MODULE: -2

Digital Communication Through Fading Multipath Channel

1.Fading Channels And Their Characteristics
Fading:-
In wireless communication, fading is a process in which the
strength and quality of a radio signal fluctuate over time and distance.
Fading is caused by a variety of factors, including multipath propagation,
atmospheric conditions, and the movement of objects in the transmission
path. Fading can have a significant impact on the performance of wireless
communication systems, particularly those that operate in high-frequency
bands.

A common example of deep fade is the experience of stopping at a traffic light

and hearing an FM broadcast degenerate into static, while the signal is re-
acquired if the vehicle moves only a fraction of a meter. The loss of the broadcast
is caused by the vehicle stopping at a point where the signal experienced severe
destructive interference. Cellular phones can also exhibit similar momentary
fades.
Fading channel models are often used to model the effects of electromagnetic
transmission of information over the air in cellular networks and broadcast
communication. Fading channel models are also used in underwater acoustic
communications to model the distortion caused by the water.
 1. Small Scale Fading

Small-scale fading is a common in wireless communication. It happens

when a signal is transmitted from a transmitter to a receiver and it
experiences multiple signal paths due to reflection, diffraction, and
scattering from objects in the environment. These signal paths can cause
interference and distortion to the signal, resulting in fluctuations of the
signal strength at the receiver. Small-scale fading is called “small-scale”
because the variations occur over short distances, such as a few
centimeters to a few meters. Small-scale fading can happen very quickly,
sometimes in microseconds or less.It is primarily caused by the multipath
propagation of the signal. Overall, small-scale fading is a common issue in
wireless communication that affects the quality of the received signal.
However, with proper mitigation techniques, it is possible to maintain
reliable communication even in the presence of small-scale fading.

1.1 Multipath Delay Spread:

Multipath delay spread is a type of small-scale fading that occurs when a

transmitted signal takes multiple paths to reach the receiver.The different
components of the signal can arrive at the receiver at different times,
causing interference and rapid variations in signal amplitude and phase.
Multipath delay spread can cause Inter-Symbol Interference (ISI), where
symbols in the transmitted signal overlap and interfere with each other,
leading to errors in the received signal. The root means square
(RMS) delay spread is a measure of the dispersion of the signal and
determines the frequency-selective characteristics of the channel.A higher
RMS delay spread indicates a more frequency-selective channel, while a
lower RMS delay spread indicates a flatter, more frequency-invariant
channel.Multipath delay spread can be mitigated by using techniques such
as equalization, diversity, and adaptive modulation. Equalization
techniques are used to compensate for the time dispersion caused by
multipath delay spread. Diversity techniques are used to combine multiple
signal paths to mitigate the effects of fading. Adaptive modulation
techniques are used to adjust the modulation scheme and data rate based
on the channel conditions, allowing the system to adapt to changes in the
channel and maintain a reliable communication link.
 1.2 Doppler Spread

Doppler spread is a type of small-scale fading that occurs when there is

relative motion between the transmitter and the receiver. The relative
motion causes a shift in the frequency of the transmitted signal, known as
the Doppler shift. The Doppler shift causes different frequency
components of the signal to arrive at the receiver with different phases
and amplitudes. This results in rapid variations in signal amplitude and
phase, which can cause fading and errors in the received signal.
The Doppler spread is a measure of the rate of change of the Doppler shift
and determines the time-varying characteristics of the channel. A higher
Doppler spread indicates a faster time variation in the channel, while a
lower Doppler spread indicates a slower time variation. Doppler spread
can be mitigated by using techniques such as equalization, diversity, and
adaptive modulation. Equalization techniques are used to compensate for
the time dispersion caused by Doppler spread. Diversity techniques are
used to combine multiple signal paths to mitigate the effects of fading.
Adaptive modulation techniques are used to adjust the modulation
scheme and data rate based on the channel conditions, allowing the
system to adapt to changes in the channel and maintain a reliable
communication link. Doppler spread is an important consideration in the
design of wireless communication systems, particularly for mobile
applications where there is often significant relative motion between the
transmitter and the receiver.

2. Large Scale Fading

Large scale fading occurs when an obstacle comes in between transmitter

and receiver. This interference type causes significant amount of signal
strength reduction. This is because EM wave is shadowed or blocked by
the obstacle. It is related to large fluctuations of the signal over distance.
It is called “large-scale” because the variations occur over long distances,
typically several kilometers. Unlike small-scale fading, which affects
individual symbols or bits, large-scale fading affects the entire signal.
Large-scale fading is a slow-varying phenomenon, meaning that it
changes over time scales of seconds to minutes. Mitigation techniques for
large-scale fading include power control, antenna
placement, repeaters, and site diversity.Overall, large-scale fading is an
important factor to consider in wireless communication system design, as
it can significantly impact the quality of the received signal.

2.1 Path Loss

Path loss is the reduction in signal power as the signal travels from the
transmitter to the receiver. It is caused by a variety of factors, including
distance, the frequency of the signal, obstacles in the path of the signal,
and the characteristics of the environment. The path loss is generally
modeled using an attenuation equation that takes into account these
factors. It is generally a slow-varying phenomenon and affects the overall
received signal power. Path loss can be mitigated by increasing the
transmitted power, using directional antennas, or reducing the distance
between the transmitter and the receiver.

2.2 Shadowing
Shadowing is a type of large-scale fading that occurs due to the presence
of obstacles or obstructions in the path of the signal.This causes the signal
power to vary as the receiver moves in the environment. It is generally
modeled as a log-normal distribution, with a mean and standard deviation
that depend on the characteristics of the environment.
Shadowing is a slow-varying phenomenon and affects the overall received
signal power. It can be mitigated by using techniques such as diversity,
where multiple antennas are used to combine multiple signal paths, or by
using signal processing techniques to estimate the shadowing effects and
compensate for them.
To battle the impacts of blurring, remote correspondence frameworks
utilize different strategies, including:
• Variety strategies: This includes the utilization of different radio
wires or channels to give numerous variants of a similar
transmission, which can be joined at the recipient to diminish the
impacts of blurring.
• Balance procedures: This includes the utilization of computerized
signal handling calculations to make up for the bending brought
about by blurring.
 • Power control strategies: This includes changing the sending
ability to keep a specific degree of sign quality, even within the
sight of blurring.
• Tweak procedures: This includes the utilization of more strong
balance plans, for example, QPSK or 16-QAM, that can endure a
more elevated level of clamor and twisting.
Implementation of Fading Models Or Fading
Distributions
• Rayleigh Fading
o Description: Rayleigh fading assumes that the
magnitude of the received signal follows a
Rayleigh distribution.
o Scenario: Commonly used for modeling non-line-
of-sight (NLOS) wireless channels.
o Application: Rayleigh fading is prevalent in urban
environments with multipath propagation1.
• Rician Fading
o Description: Rician fading accounts for both a
dominant line-of-sight (LOS) component and
scattered multipath components.
o Scenario: Suitable for environments where there
is a strong LOS path alongside weaker multipath
components.
o Application: Often used in scenarios like indoor
wireless communication with reflective surfaces1.
• Nakagami Fading
o Description: Nakagami fading models the
envelope of the received signal using the
Nakagami distribution.
o Scenario: Applicable to channels with moderate
to severe multipath fading.
o Application: Used in cases like mobile
communication and satellite links1.
• Weibull Fading
o Description: Weibull fading considers the shape
parameter of the Weibull distribution to
characterize fading.
 o Scenario: Useful for modeling channels with
varying fading conditions.
o Application: Applied in cases where the fading
environment changes over time

Comparison between Small Scale fading and

Large Scale Fading
Parameter Small-Scale Fading Large-Scale Fading

Time variation Rapid Slow

Cause Multipath obstacle

Distance Within a few wavelengths Over several wavelengths

Affects individual symbols

Frequency Affects the entire signal
or bits

Significant variation over

Spatial variation Gradual variation over long distances
short distances

A few centimeters to a few

Typical scale Kilometers
meters

Can cause deep fades,

Reduces the overall received signal
Effect on signal interference, and
power
distortion

Mitigation Equalization, diversity, Power control, antenna placement,

techniques adaptive modulation repeaters, site diversity
Channel Characteristics:
The wireless channel is disposed to a variety of transmission impediments such
as path loss, interference and blockage. These factors restrict the range, data
rate, and the reliability of the wireless transmission.
Types of Paths:
The extent to which these factors affect the transmission depends upon the
environmental conditions and the mobility of the transmitter and receiver. The
path followed by the signals to get to the receiver, are two types, such as
− Direct-path
Multi-path
Direct-path: The transmitted signal, when reaches the receiver directly, can be
termed as a direct path and the components presents that are present in the
signal are called as direct path components.
Multi-path: The transmitted signal when reaches the receiver, through different
directions undergoing different phenomenon, such a path is termed as multi-
path and the components of the transmitted signal are called as multi-path
components. They are reflected, diffracted and scattered by the environment,
and arrive at the receiver shifted in amplitude, frequency and phase with respect
to the direct path component.
Multipath propagation: In wireless media, signals propagate using three
principles, which are reflection, scattering, and diffraction.
Reflection occurs when the signal encounters a large solid surface, whose size
is much larger than the wavelength of the signal, e.g., a solid wall.
Diffraction occurs when the signal encounters an edge or a corner, whose size is
larger than the wavelength of the signal, e.g., an edge of a wall.
Scattering occurs when the signal encounters small objects of size smaller than
the wavelength of the signal. One consequence of multipath propagation is that
multiple copies of signal propagation along multiple different paths, arrive at
any point at different times. So the signal received at a point is not only affected
by the inherent noise, distortion, attenuation, and dispersion in the channel but
also the interaction of signals propagated along multiple paths.
 Characteristics of Wireless Channel:
The most important characteristics of wireless channel are –
Path loss
Fading
Interference
In the following sections, we will discuss these channel characteristics one by
one.
Path Loss: Path loss can be expressed as the ratio of the power of the
transmitted signal to the power of the same signal received by the receiver, on
a given path. It is a function of the propagation distance. Estimation of path loss
is very important for designing and deploying wireless communication networks
Path loss is dependent on a number of factors such as the radio frequency used
and the nature of the terrain. The free space propagation model is the simplest
path loss model in which there is a direct-path signal between the transmitter
and the receiver, with no atmosphere attenuation or multipath components.
Fading: Fading refers to the fluctuations in signal strength when received at the
receiver. The time between the reception of the first version of the signal and
the last echoed signal is called delay spread. The multipath propagation of the
transmitted signal, which causes fast fading, is because of the three propagation
mechanisms, namely –
Reflection
Diffraction
Scattering
Interference: Wireless transmissions have to counter interference from a wide
variety of sources. Two main forms of interference are –
Adjacent channel interference and
Co-channel interference.
Interference:
In Adjacent channel interference case, signals in nearby frequencies have
components outside their allocated ranges, and these components may
interfere with on-going transmission in the adjacent frequencies. It can be
avoided by carefully introducing guard bands between the allocated frequency
ranges.
Co-channel interference, sometimes also referred to as narrow band
interference, is due to other nearby systems using the same transmission
frequency.
Inter-symbol interference is another type of interference, where distortion in
the received signal is caused by the temporal spreading and the consequent
overlapping of individual pulses in the signal.

Wireless Channel Modeling:-

A Communication Channel is the medium used to transmit information
from one point to the other Though wired channels are fast, cost-effective and
secure, they are short ranged, motion restricted.
Ideally, modeling a channel is calculating all the physical processing
effecting a signal from the transmitter to the receiver.

Three main mechanisms of electromagnetic wave prorogation are

1) Reflection
2) Diffraction
3) Scattering
• Reflection: This occurs when waves bounce off surfaces or boundaries. The
angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection, and this principle is crucial in
applications like mirrors, radar systems, and optical communication.

• Diffraction: Waves bend around obstacles or pass through narrow openings,

spreading out on the other side. Diffraction enables radio signals to reach areas
beyond the line of sight and helps explain phenomena like the bending of light
around edges.

• Scattering: This takes place when waves interact with particles or irregularities
in a medium, causing them to spread in different directions. Scattering explains
why the sky appears blue (Rayleigh scattering of sunlight) and is key in wireless
communication as it enables signals to navigate through complex environments.

Concept of Diversity
Superposition of multiple signals at the receiver causes random
amplitude variation which is known as Fading. A mechanism that is used
to decrease the effect of fading is called Diversity. It is used to
compensate for fading channel impairments. In Diversity mechanism,
multiple copies of the same data are transmitted to the receiver through
multiple paths or channels and the decision is made by the receiver
without knowing the transmitter.
. Diversity techniques are used in wireless communications systems to primarily
to improve performance over a fading radio channel.
Types of Diversity
1. Space Diversity(or Antenna Diversity): Replica of same signal is
transmitted through different antenna. Space should be between
adjacent antenna so that channel gain will be independent of signal
path. Space diversity may give a path that avoid shadowing and also
decrease the large scale fading. Space diversity offer different path
without an increase in transmitter power or bandwidth.
Space Diversity Reception Methods
1. Selection diversity : The highest instantaneous SNR(Signal-
Noise Ratio) branch is connected to the demodulator. Antenna
signal themselves could be sampled and the best one sent to a
single demodulation.
2. Feedback diversity : N-signals are scanned on the receiver side
until one is found to be above a predetermined threshold.
Signal is received until it falls below threshold scanning
process is again initiated.
3. Maximal Ratio Combining Technique: Signal from all of the N-
branches are weighted according to the SNR’s and then
summed. Signal must be co-phased. Output SNR = Sum of the
individual SNR’s.
4. Equal gain combining technique: Branch weight are all set to
unity. Signal from each antenna is co-phased. Make use of
energy in all branches. Performance is marginally inferior to
MRC and superior to selection diversity.
2. Time Diversity: Time diversity is obtained by re-transmitting the
same signal at separate interval of time. The re-transmission interval
should be less than the coherence time. Time Diversity also does not
require any increase in the transmission power.
Time Diversity can be realized in different ways:
• Repetition coding
• Automatic Repeat Request
• Combination of interleaving and coding
3. Frequency Diversity: Frequency diversity is obtained by transmitting
the same information on more than one carrier frequency or transmitting
the same signal over different carrier frequency. In Frequency Diversity
only one antenna is needed. It requires large bandwidth and more
number of receivers hence high cost.
4. Polarization Diversity: Polarization Diversity require two transmitter
and two receiving antennas with different polarization. The
transmission wave with two different polarization constitute two
different paths. This provide only two different diversity branches.
Polarization Diversity uses half power by dividing the power between
two different polarized antennas.
5. Angular Diversity: It is also known as pattern diversity. This diversity
allows the identical antennas to be located at same location but with a
different pattern. These two co-located antennas with different
patterns will provide a diverse path for multipath signal. It enhances the
decorrelation of signal at closely spaced antennas.

Advantages:

1. Improved Signal Quality: Diversity techniques, such as spatial or

frequency diversity, reduce the impact of fading and interference, leading
to clearer communication.
2. Enhanced Reliability: By using multiple independent paths, the
likelihood of signal loss is minimized, ensuring consistent connectivity.
3. Better Coverage: Diversity allows signals to reach areas that might
otherwise be obstructed, improving overall network coverage.
4. Increased Data Rates: With reduced errors and better signal strength, data
transmission becomes faster and more efficient.

Disadvantages:

1. Increased Complexity: Implementing diversity requires additional

hardware, such as multiple antennas, which can complicate system design.
2. Higher Costs: The need for extra equipment and advanced processing
increases the cost of deployment and maintenance.
3. Power Consumption: Diversity techniques may demand more power,
which can be a concern for battery-operated devices.
 4. Latency Issues: Combining signals from multiple paths can introduce
delays, especially in real-time applications

Single Path:

This refers to communication systems relying on one transmission path without

employing diversity techniques. While simpler and cost-effective, single-path
communication is more vulnerable to fading, interference, and signal loss,
leading to reduced reliability and performance compared to diversity-based
systems.

Selection Diversity:
Selecting the best signal among all the signals received from different braches
at the receiving end. Consider M independent Rayleigh fading channels available
at receiver
Assumptions:
• Each branch has the same average SNR
• Instantaneous SNR for each branch = γ
Selection diversity offers an average improvement in the link margin without
requiring additional transmitter power or sophisticated receiver circuitry.
• Selection diversity is easy to implement because all that is needed is a side
monitoring station and an antenna switch at the receiver.
• However it is not an optimal diversity technique because it does not use all of
the possible branches simultaneously.
• In practice the SNR is measured as (S+N)/N, since it is difficult to measure SNR.
• This method is very simple to implement, requiring only one receiver.
• The resulting fading statistics are somewhat inferior to those obtained by the
other methods.
Maximal Ratio Combining: Combining all the signals in a co‐phased and
weighted manner so as to have the highest achievable SNR at the receiver at all
times. Consider M branches which are maximal ratio combined in a co‐phased
and weighted manner in order to achieve high SNR
The voltage signal γi from each of the M diversity branches are co‐phased to
provide coherent voltage addition and are individually weighted to provide
optimal SNR.
• Each branch has gain Gi
• Each branch has same average noise power N

Equal Gain Combining: Combining all the signals in a co‐phased manner with
unity weights for all signal levels so as to have the highest achievable SNR at the
receiver at all times.
In certain cases it is not convenient to provide for the variable weighting
capability.
This allows the receiver to exploit signals that are simultaneously received on
each branch.
The probability of producing an acceptable signal from a number of
unacceptable inputs is still retained.
The performance is marginally inferior to maximal ratio combining and superior
to selection Diversity