International Journal of Advances in Intelligent Informatics ISSN 2442-6571

Vol. 8, No. 3, November 2022, pp. 381-390 381

Identifying threat objects using faster region-based

convolutional neural networks (faster r-cnn)
Reagan Galvez a,1,*, Elmer Pamisa Dadios b,2
a
Electronics Engineering Department, Bulacan State University, City of Malolos, Bulacan 3000, Philippines
b
Manufacturing Engineering and Management Department, De La Salle University, Taft Avenue, Manila 1004, Philippines
1
[email protected]; 2 [email protected]
* corresponding author

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Automated detection of threat objects in a security X-ray image is vital to

Article history prevent unwanted incidents in busy places like airports, train stations, and
Selected paper from The 2021 4th malls. The manual method of threat object detection is time-consuming
International Symposium on and tedious. Also, the person on duty can overlook the threat objects due
Advanced Intelligent Informatics to limited time in checking every person’s belongings. As a solution, this
(SAIN’21), Yogyakarta (Virtually), paper presents a faster region-based convolutional neural network (Faster
October 13-14, 2021, R-CNN) object detector to automatically identify threat objects in an X-
http://sain.ijain.org/2021/. Peer- ray image using the IEDXray dataset. The dataset was composed of scanned
reviewed by SAIN’21 Scientific X-ray images of improvised explosive device (IED) replicas without the
Committee and Editorial Team of main charge. This paper extensively evaluates the Faster R-CNN
IJAIN journal architecture in threat object detection to determine which configuration
can be used to improve the detection performance. Our findings showed
Received September 13, 2021 that the proposed method could identify three classes of threat objects in
Revised September 27, 2022 X-ray images. In addition, the mean average precision (mAP) of the threat
Accepted November 30, 2022 object detector could be improved by increasing the input image's image
Available online November 30, 2022 resolution but sacrificing the detector's speed. The threat object detector
achieved 77.59% mAP and recorded an inference time of 208.96 ms by
Keywords
resizing the input image to 900 × 1536 resolution. Results also showed that
Computer vision
increasing the bounding box proposals did not significantly improve the
Convolutional neural networks
detection performance. The mAP using 150 bounding box proposals only
Faster r-cnn
achieved 75.65% mAP, and increasing the bounding box proposal twice
Threat object detection
reduced the mAP to 72.22%.
X-ray imaging
This is an open access article under the CC–BY-SA license.

1. Introduction
Terrorist attacks in many countries result in the injury and deaths of civilians and even military
personnel [1]. In the Philippines, this problem is also dominant due to the terrorist attacks that
happened recently [2] caused by the use of an improvised explosive device (IED). IED is a homemade
explosive device used by perpetrators designed to harm people. Generally, IED contains a power source,
switch, initiator, wires, and main charge. The power source, commonly a 9 volts battery, provides power
to the initiator (electric or non-electric) to start the detonation of the main charge. The arming or firing
of the IED is controlled by the switch.
In the Global Terrorism Index 2022, the Philippines was listed in the top 20 countries most impacted
by terrorism [3]. As a safety measure, tightened security in public transport systems such as airport
terminals, train stations, and also in commercial establishments is strictly implemented. Pieces of
baggage are scanned using an X-ray machine to identify the objects inside and look for threats like
explosives and bladed weapons. Although this process is valid, the possibility of missed detection is high

https://doi.org/10.26555/ijain.v8i3.952 http://ijain.org [email protected]

382 International Journal of Advances in Intelligent Informatics ISSN 2442-6571
Vol. 8, No. 3, November 2022, pp. 381-390

during rush hour because of the limited time to scan thousands of baggage and identify threat objects
[4]. As a solution, this paper used Faster Region-based Convolutional Neural Network (Faster R-CNN)
to identify threat objects (e.g., battery, mortar, wires) in an X-ray image to aid the operator in deciding
whether a piece of baggage poses a threat or not. Faster R-CNN [5] is a deep learning-based object
detector from the family of a region-based convolutional neural network that introduces Region Proposal
Networks (RPN). This network accepts a feature map and then outputs object proposals (bounding box)
with corresponding objectness scores.
To date, several studies in the computer vision field explored Faster R-CNN in many different
applications such as vehicle detection [6], disease detection [7], [8], face detection [9], [10], ship
detection [11], [12], metal object detection [13], radar images [14], defect detection [15], [16], object
detection on medical images [17], [18], and autonomous driving [19]. Although many researchers
successfully implemented Faster R-CNN in object detection, there are few studies [20] that explored
this detector for X-ray images due to limited data available and complicated procedures in collecting X-
ray images. Some researchers used a different approach [21], like improved Mask R-CNN [22], X-ray
proposal and discriminative Networks [23], and multi-view branch-and-bound search algorithm [24] for
object detection in X-ray images. Researchers in [25] and [26] were able to implement a deep learning-
based object detector for identifying threat objects such as IEDs. However, a detailed evaluation is still
needed to know the right configuration and trade-offs.
The contributions of this paper are as follows: (a) extensive evaluation of Faster R-CNN architecture
in threat object detection, (b) investigation of how the bounding box proposals and image resolution
affects the performance of the treat object detector, (c) experiments on how to improve the performance
of the threat object detector in terms of mean average precision (mAP) and speed.

2. Method
The overview of the Faster R-CNN architecture for identifying threat objects is shown in Fig. 1.

proposals
RPN

FC Class labels battery: 90%

RoI FC wires: 87%

pooling layers mortar: 95%

Bounding
anchor boxes FC box
predictions

Preprocessing CNN

input
feature maps

Fig. 1. Faster R-CNN architecture

The input is an X-ray image with corresponding class labels and bounding boxes. X-ray images are
fed to the preprocessing stage, such as resizing and augmentation before feature extraction. Data
augmentation performs random geometric transformations to the image to increase the training data.
Features are extracted using CNN via transfer learning using ResNet-101 [27] as a base network. The
RPN module accepts anchor boxes and looks for possible objects in the image. The anchor boxes serve
as a reference at multiple scales (e.g., 64 × 64, 128 × 128, and 256 × 256) and aspect ratios (e.g., 1:1, 2:1,
1:2). Each sliding window contains nine anchor boxes centered at every position. Then, the RPN module
determines its objectness score and proposed regions where the objects are possibly located. The
objectness score measures the probability that an anchor is an object. The output of the RPN module is

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bounding box proposals, each having an objectness score. The region of interest (ROI) pooling module
accepts the top N proposals from the RPN module and extracts fixed-sized windows of ROI features
from the feature maps. The N proposals were varied from 10 to 450 to determine the effect on the
detection performance. The ROI pooling module resizes the feature map into 14 × 14 × D, where D is
the depth of the feature map. When max pooling is applied with a stride of 2, the result is a 7 × 7 × D
feature vector that will be fed to two fully connected (FC) layers and then finally passed to two fully
connected layers that yield the class label and bounding box. Class label C has four dimensions (3 classes
+ 1 background) such as the battery, mortar, and wires, while the bounding boxes are twelve (4
coordinates ×3 classes).
2.1. Dataset
Dataset collection was done using a dual-view X-ray machine. In order to capture the X-ray images
projected to the computer monitor, a video recorder was used. The images were collected by extracting
one out of five frames (20%) in a given video file to ensure that the extracted images were not similar
to the previous image. As an example, in a 60-second video with a frame rate of 30 frames per second
(fps), the extracted images will be 360 images. Once extracted, the images were manually selected based
on the clarity and quality of the image. Finally, the images were labeled according to classes using
LabelImg [28]. The dataset was called IEDXray [25], as shown in Fig. 2, which is composed of X-ray
images of IED replicas without the main charge. The left part of the figure shows the one-channel
histogram (grayscale) of the sample X-ray image. The histogram shows that the pixel intensities of the
image were concentrated approximately between 200 to 255 (white pixels). This dataset contains the
basic circuitry of an IED without explosive material. Six IED types were scanned in the X-ray machine.

Fig. 2. IEDXray dataset.

2.2. Training and Evaluation

Faster R-CNN was trained using stochastic gradient descent (SGD) with momentum. Momentum
is a method used to improve convergence speed and reduce oscillation [29]. Several hyperparameter
values were tried during the experiment using the manual search method. The highest mAP was achieved
using the following hyperparameter values: learning rate = 0.0003, momentum = 0.9, batch size = 1.
Regularization was also added to the model to increase the mAP by augmenting the data passed into the
network for training. Data augmentation was used as an implicit regularization [30]. Each experiment
was trained for 20,000 steps. The IEDXray dataset was divided into train and test data. Train and test
data consist of 1,209 and 134 images, respectively. Then, the evaluation metric used to measure the
performance of Faster R-CNN in threat object detection was based on the PASCAL VOC metric [31],
which uses the equations (1), (2), and (3) to compute the mean average precision (mAP).
Intersection over Union (IoU) was calculated by dividing the area of intersection between ground-
truth XG and predicted bounding box XP to the area of union shown in (1). To be considered as correct
detection or true positive (TP), the score should have an IoU > 0.5 [31]; otherwise, it is a false positive
(FP). A false negative (FN) is recorded for undetected ground truths.

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𝐴𝐴(𝑋𝑋𝐺𝐺 ∩𝑋𝑋𝑃𝑃 )
𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 =
𝐴𝐴(𝑋𝑋𝐺𝐺 ∪𝑋𝑋𝑃𝑃 )
(1)

Then, the precision P and recall R values were calculated to compute the average precision AP. P in
(2) measures the percentage of correct positive predictions, and R in (3) measures the ability of the
model to find all ground-truth bounding boxes. Where TP, FP, and FN are true positive, false positive,
and false negative, respectively.
𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇
𝑃𝑃 =
𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇+𝐹𝐹𝑇𝑇
(2)
𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇
𝑅𝑅 =
𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇+𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹
(3)

Given that the average precision AP is the precision P averaged across all recall R values between 0
and 1, the mAP in (4) can be computed by averaging the AP of all class C (3 classes). The classes were
battery, mortar, and wires.
1
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑃𝑃 =
𝐶𝐶
∑𝐶𝐶𝑖𝑖=1 𝑚𝑚𝑃𝑃𝑖𝑖 (4)

2.3. Hardware and Software Setup

All of the experiments were conducted on a desktop computer with Intel Core i7-9700K 3.6 GHz 8-
Core Processor, 16GB RAM, using Ubuntu 18.04 LTS with NVIDIA RTX 2070 8GB graphics
processing unit in a Tensorflow framework

3. Results and Discussion

In this research, two important parameters of the Faster R-CNN were investigated, such as the
number of bounding box proposals generated by the RPN and the image resolution of the input image
using the IEDXray dataset that was discussed in the previous section.
3.1. Bounding Box Proposals
In the experiment, the number of bounding box proposals varied between 10 and 450 to explore the
trade-off. Table 1 illustrates the mAP and evaluation time (per image) of Faster R-CNN on the different
number of bounding box proposals. The mean average precision (mAP) was calculated from the last
training step (20,000), while the evaluation time was measured by averaging the time it takes to evaluate
the test data. The notation (e.g., APbattery) is the average precision of each class. It can be seen from the
table that changing the number of bounding box proposals in each training results in different values of
mAP. The highest value was achieved using 150 bounding box proposals (75.65%), with a small
difference when using 75 bounding box proposals (75.10%). What is interesting about the data is that
using 75 bounding box proposals reduces the evaluation time by 29.85 ms (22.22%) and still has a
comparable mAP as 150 bounding box proposals. On the other hand, increasing the number of bounding
box proposals from 150 to 450 recorded a 1.16% decrease in mAP. Therefore, increasing the number of
bounding box proposals does not always improve the mAP of the object detector.

Table 1. Faster R-CNN performance on the different number of bounding box proposals
bounding box
mAP APbattery APmortar APwires time(ms)
proposal
10 0.6733 0.6923 0.9885 0.3391 89.55
75 0.7510 0.7381 0.9874 0.5274 104.48
100 0.7359 0.7034 0.9862 0.5180 126.87
150 0.7565 0.7292 0.9862 0.5540 134.33
300 0.7222 0.6843 0.9828 0.4994 171.64
450 0.7449 0.7374 0.9828 0.5146 216.42

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The precision and recall in each class using 150 bounding box proposals are shown in Table 2. It can
be seen that the Faster R-CNN detected the mortar with high precision (96.67%) and high recall
(100%). While the wires were not accurately detected with 87.41% precision and 65.10% recall.

Table 2. Precision and recall (150 bounding box proposals)

class precision (%) recall (%)

battery 97.09 63.29
wires 87.41 65.10
mortar 96.67 100

The performance of Faster R-CNN in each bounding box proposal during the evaluation is shown
in Fig. 3. It can be seen that the mAP using 10 bounding box proposals significantly reduces the
performance of the object detector.

Fig. 3. mAP plot on different bounding box proposals.

The inference time in each bounding box proposal was also evaluated. The comparison of mAP versus
time on the different number of bounding box proposals is presented in Fig. 4. Using 450 bounding box
proposals gives the slowest inference time, while 10 bounding box proposals are the fastest but give the
lowest mAP. The graph indicates that it is recommended to use 75 bounding box proposals to get the
best trade-off between speed and mAP.

Fig. 4. mAP vs. time on different bounding box proposals.

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386 International Journal of Advances in Intelligent Informatics ISSN 2442-6571
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3.2. Image Resolutions

In this experiment, the input image resolutions were varied between 150 × 256 and 900 × 1536. Then,
the Faster R-CNN was trained using these image resolutions. Table 3 shows the performance of Faster
R-CNN on different image resolutions. The aspect ratio of all resolutions was fixed (75/128), while the
number of proposals was 300. It can be seen from the table that as the image resolution gets bigger, the
mAP increases. The highest mAP was achieved using 900 × 1536 resolution (77.59%) in exchange for
lower speed. Increasing the resolution by a factor of 2 (from 150 × 256 to 300 × 512) increases the mAP
by 16.42% while increasing it to a factor of 4 (from 150 × 256 to 600 × 1024) increases the mAP by
27.09%. In addition, there is no change in evaluation time if 150 × 256 or 300 × 512 resolution is used,
but the mAP in 300 × 512 is higher than 150 × 256. The table clearly shows that image resolution can
significantly impact the mAP of the object detector.

Table 3. Faster R-CNN performance on different image resolutions

resolution mAP APbattery APmortar APwires time(ms)

150 × 256 0.4513 0.2739 0.9469 0.1332 149.25
300 × 512 0.6155 0.5196 0.9711 0.3558 149.25
450 × 768 0.6984 0.6745 0.9805 0.4402 156.72
600 × 1024 0.7222 0.6843 0.9828 0.4994 171.64
750 × 1280 0.7563 0.7527 0.9828 0.5335 186.57
900 × 1536 0.7759 0.7739 0.9740 0.5799 208.96

The precision and recall in each class using 900 × 1536 resolution are shown in Table 4. It can be
seen that the Faster R-CNN detected the mortar with high precision (93.55%) and high recall (100%).
While the wires were not accurately detected with 77.84% precision and 75% recall.

Table 4. Precision and recall (900 × 1536 Resolution)

class precision (%) recall (%)

battery 95.65 69.62
wires 77.84 75
mortar 93.55 100

The mAP plot on different image resolutions is shown in Fig. 5. Interestingly, the image size was
observed to affect the performance of the object detector. Increasing the image size also increases the
mAP of the object detector.

Fig. 5. mAP plot on different image resolutions.

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Same with the bounding box proposal experiment, the inference time in different image resolutions
was also examined. The comparison of mAP versus time on different image resolutions is presented in
Fig. 6. The increased mAP can be achieved by sacrificing the speed of the object detector. Every 150
pixels increase in the shorter edge, and 256 pixels increase in the other edge of the input image increases
the mAP while the evaluation speed slows down.

Fig. 6. mAP vs. time on different image resolutions.

After training and evaluating the Faster R-CNN, the trained model was tested in an X-ray image to
verify its detection performance. A python script was developed that accepts an input image, performs
inference, and outputs the bounding box coordinates and corresponding class labels of the threat objects.
The detection output using Faster R-CNN is shown in Fig. 7. The class label and class score of the
detected objects are shown in the upper portion of the bounding box coordinates. The model was able
to detect three classes of IED components, such as battery, mortar, and wires.

Fig. 7. Detection output in the X-ray images

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4. Conclusion
This study extensively evaluated Faster R-CNN in identifying threat objects in an X-ray image
dataset. Different experiments were conducted to increase the performance of the threat object detector
by changing the number of bounding box proposals and the image resolution of the input image. These
experiments confirmed that increasing the number of bounding box proposals may lower the mean
average precision (mAP) and slows the detection time. The research has also shown that increasing the
input image's size positively impacts the mAP by sacrificing speed. It is recommended to identify the
best trade-off between the mAP and speed when using Faster R-CNN by balancing the bounding box
proposals and the image size. Overall, the experiment result shows that the proposed method can reliably
identify the threat object in an X-ray image.
More X-ray images can be added to the training data to improve this study further. The data is
recommended to have other objects aside from the IED components. This may increase the
generalizability of the IED detector model and prevent several false positives and negatives. If acquiring
additional data is impossible, another option is to generate synthetic X-ray images using another machine
learning framework like generative adversarial networks (GANs) and variational autoencoders (VAEs).
Acknowledgment
The authors thank Bulacan State University, De la Salle University, and the Engineering Research
and Development for Technology (ERDT), Department of Science and Technology (DOST) for their
financial support while doing this research.
Declarations
Author contribution. Reagan Galvez performed the manuscript revision, data acquisition, training, and
evaluation. Elmer Dadios provided consultations to improve the content of the paper.
Funding statement. The Philippine Council for Industry, Energy, and Emerging Technology Research
and Development (PCIEERD) funded the research under Project No. 05464.
Conflict of interest. The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Additional information. No additional information is available for this paper.
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