out to improve the PM.
4. Desired PM, fd = 48°

\ PM of compensated system, fn = fd + e

Let, e = 5°, so,

fn = fd + e = 48° + 5°
fn = 53°

5. To find the new gain crossover frequency w 'gc.

From Eq. (3.71), we have,

fgc = –180° + fn
so, fgc = –180° + 53° = –127°

From the Bode plot, in Fig. 3.46, the frequency pertaining to a phase of –127° is 0.7 rad/sec.
\           New gain crossover frequency w 'gc = 0.7 rad/sec

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 80 ◆ Control Systems

SEMI-LOG PAPER(5 CYCLES × 1/10°)

9

w rad/sec
8
7
6
5
4

20log2 = +6.02 dB line

3

100
1 100
9
8
7
6
5
4

de
3

ca
de
2

B/
0d
wgc = 1.25 rad/sec

1
10 −4 10
9
8
7
6

wʹgc = 0.7 rad/sec

5
4
wc1 = 1 rad/sec

1.0 1.0

PM = 38°°
Log-magnitude plot

1
9
8
7 0.7
0.7
Phase-angle plot

6
5
fgc = −127°°
ade

3
B/dec

2
−20 d

1
0.1 0.1
9
8
7
6
5
4

1 0.01
+60 +40 +20 0 dB −20 −40 −90° −120° −150° −180°

Fig. 3.46 Bode plot of Example 3.26.

6. To find the parameter a:

From the Bode plot, at frequency w 'gc = 0.7 rad/sec, its magnitude is +12 dB.

G ( jw ) w = w ' = K 'gc = 12 dB
gc

K 'gc = 20log a = 12
a = 10 (12/20)
a = 3.9811

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 Frequency Response Analysis ◆ 81

7. To find the transfer function of the lag compensator:

1 w 'gc
\ Zero of the lag compensator zc = =
t 10
10 10
t= = = 14.29
w 'gc 0.7

1
\ Pole of the lag compensator pc =
at
1 1
pc = =
3.9811 ´ 14.29 56.89
pc = 0.0176
\ The transfer function of phase-lag compensator is,

é a (1 + st ) ù
Gc ( s ) = ê ú
ë (1 + sat ) û
é 3.9811(1 + 14.29s ) ù
Gc ( s ) = ê ú
ë (1 + 56.89s ) û
8. The open-loop transfer function of the compensated system is given by,
1
Go ( s ) = × Gc ( s ) × G ( s )
a
1 é 3.9811(1 + 14.29s ) ù é 2 ù
=
3.9811 êë (1 + 56.89s ) úû êë s ( s + 1) úû
é 2(1 + 14.29s ) ù
Go ( s ) = ê ú
ë s (1 + 56.89s )(1 + s ) û
The block diagram of lag compensated system is shown in Fig. 3.47.

R(s) 1 3.9811(1 + 14.29s) 2 Y(s)

+
− 3.9811 (1 + 56.89s) s(s + 1)

1 Gc(s) G(s)
a

Fig. 3.47 Block diagram of compensated system.

9. Now, calculate the PM of the compensated system.

For s = jw, Go(s) becomes,

é 2(1 + 14.29 jw ) ù
Go ( jw ) = ê ú
ë jw (1 + 56.89 jw )(1 + jw ) û
fo (Go ( jw )) = tan -1 14.29w - 90° - tan -1 56.89w - tan -1 w

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 82 ◆ Control Systems

At w = w 'gc = 0.7 rad/sec,

f 'gc = tan -1 (14.29 ´ 0.7) - 90° - tan -1 (56.89 ´ 0.7) - tan -1 (0.7)
f 'gc = 84.29° - 90° - 88.56° - 34.99°
f 'gc = -129.26°
\ The PM of the compensated system is,
fon = 180° + f 'gc
= 180° - 129.26 °
fon = 50.74°
Hence, the PM of the compensated system is 50.74° greater than the desired PM of at least 48°.
Thus, the lag compensator design satisfies the requirement and so the design is acceptable.

■ EXAMPLE 3.27 ■
é K ù
A unity feedback control system has its open-loop transfer function as, G ( s ) = ê ú.
ë s ( s + 10)( s + 100) û
Design a compensator to satisfy the performance specifications as given below:
(i) Phase margin (PM) ³ 30°
(ii) Velocity-error constant, Kv = 32 sec–1.

Solution
1. Evaluation of gain K of the given transfer function,
Given, velocity-error constant, Kv = 32 sec–1

K v = lim sG ( s ) H ( s )
s ®0

For given G(s) and H(s) = 1,

K
K v = lim s × 1 = 32
s ®0 s ( s + 10)( s + 100)
\ K = 32000 

Thus, the gain K = 32000 and the transfer function becomes,

é 32000 ù
G(s) = ê ú
ë s ( s + 10)( s + 100) û

2. Sketch the Bode plot for the uncompensated system.

é 32000 ù
G(s) = ê ú
ë s ( s + 10)( s + 100) û

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 Frequency Response Analysis ◆ 83

In time-constant form,
é 32 ù
G(s) = ê ú
ë s (1 + 0.1s )(1 + 0.01s ) û
For s = jw,
é 32 ù
G ( jw ) = ê ú
ë jw (1 + 0.1 jw )(1 + 0.01 jw ) û
To construct log-magnitude plot:
The system gain is, K = 32
20logK = 20log32 = +30 dB
The factors corresponding to the open-loop transfer function are tabulated in Table 3.22. The
log-magnitude plot is shown in Fig. 3.48.
Table 3.22 Factors of G(s).

Factors Corner frequency Nature and slope Resultant slope

(rad/sec) (dB/decade) (dB/decade)
32 – +30 dB line slope –
0 dB/decade
æ 1 ö
ç ÷ – –20 dB/decade –20 dB/decade
è jw ø

æ 1 ö
ç ÷ wc1 = 10 rad/sec –20 dB/decade –40 dB/decade
è 1 + 0.1 jw ø

æ 1 ö
ç ÷ wc 2 = 100 rad/sec –20 dB/decade –60 dB/decade
è 1 + 0.01 jw ø

To construct a phase-angle plot:

The total phase angle of the system is given by,
f(w) = –90° – tan–1(0.1w) – tan–1(0.01w)
The phase angle f(w) for various values of w is tabulated in Table 3.23.
Table 3.23 Phase-angle values.

w 0.1 0.2 0.5 1 2 5 10 20 100

f (w
w) –90.63° –91.26° –93.15° –96.28° –102.46° –119.43° –140.71° –164.74° –219.29°

The phase-angle plot for the evaluated values of f(w) is sketched in Fig. 3.48.
3. From the sketched Bode plot, the PM of the uncompensated system is 22°, but the required PM ≥ 30°.
So, now lag compensation is done to improve the PM.
4. Desired PM, fd = 30°
\ PM of compensated system, fn = fd + e
Let, e = 5°, so,
fn = fd + e = 30° + 5°
fn = 35°

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 84 ◆ Control Systems

1 1000
SEMI-LOG PAPER(5 CYCLES × 1/10°)
9
8
7
6

wc2 = 100 rad/sec

w rad/sec

e
5

20log32 = +30 dB

ad
ec
4

/d
dB
3

0
−6
2

100 100

wgc = 16 rad/sec
1
9
8

e
cad
7
6

/de
5
wc1 = 10 rad/sec

dB
4 −40
3

PM = 22°°
1 10
= 11 rad/sec

9 10
8
7
6
5
4

3
wʹgc

1
1.0 1.0
Log-magnitude plot

9
Phase-angle plot

8
7
6
5
4
cade

3
B/de

2
−20 d

1
0.1 0.1
9
8
7
6
5
4

1 0.01
+60 +40 +20 0 dB −20 −40 −90° −110° −130° −150° −170° −190° −210°
−145° −180°

Fig. 3.48 Bode plot of Example 3.27.

5. Find the new gain crossover frequency, w 'gc.

fgc = –180° + fn
so, fgc = –180° + 35° = –145°
From the Bode plot, in Fig. 3.48, the frequency corresponding to a phase angle of –145° is 11 rad/sec.
\           New gain crossover frequency w 'gc = 11 rad/sec

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 Frequency Response Analysis ◆ 85

6. Determine the parameter a of the lag compensator:

From the Bode plot, at frequency 11 rad/sec, its magnitude is +4 dB.
G ( jw ) w =w ' = K 'gc = 4 dB
gc

K 'gc = 20log a = 4

a = 10 (4/20)
a = 1.5849
7. Now, find the transfer function of the lag compensator:
1 w 'gc
\ Zero of the lag compensator zc = =
t 10

10 10
t= = = 0.909
w 'gc 11
1
\ Pole of the lag compensator pc =
at
1 1
pc = =
1.5849 ´ 0.909 1.4407
pc = 0.6941
\ The transfer function of phase-lag compensator is,
é a (1 + st ) ù
Gc ( s ) = ê ú
ë (1 + sat ) û
é 1.5849(1 + 0.909s ) ù
Gc ( s ) = ê ú
ë (1 + 1.4407 s ) û
8. The open-loop transfer function of the compensated system is given by,
1
Go ( s ) = × Gc ( s ) × G ( s )
a
1 é 1.5849(1 + 0.909s ) ù é 32 ù
=
1.5849 ëê (1 + 1.4407 s ) ûú ëê s (1 + 0.1s )(1 + 0.01s ) úû
é 32(1 + 0.909s ) ù
Go ( s ) = ê ú
ë s (1 + 1.4407 s )(1 + 0.1s )(1 + 0.01s ) û
The block diagram of the lag compensated system is shown in Fig. 3.49.

R(s) 1 1.5849(1 + 0.909s) 32 Y(s)

+
− 1.5849 (1 + 1.4407s) s(1 + 0.1s)(1 + 0.01s)

1 Gc(s) G(s)
a

Fig. 3.49 Block diagram of compensated system.

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 86 ◆ Control Systems

9. Now, evaluate the PM of the compensated system.

For s = jw, Go(s) becomes,
é 32(1 + 0.909 jw ) ù
Go ( jw ) = ê ú
ë jw (1 + 1.4407 jw )(1 + 0.1 jw )(1 + 0.01 jw ) û

At w = w 'gc = 11 rad/sec, its corresponding phase is,

f 'gc = tan -1 (0.909 ´ 11) - 90° - tan -1 (1.4407 ´ 11) - tan -1 (0.1 ´ 11) - tan -1 (0.01 ´ 11)
f 'gc = 84.29° - 90° - 86.39° - 47.73° - 6.28°
f 'gc = -146.11°
Therefore, the PM of the compensated system is,
fon = 180° + f 'gc
= 180° - 146.11°
fon = 33.89°
Thus, the PM of the compensated system is 33.89°°, which is ³30°, the desired PM given. Hence, the
designed phase-lag compensator satisfies the requirement and so the design is accepted.

3.6.2 Phase-Lead Compensator Design Using Bode Plot

A phase-lead compensator network decreases the amount of overshoot and improves the speed of response
by increasing the bandwidth of the system. By improving the transient response of the system, lead com-
pensator network amplifies the high-frequency signal. From Section 2.9.4 of Unit 2, the transfer function of
phase-lead compensator is given by,

é (1 + st ) ù
Gc ( s ) = ê ú (3.76)
ë (1 + b st ) û
with t as time constant.
The sinusoidal transfer function of lag compensator Gc(s) is given by,

é (1 + jwt ) ù
Gc ( jw ) = ê ú (3.77)
ë (1 + b jwt ) û
The magnitude and phase angle of Gc( jw) is written as,

1 + (wt )2
Gc ( jw ) = (3.78)
1 + ( bwt )2

ÐGc ( jw ) = tan -1 (wt ) - tan -1 ( bwt ) (3.79)

Based on the sinusoidal transfer function shown in Eq. (3.77), the two corner frequencies are located at,
1 1
wc 1 = and wc 2 =
t bt

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 Frequency Response Analysis ◆ 87

The Bode plot of the phase-lead compensator network is shown in Fig. 3.50. In this plot, the log-magnitude
1
plot of Gc( jw) is a straight line through 0 dB until wc 1 = , and then it takes a slope of +20 dB/decade until
t
1 æ1ö
corner frequency wc 2 = , and after wc 2, it is a straight line having a constant gain of 20log ç ÷ . In the phase
bt èbø
plot, as shown in Fig. 3.50, as w is varied from 0 to ¥, the phase angle gets increased from 0 to a positive
maximum value (fm) for w = wm, and then reduces to 0 from this maximum value.

|Gc( jw)|
(dB) e
ecad 20log 1
dB/d b
+20 20log 1
b
0 dB

+fm

+45°
∠Gc( jw) fm
(degrees)
0°

1
wc1 = wm = t 1 wc2 = 1
t b bt

Fig. 3.50 Bode plot of phase-lead compensator.

The maximum phase lead occurs at the frequency wm, which is the geometric mean of the two corner
frequencies, and is obtained as,
Frequency of maximum phase lead,
wm = wc 1. wc 2
1 1
= ×
t bt
é 1 ù
\ wm = ê ú (3.80)
êë t b úû
At w = wm, f ®fm, so,
é1 - b ù
tan fm = ê ú (3.81)
ëê 2 b ûú
é1 - b ù
or sin fm = ê ú (3.82)
ë1 + b û

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 88 ◆ Control Systems

From Eqs. (3.81) and (3.82), the maximum phase lead angle (fm) can be obtained as,
é1 - b ù é1 - b ù
fm = tan -1 ê ú (or) fm = sin -1 ê ú (3.83)
ëê 2 b ûú ë1 + b û
It is known that b < 1, but to avoid the increase in signal-to-noise ratio, the value of b to be set not less than
0.07 and an optimal choice is b = 0.1. If the maximum phase lead fm to be contributed is greater than 60°,
then a cascade of two lead compensators shall be provided to meet the requirement, that is, each lead com-
pensator shall contribute to half the required phase angle.
The value of b can be determined from the maximum phase lead angle (fm) using,
é 1 - sin fm ù
b=ê ú (3.84)
ë 1 + sin fm û
3.6.2.1 Procedure for Phase-Lead Compensator Design
The phase-lead compensation design procedure to design compensator Gc(s) for the given plant G(s) with
adjustable gain parameter K is as given below.
1. Find the open-loop gain K of the given plant so that it satisfies the given steady-state error requirement.
2. Sketch the Bode plot of the uncompensated system with the evaluated open-loop gain K.
3. From the Bode plot, measure the gain crossover frequency wgc and the PM of the uncompensated system.
4. Evaluate the additional amount of phase angle to be provided by the lead network for realizing the
desired PM using,
fm = fd – f + e(3.85)
where,
fm — Maximum phase lead angle to be provided by lead compensator network
fd — Desired PM of the given specifications
f — PM of uncompensated system
e — Additional phase lead contribution to shift the gain crossover frequency
The value of e is determined based on the slope of the log-magnitude plot within the gain crossover
frequency region. e = 5° is a suitable choice for a slope of –40 dB/decade and e = 15° to 20° for a slope
of –60 dB/decade. For value of fm being greater than 60°, cascade of two lead compensators should be
realized with each compensator contributing to half of the required angle.
5. Find the transfer function of the lead compensator Gc(s).
Using the calculated maximum phase lead of the compensator (fm), compute the parameter b of the
lead compensator to be,
é 1 - sin fm ù
b=ê ú (3.86)
ë 1 + sin fm û
æ 1 ö
From the Bode plot, find the frequency at which the magnitude of G( jw) is -20log ç ÷ dB. This
ç b÷
è ø
frequency is the new gain crossover frequency w 'gc and is also wm (wm = w 'gc ).
Calculate t using the relation,
1
wm =
t b
1
t= (3.87)
wm b

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 Frequency Response Analysis ◆ 89

\ The transfer function of the phase-lead compensator becomes,

éæ 1ö ù
ê çs + ÷ ú
é b (1 + st ) ù ê è t ø ú
Gc ( s ) = ê ú= (3.88)
ë (1 + b st ) û ê æ s + 1 ö ú
êç ú
ëè bt ÷ø û

6. Find the overall transfer function of the compensated system. The block diagram of the phase
lead-compensated system is shown in Fig. 3.51.

R(s) 1 b(1 + st) Plant Y(s)

+ Gc(s) =
− b (1 + bst) G(s)

Fig. 3.51 Block diagram of the phase lead-compensated system.

The open-loop transfer function of the overall phase lead-compensated system becomes,

1
Go ( s ) = , Gc ( s ) × G ( s ) (3.89)
b

é 1 + st ù
Go ( s ) = ê ú G ( s ) (3.90)
ë 1 + sbt û

7. Sketch the Bode plot of the compensated system and check whether the desired specifications
are satisfied. If the specifications are met, the design is accepted; else, redesign by choosing
e = 5° more than the previous design. The design procedure is carried out until all the specifications
are met.

■ EXAMPLE 3.28 ■
é K ù
The open-loop transfer function of a type-1 unity feedback system is given by, G ( s ) = ê ú.
ë s ( s + 1) û
Design a phase-lead compensator to satisfy the specifications given below:

(i) PM of the system ³ 40°

(ii) Velocity-error constant, Kv = 12 sec–1.

Solution
1. Find the open-loop gain K.
Given, the velocity-error constant, Kv = 12 sec–1

K v = lim sG ( s ) H ( s )
s ®0

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 90 ◆ Control Systems

é K ù
With G ( s ) = ê ú and H(s) = 1,
ë s ( s + 1) û
K
K v = lim s × ×1 = K
s ®0 s ( s + 1)
\ K = K v = 12
Therefore, the open-loop transfer function becomes,
é 12 ù
G(s) = ê ú
ë s ( s + 1) û
2. Sketch the Bode plot of the uncompensated system.
For s = jw,
é 12 ù
G ( jw ) = ê ú
ë jw ( jw + 1) û
The magnitude and phase angle of G( jw) is given by,
é 12 ù
G ( jw ) = ê ú
ëê w 1 + w úû
2

ÐG ( jw ) = -90° - tan -1 (w )

To construct log-magnitude plot:

The system gain is, K = 12
20logK = 20log12 = +21.58 dB
The factors pertaining to the open-loop transfer function are tabulated in Table 3.24. The log-
magnitude plot is sketched in Fig. 3.52.

Table 3.24 Factors of G(s).

Factors Corner frequency Nature and slope Resultant slope

(rad/sec) (dB/decade) (dB/decade)
12 – +21.58 dB line slope –
0 dB/decade
æ 1 ö
ç ÷ – –20 dB/decade –20 dB/decade
è jw ø

æ 1 ö
ç ÷ wc = 1 rad/sec –20 dB/decade –40 dB/decade
è ( jw + 1) ø

To construct phase-angle plot:

The total phase angle of the system is given by,
f(w) = –90° – tan–1(w)
The phase angle f (w) for various values of w is tabulated in Table 3.25.

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 Frequency Response Analysis ◆ 91

Table 3.25 Phase-angle values.

w 0.1 0.2 0.5 1 2 5 10 20 100

f (w
w) –95.71° –101.31° –116.57° –135° –153.43° –168.7° –174.3° –177.13° –179.43°

The phase-angle plot as evaluated for f(w) is sketched in Fig. 3.52.

1
SEMI-LOG PAPER(5 CYCLES × 1/10°)

9
20log12 = +21.58 dB

w rad/sec
8
7
6
5
4

1
100 100
9
8
7
6
5
4

3
e
cad
wgc = 3.3 rad/sec

2
/de
dB

10
1 10
−40

9
8
7
6
5
4
wc1 = 1 rad/sec

3
PM = 16°°

1
1.0 1.0
9
8
Log-magnitude plot

7
Phase-angle plot

6
5
4
ade

3
B/dec

2
−20 d

1
0.1 0.1
9
8
7
6
5
4

1 0.01
+60 +40 +20 0 dB −20 −40 −90° −120° −150° −180°

Fig. 3.52 Bode plot of Example 3.28.

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 92 ◆ Control Systems

3. From the Bode plot in Fig. 3.52, for the uncompensated system,
Gain crossover frequency, wgc = 3.3 rad/sec
and PM, f = 16°
The system requires a PM of at least 40° and the available PM is 16°, so a lead compensator is to be
designed to improve the PM.
4. Determine fm.
The desired PM, fd = 40°
Additional phase lead, e = 5°
and PM of uncompensated system, f = 16°
\ Maximum phase lead angle, fm = fd – f + e
= 40° – 16° + 5°
fm = 29°
5. Find transfer function of the lead compensator Gc(s).

é 1 - sin fm ù é 1 - sin29° ù é 1 - 0.4848 ù

b=ê ú=ê ú=ê ú
ë 1 + sin fm û ë 1 + sin29° û ë 1 + 0.4848 û
b = 0.3470
The dB magnitude corresponding to frequency wm is,

æ 1 ö æ 1 ö
= -20log ç ÷ = -20log ç ÷
ç b÷ è 0.3470 ø
è ø
= -20 ´ 0.2298
= -4.5967 dB
From the Bode plot of the uncompensated system, the frequency wm ( = w 'gc ) corresponding to a dB
gain of –4.5967 dB is noted to be 4.45 rad/sec.
w 'gc = wm = 4.45 rad/sec
Evaluate t using,
1 1
t= =
wm b 4.45 0.3470
t = 0.3815
With b = 0.3470 and t = 0.3815, the transfer function of the phase-lead compensator is given by,
é b (1 + st ) ù
Gc ( s ) = ê ú
ë (1 + sbt ) û
é 0.3470(1 + 0.3815 s ) ù
Gc ( s ) = ê ú
ë (1 + 0.1324 s ) û

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 Frequency Response Analysis ◆ 93

6. The overall transfer function of the lead-compensated system is now given by,
1
Go ( s ) = Gc ( s )G ( s )
b
é 12(1 + 0.3815 s ) ù
Go ( s ) = ê ú
ë s (1 + 0.1324 s )(1 + s ) û
Fig. 3.53 shows the block diagram of the compensated system.

R(s) 1 0.3470(1 + 0.3815s) 12 Y(s)

+
− 0.3470 (1 + 0.1324s) s(s + 1)
1 Gc(s) G(s)
b

Fig. 3.53 Block diagram of phase lead-compensated system.

7. Sketch the Bode plot for the phase lead-compensated system Go(s).
From the Bode plot of the compensated system, it is noted that,
Gain crossover frequency = 4.46 rad/sec
and            PM = 41.6°
Thus, the PM of the lead-compensated system is 41.6°, which is greater than the desired PM of at
least 40°. Hence, the PM of the compensated system is satisfactory and the design is accepted.

■ EXAMPLE 3.29 ■
é K ù
Consider a type-1 unity feedback system with its open-loop transfer function, G ( s ) = ê ú
ë s ( s + 1)( s + 2) û
Design a suitable compensator to satisfy the desired specifications as given below.
(i) Phase margin (PM) ³ 25°
(ii) Velocity-error constant, Kv = 45 sec–1.

Solution
1. Find open-loop gain K.
Given, velocity-error constant, Kv = 45 sec–1

K v = lim sG ( s ) H ( s )
s ®0

K
K v = lim s × × 1 = 45
s ®0 s ( s + 1)( s + 2)
K
= 45
2
K = 90

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 94 ◆ Control Systems

The open-loop transfer function becomes,

é 90 ù
G(s) = ê ú
ë s ( s + 1)( s + 2) û
In time-constant form,
é 45 ù
G(s) = ê ú
ë s (1 + s )(1 + 0.5 s ) û
2. Sketch the Bode plot of the uncompensated system.
For s = jw,
é 45 ù
G ( jw ) = ê ú
ë jw (1 + jw )(1 + j0.5w ) û
To construct log-magnitude plot:
The system gain is, K = 45
20logK = 20log45 = +33 dB
The factors corresponding to the open-loop transfer function are tabulated in Table 3.26.

Table 3.26 Factors of G(s).

Factors Corner frequency Nature and slope Resultant slope

(rad/sec) (dB/decade) (dB/decade)
+33 dB line slope
45 – –
0 dB/decade
æ 1 ö
ç ÷ – –20 dB/decade –20 dB/decade
è jw ø
æ 1 ö
ç ÷ wc1 = 1 rad/sec –20 dB/decade –40 dB/decade
è 1 + jw ø

æ 1 ö
ç ÷ wc 2 = 2 rad/sec –20 dB/decade –60 dB/decade
è 1 + j 0.5w ø

The log-magnitude plot of open-loop transfer function G(s) is sketched in Fig. 3.54.
To construct phase-angle plot:
The total phase angle of the system is given by,
f(w) = –90° – tan–1(w) – tan–1(0.5w)
The phase angle f (w) for different values of w is tabulated in Table 3.27.

Table 3.27 Phase-angle values.

w 0.1 0.2 0.5 1 2 5 10 20 100

f (w
w) –98.57° –107.02° –130.60° –161.57° –198.43° –236.88° –252.98° –261.43° –268.28°

The phase-angle plot for the given transfer function is drawn in Fig. 3.54.

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 Frequency Response Analysis ◆ 95

3. From the Bode plot in Fig. 3.54, for the uncompensated system,
Gain crossover frequency, wgc = 4.3 rad/sec
and PM, f = –52°
Since, PM is negative, the system is unstable and the lead compensation is carried out to make the
system stable and achieve desired PM. The required PM is to be at least 25°.
4. Find maximum phase lead angle, fm,
The desired PM, fd = 25°
Additional phase lead, e = 5°
1 1000
SEMI-LOG PAPER(5 CYCLES × 1/10°)

9
w rad/sec
20log45 = +33 dB

8
7
6
5
4

1
100 100
9
8
7
6
5
4
de

3
wgc = 4.3 rad/sec

ca
de
B/

2
0d
−6

10
PM = −52°°

1 10
9
8
7
6
5
wc1 = 1 rad/sec

2
wc2 = 2 rad/sec

1
1.0 1.0
9
Log-magnitude plot

8
Phase-angle plot
−40 dB/decade

7
6
5
4

2
ade
B/dec

1
0.1 0.1
9
8
−20 d

7
6
5
4

1 0.01
+60 +40 +20 0 dB −20 −40 −90° −120° −150° −180° −210° −240° −270°

Fig. 3.54 Bode plot of Example 3.29.

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 96 ◆ Control Systems

and PM of uncompensated system, f = –52°

\ Maximum phase lead angle, fm = fd – f + e
= 25° – (–52°) + 5°
fm = 82°
The phase lead angle required is higher than 60°, so the lead compensator has to be realized as
cascade of two lead compensators with a single compensator contributing half of the required
phase angle. So,
82°
fm = = 41°
2
5. Now, find the transfer function of the lead compensator Gc(s).
é 1 - sin fm ù é 1 - sin 41° ù é 0.3439 ù
b=ê ú=ê ú=ê ú
ë 1 + sin fm û ë 1 + sin 41° û ë 1.6561 û
b = 0.2077

(
The dB magnitude pertaining to wm = w 'gc is, )
1 1
= -20log = -20log = -6.8265 dB
b 0.2077
From the Bode plot of the uncompensated system the frequency wm, with respect to a dB gain of
–6.8265 dB is noted to be 5.6 rad/sec.
Now, wm = 5.6 rad/sec

1 é 1 ù é 1 ù
t= =ê ú=ê ú
wm b ë 5.6 0.2077 û ë 2.5519 û
t = 0.3918
With b = 0.2077 and t = 0.3918, the transfer function of the phase-lead compensator is given by,

é b 2 (1 + st )2 ù
Gc ( s ) = ê 2 ú
ë (1 + sbt ) û
é 0.0431(1 + 0.3918s )2 ù
Gc ( s ) = ê 2 ú
ë (1 + 0.0814 s ) û
6. The overall transfer function of the lead-compensated system is now given by,
Go ( s ) = Gc ( s ) × G ( s )
é 0.0431(1 + 0.3918s )2 ù é 45 ù
Go ( s ) = ê úê ú
û ë s (1 + s )(1 + 0.5 s ) û
2
ë (1 + 0.0814 s )
é 1.9395(1 + 0.3918s )2 ù
Go ( s ) = ê 2 ú
ë s (1 + s )(1 + 0.5 s )(1 + 0.0814 s ) û

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 Frequency Response Analysis ◆ 97

The block diagram of the lead-compensated system is shown in Fig. 3.55.

R(s) 0.0431(1 + 0.3918s)2 45 Y(s)

+
− (1 + 0.0814s)2 s(1 + s)(1 + 0.5s)
Gc(s) G(s)

Fig. 3.55 Block diagram of phase lead-compensated system.

7. Sketch the Bode plot for the phase lead-compensated system Go(s).
From the Bode plot of the compensated system, it is noted that,
Gain crossover frequency = 1.26 rad/sec
and PM = 47.1°
Thus, the PM of the lead-compensated system is 47.1°, which is greater than the required PM of
at least 25°. The PM of the lead-compensated system is found to be satisfactory and the design is
acceptable.

3.6.3 Phase Lag-Lead Compensator Design Using Bode Plot

As presented in Section 2.9.2 of Unit 2, on applying sinusoidal input to a phase lag-lead compensator
network, both phase lag and phase lead occur at the output in different frequency regions. At the low-
frequency region, phase lag occurs and at the high-frequency region phase lead occurs, that is, as the frequency
is varied from 0 to ¥, the phase angle varies from lag to lead. Due to this, a phase lag-lead compensator
improves the transient-state and steady-state responses by using lag and lead compensators simultaneously.
Combining the merits of both phase-lag and phase-lead compensators, it is observed that it is economical
to employ an individual phase lag-lead compensator instead of using them as separate components. As the
lag compensator increases the gain at low-frequency region, the steady-state accuracy gets improved and
as the lead compensator increases the bandwidth, it reduces the peak overshoot thereby the transient state
response gets improved. From Section 2.9.5 of Unit 2, the transfer function of the phase lag-lead compensator
is given by,

é æ 1 öæ 1ö ù
ê ç s + ÷ç s + ÷ ú
t1 øè t 2 ø ú
Gc ( s ) = êê è (3.91)
æ 1 öæ 1 öú
êç s + ÷ç s + ÷ú
êë è at1 øè bt 2 ø úû

é ab (1 + st1 )(1 + st 2 ) ù
Gc ( s ) = ê ú (3.92)
ë (1 + sat1 )(1 + sbt 2 ) û

1
with, t1 > 0, t2 > 0, a > 1, 0 < b < 1 and a = ×
b

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 98 ◆ Control Systems

The sinusoidal transfer function of the phase lag-lead compensator Gc(s) is given by,

é ab (1 + jwt1 )(1 + jwt 2 ) ù

Gc ( jw ) = ê ú (3.93)
ë (1 + jwat1 )(1 + jwbt 2 ) û

1
As a = , we get, ab = 1, so,
b

é (1 + jwt1 )(1 + jwt 2 ) ù

Gc ( jw ) = ê ú (3.94)
ë (1 + jwat1 )(1 + jwbt 2 ) û

The corner frequencies of Gc( jw) are,

æ 1 ö æ1ö æ1 ö æ 1 ö
wc 1 = ç ÷ ; wc 2 = ç ÷ ; wc 3 = ç ÷ ; wc 4 = ç ÷
è at1 ø è t1 ø è t2 ø è bt 2 ø

The Bode plot of the phase lag-lead compensator is sketched as shown in Fig. 3.56.

|Gc( jw)|
(dB)
0 dB
−20 20loga 20log 1
dB/
dec ecade b
ade dB/d
+20

+45°

∠Gc( jw)
0°
(degrees)

−45°

1 1 1 1
wc1 = wc2 = wc3 = wc4 =
at1 t1 t2 bt2

Fig. 3.56 Bode plot of phase lag-lead compensator.

From the Bode plot, it is noted that the phase shift varies with respect to the input frequency, and as the
frequency increases, the phase angle varies from lag to lead. Hence, the phase lag and phase lead occur at
varied frequency regions.

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 Frequency Response Analysis ◆ 99

3.6.3.1 Procedure for Phase Lag-Lead Compensator Design

The procedure for the design of lag-lead compensator for the given open-loop transfer function G(s) to meet
the desired specifications is dealt in this section. Before initiating the design, verify the PM and bandwidth
of the uncompensated system with suitable gain adjustments to meet the steady-state error requirement. If
the bandwidth is higher than the specified value, then lag compensation can be tried but the uncompensated
system should not be absolutely unstable. A lead compensation shall be tried if the bandwidth of the un-
compensated system is smaller than the specified value. In designing a lag compensator if the bandwidth is
too low, it necessitates the need for a lag-lead compensator design. The design steps are as follows:
1. Find the open-loop gain K of the uncompensated system to meet the steady-state error requirement.
2. Sketch the Bode plot of the uncompensated system.
3. From the Bode plot, find the PM of the uncompensated system. If the PM do not meet the require-
ment, it is required to design a compensator.
4. Select a new PM for the compensated system.
Let, fn = New PM of the compensated system

fd = Desired PM

then, fn = fd + e (3.95)

with e = 5° as an additional phase lag contributed to shifting the gain crossover frequency.
5. From the Bode plot, for the new PM fn, find its respective gain crossover frequency w 'gc. If fgc is the
phase of G( jw) at w 'gc then,
fn = 180° + fgc
(or) fgc = –180° + fn  (3.96)
Hence in the Bode plot of uncompensated system, the frequency pertaining to the phase fgc is the new
gain crossover frequency w 'gc.
Now, select the gain crossover frequency of the lag compensator, w 'gcl , such that it is higher than w 'gc .
(i.e., w 'gcl > w 'gc).
6. Evaluate parameter a, of the compensator. Let, the dB gain at the new gain crossover frequency of lag
compensator, w 'gcl,

K 'gcl = 20log a 
( K gcl
' /20)
a = 10 (3.97)
7. Find the transfer function of the lag section. Place the zero of the lag compensator at one octave to one
decade below w 'gcl .

1 w 'gcl
\ Zero of the lag compensator zc 1 = = (3.98)
t1 10
10
and t1 =
w 'gcl
1
\ Pole of the lag compensator pc 1 = (3.99)
at1

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 100 ◆ Control Systems

Transfer function of lag compensator becomes,

é æ 1ö ù
ê çs + ÷ ú
t
Glg ( s ) = êê è 1 ø ú

æ 1 öú
êç s + ÷ú
êë è at1 ø úû
é a (1 + st1 ) ù
Glg ( s ) = ê ú (3.100)
ë (1 + sat1 ) û
8. Find the transfer function of the lead section.
1
With, a=
b
From the Bode plot, determine the frequency (wm) at which the magnitude (dB gain) of G( jw) is
æ 1 ö
-20log ç ÷ dB. This frequency is the new gain crossover frequency (wm) and is,
ç b÷
è ø
1
wm =
t2 b

1
so, t2 = (3.101)
wm b
Transfer function of lead compensator becomes,
éæ 1ö ù
ê çs + ÷ ú
t2 ø ú
Gld ( s ) = êê è 
æ 1 öú
êç s + ÷ ú
êë è bt 2 ø úû
é b (1 + st 2 ) ù
Gld ( s ) = ê ú (3.102)
ë (1 + sbt 2 ) û
9. Find the transfer function of lag-lead compensator.
Transfer function of lag-lead compensator Gc ( s ) = Glg ( s )Gld ( s )
é a (1 + st1 ) ù é b (1 + st 2 ) ù
=ê úê ú
ë (1 + sat1 ) û ë (1 + sbt 2 ) û
1
As, a = , Gc(s) becomes,
b
é (1 + st1 )(1 + st 2 ) ù
Gc ( s ) = ê ú (3.103)
ë (1 + sat1 )(1 + sbt 2 ) û
10. Now, determine the open-loop transfer function of the compensated system. Fig. 3.57 shows the block
diagram of the phase lag-lead-compensated system.

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 Frequency Response Analysis ◆ 101

R(s) (1 + st1)(1 + st2) Y(s)

+ Gc(s) = G(s)
− (1 + sat1)(1 + sbt2)

Fig. 3.57 Block diagram of phase lag-lead-compensated system.

The open-loop transfer function of the compensated system becomes,

Go ( s ) = Gc ( s ) × G ( s )
é (1 + st1 )(1 + st 2 ) ù
Go ( s ) = ê ú G ( s ) (3.104)
ë (1 + sat1 )(1 + sbt 2 ) û

11. Sketch the Bode plot of the compensated system and test whether the desired specifications are satisfied.
1
If the specifications are met, the design is accepted; else, redesign by selecting b, such that b < . The
design procedure is carried out until all the specifications are met. a

■ EXAMPLE 3.30 ■
Consider a type-1 unity feedback system whose open-loop transfer function is,

K
G(s) =
s (0.1s + 1)(0.25 s + 1)

Design a lag-lead compensator to meet the below given desired specifications:

(i) Velocity error constant, Kv = 32 sec–1

(ii) Phase margin (PM) ³ 40°

Solution
1. Find the open-loop gain K.
Given, velocity error constant, Kv = 32

K v = lim sG ( s ) H ( s ) = 32
s ®0

K
lim s × × 1 = 32
s ®0 s (0.1s + 1)(0.25 s + 1)
K = 32
Therefore, the open-loop transfer function becomes,
é 32 ù
G(s) = ê ú
ë s (0.1 s + 1)(0.25 s + 1) û

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 102 ◆ Control Systems

2. Sketch the Bode plot for G(s).

Put s = jw,
é 32 ù
G ( jw ) = ê ú
ë jw (0.1 jw + 1)(0.25 jw + 1) û

To construct the log-magnitude plot:

The system gain is given by, K = 32
20logK = 20log32 = +30 dB
The factors of G( jw) to obtain the log-magnitude plot are tabulated in Table 3.28.

Table 3.28 Factors of G(s).

Factors Corner frequency Nature and slope Resultant slope

(rad/sec) (dB/decade) (dB/decade)
32 – +30 dB line slope –
0 dB/decade

æ 1 ö
ç ÷ – –20 dB/decade –20 dB/decade
è jw ø

æ 1 ö
ç ÷ wc1 = 4 rad/sec –20 dB/decade –40 dB/decade
è 1 + 0.25jw ø

æ 1 ö
ç ÷ wc 2 = 10 rad/sec –20 dB/decade –60 dB/decade
è 1 + 0.1 jw ø

The log-magnitude plot for the given G(s) is constructed in Fig. 3.58.
To construct the phase-angle plot of G(s):
The total phase angle f (w) of given G(s) is expressed as,
f(w) = –90° – tan–1(0.25w) – tan–1(0.1w)
For different values of w, f (w) is evaluated and is shown in Table 3.29.

Table 3.29 Phase-angle values.

w 0.1 0.2 0.5 1 2 5 10 20 100

f (w
w) –92° –94.01° –99.99° –109.75° –127.88° –167.91° –203.20° –232.12° –262°

The phase-angle plot for the given G(s) is drawn in Fig. 3.58.
3. From the Bode plot sketched in Fig. 3.58 for the uncompensated system, its,
PM = –19.5° (unstable system)
at gain crossover frequency wgc = 9.2 rad/sec.

AICTE_Unit_03_V4.indd 102 11/4/2024 4:01:31 PM