I.

High-speed LANs :

High-speed Local Area Networks (LANs) are essential for facilitating rapid data communication
within a confined geographic area, such as an office building or campus. They enable the sharing
of resources like files, printers, and internet connections among connected devices.

Evolution of Ethernet Standards:

1. Ethernet (10 Mbps): The original Ethernet standard provided data transfer rates of up to
10 megabits per second (Mbps). It utilized coaxial cables and operated in half-duplex
mode, meaning data transmission could occur in only one direction at a time.
2. Fast Ethernet (100 Mbps): Introduced to meet the growing demand for faster data
transmission, Fast Ethernet increased speeds to 100 Mbps. It typically uses twisted-pair
cables (such as Category 5) and supports both half-duplex and full-duplex modes,
allowing simultaneous two-way communication.
3. Gigabit Ethernet (1 Gbps): To accommodate even higher data transfer needs, Gigabit
Ethernet offers speeds of 1 gigabit per second (Gbps). It operates primarily in full-duplex
mode and can utilize both fiber-optic and copper twisted-pair cables (like Category 5e or
higher).
4. 10 Gigabit Ethernet (10 Gbps): For extremely high-speed requirements, 10 Gigabit
Ethernet delivers data rates of 10 Gbps. It predominantly uses fiber-optic cables and is
ideal for backbone networks and data centers.

Advantages of High-Speed Ethernet:

 Increased Bandwidth: Higher data transfer rates support bandwidth-intensive

applications, such as video conferencing and large data transfers.
 Improved Network Performance: Enhanced speeds reduce latency and congestion,
leading to more efficient network operations.
 Scalability: High-speed Ethernet standards allow networks to scale seamlessly,
accommodating more users and devices without significant performance degradation.

Considerations for Implementation:

 Infrastructure Compatibility: Upgrading to higher-speed Ethernet may require new

cabling and hardware to support increased data rates.
 Cost Implications: While prices have decreased over time, implementing high-speed
networks can still involve substantial investment in equipment and installation.
 Distance Limitations: Certain high-speed Ethernet standards have distance constraints,
especially when using copper cables, necessitating the use of fiber optics for longer runs.

1.1 Token ring, Token Bus :

Token Ring and Token Bus are two network protocols that utilize token-passing mechanisms to
manage access to the network medium, ensuring organized and collision-free data transmission.
Token Ring:

 Topology: Despite its name, Token Ring networks often employ a physical star topology,
where each device connects to a central hub known as a Multistation Access Unit
(MAU). However, they operate logically as a ring, with data passing sequentially from
one device to the next.
 Operation: A special data packet called a "token" circulates around the network. A
device can transmit data only when it possesses the token, thereby preventing data
collisions. After transmission, the token is released back into the network for other
devices to use.
 Standards: Token Ring was standardized by IEEE as 802.5 and was widely adopted in
the 1980s and 1990s, particularly in IBM environments.

Token Bus:

 Topology: Token Bus networks utilize a physical bus or tree topology, where all devices
are connected to a common communication line. Unlike Token Ring, the logical
sequence in which the token is passed does not necessarily follow the physical layout of
the network.
 Operation: Similar to Token Ring, a token circulates among devices. A device can
transmit data only when it holds the token. If a device has no data to send, it passes the
token to the next device in the logical sequence.
 Standards: Token Bus was standardized by IEEE as 802.4 and was primarily used in
industrial applications, such as General Motors' Manufacturing Automation Protocol
(MAP).

1.2 Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) is a set of ANSI and ISO standards developed in the
1980s for data transmission in Local Area Networks (LANs) using fiber-optic cables. It was
designed to provide high-speed network backbones, supporting data transfer rates of up to 100
Mbps, which was significantly faster than other LAN technologies available at the time.

EN.WIKIPEDIA.ORG

Key Features of FDDI-based LANs:

Dual-Ring Architecture: FDDI employs a dual-ring topology, consisting of a primary and a

secondary ring. The primary ring handles data transmission under normal conditions, while the
secondary ring provides redundancy. In case of a failure in the primary ring, the network can
automatically switch to the secondary ring, ensuring continuous operation.

Token-Passing Protocol: Similar to Token Ring networks, FDDI uses a token-passing

mechanism to control access to the network medium. A token circulates around the ring; a device
can transmit data only when it possesses the token, thereby preventing data collisions and
ensuring organized communication.
Extended Distance and Scalability: FDDI supports transmission distances of up to 200
kilometers, making it suitable for connecting geographically dispersed networks. It can
accommodate up to 500 stations on a single network, providing scalability for large
organizations.

High Reliability: The use of fiber-optic cables makes FDDI networks less susceptible to
electromagnetic interference, enhancing data security and transmission reliability.

Applications of FDDI:

FDDI was primarily used as a backbone technology to interconnect lower-speed networks, such
as Ethernet or Token Ring LANs, providing a high-speed data path between them. It was also
utilized in environments requiring high bandwidth and reliability, such as research institutions
and financial organizations.

Decline and Legacy:

With the advent of faster and more cost-effective technologies like Fast Ethernet and Gigabit
Ethernet, the use of FDDI has declined. These newer technologies offer similar or higher data
transfer rates with reduced complexity and cost, leading to the gradual obsolescence of FDDI in
modern network infrastructures.

II.Network device:

`A network device is hardware that helps in data communication between computers and other
devices in a network. The main network devices include repeaters, hubs, switches, and
bridges.

1. Repeater

 A repeater is a device that regenerates and amplifies signals in a network.

 It is used in long-distance communication to prevent signal loss.
 Works at the Physical Layer (Layer 1) of the OSI model.
 Example: Used in extending LAN connections over large distances.

2. Hub

 A hub is a basic networking device that connects multiple computers in a network.

 It forwards data to all devices in the network, leading to network congestion.
 Works at the Physical Layer (Layer 1) of the OSI model.
 Types: Active Hub (amplifies signal), Passive Hub (only connects devices).

3. Switch

 A switch is an intelligent network device that forwards data only to the intended
recipient.
 Works at the Data Link Layer (Layer 2) of the OSI model.
 Uses MAC addresses to manage traffic and improve efficiency.
 Reduces network congestion compared to a hub.
4. Bridge

 A bridge connects two or more network segments and manages traffic between them.
 Works at the Data Link Layer (Layer 2) of the OSI model.
 Filters data using MAC addresses and prevents unnecessary traffic.
 Used to divide large networks into smaller segments for better efficiency.

Conclusion

Repeaters, hubs, switches, and bridges are essential devices that help in network communication
and data transmission. While hubs and repeaters are simpler devices, switches and bridges
improve network efficiency by intelligently managing data flow.

Unit3 assignment

1.Explain the differences between IEEE 802.3 (Ethernet) and IEEE 802.11 (Wi-Fi).

2.Describe the working of Token Ring and Token Bus networks.

3.How do multiple access protocols (CSMA/CD, CSMA/CA) manage network traffic?

4.Differentiate between network devices: Repeaters, Hubs, Switches, and Bridges.

13/3/2025:

Internetworking, Addressing, and Routing in Computer Networks

In computer networks, internetworking, addressing, and routing are crucial for enabling
communication between multiple devices across different networks. These concepts ensure that
data is transmitted correctly from the sender to the receiver across the internet or private
networks.

1. Internetworking

Definition:
Internetworking refers to the process of connecting multiple computer networks to function as a
single cohesive system. It enables communication between different networks using networking
devices such as routers, switches, and gateways.

Key Aspects of Internetworking:

 Uses TCP/IP Protocol Suite to enable communication between different networks.

 Routers connect separate networks and forward data packets based on IP addresses.
 The Internet is the largest example of internetworking, where millions of devices communicate
globally.

Example:
A company has two separate networks: one for employees and one for servers. A router
connects these networks, allowing employees to access the servers securely.

2. Addressing

Definition:
Addressing in networking is the process of assigning unique identifiers to devices to facilitate
communication. These addresses help in identifying the sender and receiver in a network.

Types of Addressing:

1. IP Addressing (Logical Addressing)

o Every device on a network is assigned a unique IP address.
o Two versions:
 IPv4 (e.g., 192.168.1.1) – 32-bit address.
 IPv6 (e.g., 2001:db8::1) – 128-bit address.

2. MAC Addressing (Physical Addressing)

o A Media Access Control (MAC) address is a unique hardware address assigned to a
device’s network interface card (NIC).
o Example: 00:1A:2B:3C:4D:5E

3. Port Addressing
o Used to differentiate multiple services running on the same device.
o Example:
 Port 80 for HTTP
 Port 443 for HTTPS

Example:

A user accessing a website enters the domain name (e.g., www.google.com). The DNS translates
it to an IP address (e.g., 142.250.190.14), allowing the request to reach Google's server.

3. Routing

Definition:
Routing is the process of determining the best path for data packets to travel across a network.
Routers use routing tables and algorithms to forward packets efficiently.

Types of Routing:

1. Static Routing:
o Manually configured by network administrators.
o Suitable for small networks.
o Example: A small office with fixed routes for communication.
 2. Dynamic Routing:
o Routers update their routing tables automatically based on network changes.
o Uses routing protocols such as:
 RIP (Routing Information Protocol) – Distance-vector protocol.
 OSPF (Open Shortest Path First) – Link-state protocol.
 BGP (Border Gateway Protocol) – Used for internet-wide routing.

3. Default Routing:
o A single route is used for all unknown destinations.
o Example: A home router directs all traffic to the Internet Service Provider (ISP).

Example:

When you send an email, your data packets travel through multiple routers using the best path. If
one route fails, dynamic routing finds an alternative path to ensure delivery.

Conclusion

Internetworking, addressing, and routing are fundamental to network communication.

Internetworking connects different networks, addressing identifies devices, and routing
ensures efficient data delivery. These concepts form the backbone of modern networking and the
internet.