Lecture -19

Flow Measurements

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 FLOW MEASUREMENTS

Importance of Flow measurement in day to day life

 Refineries, chemical industries, beverages, etc
 Natural gas,
 Milk distribution system
 Petrol pumps
 Water meter, etc
1% error in flow measurement cause a major impact
on the total system

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 Flow measurements
Accurate measurement of flow rate of liquids and gases is an
essential requirement for maintaining the quality of industrial
processes.
Industrial control loops control the flow rates of incoming
liquids or gases in order to achieve the control objective.
Hence, accurate measurement of flow rate is very important.

 Flow measurements can be volumetric or mass flow rate,

 medium could be gas or liquid,
 measurement could be intrusive or nonintrusive,

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 Types of Flowmeters

1. Obstruction type (differential pressure or variable area)

2. Inferential (turbine type),
3. Electromagnetic,
4. Positive displacement (integrating),
5. Fluid dynamic (vortex shedding),
6. Anemometer,
7. Ultrasonic and
8. Mass flowmeter (Corriolis).

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 Flow obstruction methods

Obstruction or head type flow meters are of two types:

 differential pressure type and
 variable area type
 Differential type examples are Orifice meter, Venturimeter,
Pitot tube.
 Variable area type example is rotameter .
In all cases, an obstruction is created in the flow passage and the
pressure drop across the obstruction is related with the flow rate

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 DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE FLOWMETERS
Employ the Bernoulli Equation that describes the relationship
between pressure and velocity of a flow. These devices guide the
flow into a section with different cross section areas (different pipe
diameters) that causes variations in flow velocity and pressure. By
measuring the changes in pressure, the flow velocity can then be
calculated.
Types
 Venturi
 Nozzle Pipe diameter 6 ~ 300 mm

 Orifice

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The discharge coefficient depends on the constriction, which
could be
 Venturi tube
 Flow nozzle
 Orifice plate

A certain pressure drop

becomes irrecoverable.
For orifice meter, losses
of about 30%-40% occur

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Based on Bernoulli’s theorem

2 2
p1 V p2 V
  gZ1 
1
  gZ 2
2

 2  2

V22  V12 P1  P2

2 
By continuity equation,

a1V1  a2V2

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 V 
2
a2 
2
 p1  p2 
1  2  
2

2  a1  
2  p1  p2 
V2 
 a 22 
 1  2 
 a1 
Theoretical (ideal) mass flow rate

2   p1  p2 
m   a2V2  a2
 a22 
1  2 
 a1 
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The channel similar to that shown in figure could be used for a
flow measurement by simply measuring the pressure drop (P1-P2)
and calculating the mass flow rate.
Since all channels has some losses during the flow, the flow rate
calculated will not be equal to the actual flow rate.
The calculated and actual flow rates
are related by an empirical discharge
coefficient C by the relationship
Qact
C
Qideal

The discharge coefficient is not a constant and

depend strongly on Re and the channel geometry.
For Venturimetes, 0.95 < C < 0.98
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 Orifice Plate

The orifice plate is a circular plate with a hole in the center.

Pressure tappings are normally taken distances D and 0.5D
upstream and downstream the orifice respectively (D is pipe ID)

The major disadvantage of using orifice plate is the permanent

pressure drop normally experienced. The pressure drops
significantly after the orifice and can be recovered only partially.
The magnitude of the permanent pressure drop is around 40%,
which is sometimes objectionable. It requires more pressure 11
to
pump the liquid.
 Pressure tappings

Three types of pressure tapping

 Corner Tappings
 Flange Tappings
 D-D/2 Tappings

 Type and position of pressure tappings are important

 Influence Cd 12
 Pressure Tapings

Corner tappings: Downstream

faces of the orifice

Flange Tappings: Drilled through

the flanges

D-D/2 tappings: Conform to

geometric scaling laws

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 Orifice meter
The actual flow rate
2   p1  p2 
m  C d  a2V2  C d a2
 a22 
1  2 
 a1 
If d/D = β, then the actual mass flow rate
C d a2
m  Cd  a2V2  2   p1  p2 
1  4

Typical values of
β : d/D = 0.25 to 0.75
Cd : 0.6-0.8
Developing length of at least 25-30 dia, of pipe is required to
satisfy fully developed turbulent flows

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 Orifice Meter used in Rectangular Ducts

Orifice

M. fluid

Volume of flow Q  Cd 2P 15

 Variation of Discharge Coefficient

Source: Doebelin, Measurement systems 16

 Flow nozzle

The approach curve must be

proportioned to prevent
separation between the flow
and the wall, and the parallel
section is used to ensure that
the flow fills the throat.

The usual range of discharge coefficients can be

obtained by empirical equation

C  0.99622  0.0059 D 
 6.36  0.13D  0.24  2

Re
where, β = d/D
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 Nozzle Flowmeter

 Nozzle is inserted instead of the orifice

 Guided smoothly to the section of minimum area of
stream from which the stream issues as a parallel jet.
 Lesser pressure loss. So higher discharge coefficient than
the plate orifice (around 0.95)
 Superiority lies in the absence of any mechanical features.

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 Nozzle flow meter
 Dust clogging could affect orifice meter performanance
which can be avoided using flow nozzle.
 Uniform velocity exists over the greater part of the cross
section.

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 (6.36  0.13D  0.24 ) 2
Cd  0.99622  0.00059 D 
Re
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Design of Nozzle

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 Venturi Tube
 Unrecoverable loss of pressure with an orifice or a
nozzle due to the sudden change of area
 We can recover most of the pressure by guiding the
stream by means of a conical length pipe
 Arrangement with a conical entry of sharp taper
preceding the throat is known as venture tube

The changes in cross section area cause changes in velocity and

pressure of the flow

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 Divergence angle not to exceed 6° to 7°.
 Slope of the inlet cone can be steeper
 Cone angles up to 15° - 21°

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Design of Venturi Tube

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Simple Design

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Advantages of obstruction flow meters
 Simple construction ,
 relatively inexpensive,
 no moving parts,
 low maintenance,
 wide applications of flowing fluid ,
 range selection ,
 extensive experience and performance data base,
 readily available standards and codes of practice

Disadvantages
 flow rate is a nonlinear function of differential pressure
 low flow rate rangeability problems

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 Measurement of compressible fluid flow using obstruction
flow meters

Cd
m  a2Y 2 1 ( P1  P2 )
1  4
Y is the expansion factor, which is given by
For Nozzles and Venturi’s
  P ( 1) /   
2/  1  2   
 P        1  4 
Y     
2  P1 
  2/ 
 1        1   P2   1   4  P2 
P 1
  
    
  P1    P1  
For Square –edged orifices

 P1  P2 
Y  1  0.41  0.35  4

  P1  27
Expansion factor for Venturi and nozzles

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Expansion factor for square edged orifices

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Variation of flow coefficients

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 Choked flow
While considering isentropic flow of compressible fluids,
If M ≥ 1.0 at the throat, the variation in pressure downstream of the
throat no longer influences the mass flow rate.

The critical pressure ratio for the choked flow is expressed in terms of
static upstream and throat pressure as:
 /(1 )
P2  1   
 
P1  2 

So long as the ratio P2/P1 is greater than the value given in above
expression, the flow may be predicted.

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 Laminar flow meters

Relationship between flow rate and pressure drop in a

laminar flow is linear

P1 V12 P2 V22
    ghL1,2
 2  2
hL1-2 given by Darcy-Weisbach relationship
L V2
ghL1 2  f 
D 2
Designed to operate within Re = 2000

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Capillary tubes ensure that Re does not exceed the laminar region

For NR  2000, Hagen-Poiseuille Viscous flow relation

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Laminar flow meters

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MAIN FEATURES
 A 900 mm length, 0.1 mm dia. tubing measuring of 50 mm of H2O
column of inclined manometer gives a sensitivity of 0.003 cm3/hr of
hydrogen.
 Capacity enhancement may be done by increasing the no of capillary
tubes.
 Honeycomb structure also used for low flow measurements.
 Mainly used to measure low pressure air flow rate ranges from 0.1 to
57 m3/min at pressure drops of 100 – 200 mm of H2O
 Widely used in pulsating flow conditions like in intake and exhaust
manifolds of IC engines, reciprocating compressors, etc.

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Rotameter

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 Rotameter
For a given design, the surface area of the float Afloat, the densities of
the float and flowing fluid f and ff and the volume of the float Vf
are known. By the measuring the position (x) of the float in the
rotameter, At is obtained. The volume flow rate Q can be calculated
from the formula:

( At  Afloat )  f   ff
Q 2 gV f
 At  Afloat 
2 Cd Afloat  ff
1  
 At 
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The variation of Cd with float position is less,
hence Q becomes

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 Rotameter
 The constant “K” of the ratometer should
be calibrated/ calculated for each fluids
separately.
 The tubes often made of high strength glass
to allow direct observation of the float
position.
 Typical accuracy : ± 2 %
 Effectively used for large flow ranges and
gives the direct measurement.
 Flow range can be easily modified by
changing the float.
Disadvantages:
Should be kept at vertical position.Cannot
be used with liquid carrying large % of
solids. Not suitable for low flow rate.
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 Effect of Fluid Density
Error due to the variation of fluid density
For a given flow rate;
Q  Ky (  f   ff )  ff
 f   ff
Q  Ky
 ff
Let a = f/ff; In order to accommodate 5 % in the fluid
density variation

Q1  Ky a(1  0.05)  1
Q2  Ky a  1
Q1Q2 a(1  0.05)  1  a  1

Q1 a(1  0.05)  1
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Effect of Fluid Density On the Absolute Error

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 TARGET FLOWMETERS

Target flow meters, also known as drag force flow meters, insert a
target (drag element), usually a flat disc or a sphere with an
extension rod, into the flow field. They then measure the drag force
on the inserted target and convert it to the flow velocity.

Pipe sizes 15 ~ 150 mm (0.5 ~ 6 inch) 44

Cd is the drag coefficient to be determined experimentally
based on the flow conditions and the geometry of the drag
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element.
The rate at which turbine blades pass a given point
is measured using a magnetic proximity pickup
(usually gives voltage pulses as output).
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 TURBINE FLOWMETERS

Pros: Medium initial set up cost, Reliable, time tested

proven technology, Fast response, Remote sensing
Cons: For clean fluid only, Low to medium pressure drop.
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TURBINE FLOWMETERS

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 Performance of Turbine flow meters

Q nD 2
L  2m( Db  Dh )t
2
  Db  
  1 
2
1  
nD 3
 4D  D 2
 L  

Q- Volume flow m3/s
n - rotor angular velocity rad/s
D – Bore diameter, m
V- kinemetic viscosity, m2/s
L – rotor lead, m
m – no. of blades
Db- rotor blade tip diameter,m
Dh- rotor hub diameter, m
t – rotor blade thickness, m 49
Main Features of Turbine flow meters
First order instrument has the time constant of 2
– 10 ms at maximum flow.
Accuracy up to ± 0.5 %
Available pipe sizes from 0.125 to 8 in
Rages from 0.01 to 30,000 gal/min for liquids
and 0.078 to 112208 gal/min for gas.
Special care to be given for bearing
maintenance
Poor accuracy at low flow rates ( At low flow
rates, linearity is degraded by both viscous and
magnetic pickup drag.
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 FLOW MEASUREMENTS

Importance of Flow measurement in day to day life

Petrol
Milk distribution system
Water meter, etc
1% error in flow measurement cause a major
impact on the total system

51
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 Commonly used mass flow instruments
0 Technology Instrument Measure Result
1. Coriolis Miscellaneous Acceleration Mass
2. D. Pressure Elbow Pressure Pressure Volume
3. Flow Nozzle Pressure Pressure Volume
4. Orifice Pressure Pressure Volume
5. Pitot Tube Pressure Pressure Volume
6. Venturi Pressure Pressure Volume
7. Magnetic Electronic EMF Velocity
8. P. Displacement Oscillating Piston Mechanical Volume Volume
9. Oval Gear Mechanical Volume Volume
10. Target Mechanical Force Velocity
11. Thermal Miscellaneous Heat Transfer Velocity
12. Turbine Mechanical Volume Volume
13. Ultrasonic Dopper Electronic Acoustic waves Velocity
15. Variable area Movable Vane Pressure Pressure Volume
16. Rotameter Pressure Pressure Volume
17. Vortex Mechanical Frequency Velocity
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Pitot-static tube

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For sub sonic

k
 k 1 2
k 1
pstag  pstat 1  (V / c) 
 
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2
For supersonic flow
k 1
1
pstag  k 1  k 1  2kM  k  1 k 1
M 
2
  2 
pstat  k   M (k  1) 

Stagnation probe for measuring error less pressure up to

38 misalignment
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Influences of
position of static
holes

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Low to medium initial set up cost.
Can be used in wide ranges of fluid phases and flow
conditions.
Simple and sturdy structures
Medium to high pressure drop.

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Pitot static probe for measuring dynamic pressure

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DIFFERENT TYPES OF PITOTS TUBE

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