1.

SENTENCE STRUCTURE: CATEGORIES

1.1. CONCEPT:
‘A lexical category is a general term for the word-level syntactic categories of noun, verb,
adjective, preposition, and adverb. These are the categories of content words like man, run, up,
large, and rapidly. As opposed to functional category words such as the and and’. FROMKIN, at
al, (2011:584).
According to ROBERTRS (2012:69), ‘Lexical verbs are sub-categorised according to what other
elements must appear with them in the VP. In other words, they are sub-categorised in terms of
what complements they demand. There six sub-categories of lexical verbs, which are transitive,
intransitive, ditransitive, intensive, complex transitive and prepositional verb groups’.

From the sub-categories of lexical verbs proposed by Roberts above, we are going to deal with
intransitive, ditransitive, intensive, complex transitive and prepositional verb groups.

1.2. Intransitive Verb group

‘FROMKIN at al, (2011:582), report that intransitive verb is a verb that must not have (does not
C-select for) a direct object complement, e.g., sleep, rise’.
‘An intransitive verb never has a direct or indirect object. Although an intransitive verb may be
followed by an adverb or adverbial phrase, there is no object to receive its action’. (adapted form
www.uvu.edu/writingcenter, online 12:30, 31/2019).

Example: Flávia raises slowly from her seat.

The verb is rises. The phrase, slowly from her seat, modifies the verb, but no object receives the
action.

ROBERTS (2012:71), recognises that ‘An intransitive verb is one that does not require any
further constituent as a sister in the VP. ‘INtransitive’ means ‘has (and needs) no complement’.
Disappear, die, laugh, vegetate (and play on one interpretation) are intransitive verbs. Since an
intransitive verb requires no further element to form a complete predicate, an intransitive verb
counts as a complete VP in its own right.’
 1.3. Ditransitive Verb group

According to FROMKIN at al, (2011:577), ‘Ditransitive verb is a verb that appears to take two
noun-phrase objects, e.g., give in he gave Sally his cat. Ditransitive verb phrases often have an
alternative form with a prepositional phrase in place of the first noun phrase, as in he gave his cat
to Sally”.
ROBERTS (2012:72), notes “Ditransitive verbs require TWO NPs as complements. The classic
example of a ditransitive verb is give. Others are send and buy’:
Examples:
a) William gave Millie some bleach.
b) The staff sent the general a message.
c) Max buys his butler all necessary work-clothes.
In (a)–(c) the first complement (the NP in bold) functions, more specifically, as the indirect
object of the ditransitive verb. Indirect objects are usually the recipients or beneficiaries of the
action. The second complement NP (in italics) functions as the direct object – it has the same
function as the NP that complements a transitive verb. Here is a phrase marker of (a) – with the
(ditrans) feature on V. One of the most important characteristics of VPs consisting of a
ditransitive verb complemented by two NPs is that they are systematically related to VPs in
where the indirect object NP in (a) corresponds to a Prepositional Phrase (PP) taking a position
after the direct object. ROBERTS (2012:73).
E.g.: William gave some bleach to Millie.
ROBERTS (2012:73), highlights that:
‘(…) in using a ditransitive verb such as send, we need to specify not only (a) a sender
(usually subject), and (b) what is sent (usually the direct object), but also (c) to whom it is
sent (usually indirect object). As mentioned, indirect objects can take the form of either an
NP or a PP containing to or for. So PPs that correspond to indirect objects are part of the
complementation of ditransitive verbs. The indirect object, then, is either (a) the first of
two NP sisters of a V bearing a [ditrans] feature (as in [1]) or (b) the PP which is a sister
of a V bearing a [ditrans] feature (as in [2])’.
E.g.1: William gave Millie some bleach.
E.g.2: William gave some bleach to Millie.
 1.4. Intensive verb group
‘Intensive verb is a verb complemented just by an AP. This is because (intensive) is the only sub-
category of verb that can take just an AP complement’. ROBERTS (2012:74).

Intensive verbs require a complement, which can take the form of an Adjective Phrase, a Noun
Phrase or Prepositional Phrase. The most obvious and commonly used intensive verb is be. As
the central example of the intensive sub-category of verb, be is called ‘the copula’.

Examples:

a) Edgar is rather extravagant. (AP)

b) Jonas was a singer. (NP)
c) Flavia and Dino were in the dining room. (PP)

‘The complement of an intensive verb functions (more specifically) as a predicative. Other

intensive verbs – i.e. other verbs that take a predicative as complement – are: become, seem,
appear, turn, remain, look, taste, feel, smell, sound. (…) intensive verbs can be complemented by
an NP or a PP and, when a verb is complemented by an NP, you will have to decide whether (V
+ NP) is an example of (transitive V + direct object) or an example of (intensive V +
predicative). For a better understanding of the concept of ‘predicative’, one needs a good
understanding of the difference between predicative and direct object’, as it is explained bellow:
ROBERTS (2012:74).

a) Sigmund was an auctioneer.

b) Sigmund spotted an auctioneer.

‘In both examples there is a verb complemented by an NP. In (b) the verb is transitive, so the NP
complement functions more specifically as direct object. As a direct object, the NP identifies an
individual distinct from Sigmund (referred to by the subject NP Sigmund). In this case, we
mention two distinct individuals - Sigmund and the auctioneer. It is in the nature of spotting that
it’s a relation between two individuals: a spotter (subject) and a spottee (direct object), that is
what make spot a transitive verb. Whereas in (a) does not express a relation between two
individuals, with the intensive verb, only one individual is mentioned by means of the subject
(Sigmund). The rest of the sentence (the VP) is used to characterise the subject, that is, the
sentence expresses the idea that Sigmund has the property of being an auctioneer’. ROBERTS
(2012:74).

ROBERTS (2012:74), assumes that ‘predicatives are used to attribute properties to the things
referred to by other expressions. Unlike direct/indirect objects, they do not themselves refer to
things or people. It is because intensive verbs only take predicatives that they can be
complemented by Adjective Phrases: APs only ever identify properties, like in Edgar simply the
(AP) attributes the extravagance to him. NPs, by contrast, can be used both to identify properties
and to refer to individuals. This is why an NP can function either as predicative (complementing
an intensive verb) or as direct object (complementing a transitive verb)’.

An intensive verb, by definition, takes a subject-predicative. A transitive verb, by definition, takes

a direct object. So, by using those features, you are effectively assigning a more specific function
to the complement of the verb.

1.5. Complex transitive verb group

“Complex transitive verbs take two complements: a direct object (NP) and an object-predicative.
Again, the predicative can take the form of an AP, an NP or a PP. Here are some examples, with
the direct object in italics and the predicative in bold.” ROBERTS (2012:76).

[48] Jack finds his own jokes extremely funny. (AP)

[49] They made Stella their spokesperson. (NP)

[50] Liza put the liquor under her bed. (PP)

ROBERTS (2012:76), explains yet that:

“(…) the predicative in a complex transitive VP characterises (attributes a property to)

the direct object, not the subject, hence the name ‘object-predicative’. The semantic
relation between direct object and object-predicative in a complex transitive VP, then,
parallels that between the subject and the subject-predicative in an intensive sentence. It’s
an intensive relation. For example, if [48] is true, then, as far as Jack is concerned, his
own jokes are extremely funny; if [49] is true, then Stella became their spokesperson; and
if [50] is true, then the liquor was under Liza’s bed”.

Jack finds his own jokes extremely funny.

In assigning the feature [complex] to the V node, we are making the whole phrase marker
represent the function of his own jokes as direct object and the function of extremely funny as
object-predicative (those are the functions associated with complex transitive verbs).

Max found Bill an amusing companion.

‘This example is ambiguous. Now, let’s first identify the two interpretations in our mind and then
explain the ambiguity by assigning different functions to the two complements of the verb. On
the basis of that, we should be able to assign two different sub-categorisation features to the V
found.

The first interpretation consists in meaning with (a) Max found an amusing companion for Bill.
On this, the verb find is ditransitive, because Bill is the beneficiary and functions as indirect
object, and an amusing companion is the direct object. On this ditransitive interpretation the
three participants are involved. The second interpretation, consists in meaning with (a) Max
found Bill to be an amusing companion. On this interpretation, Bill and an amusing companion
have the functions associated with the complementation of complex transitive verbs: Bill (direct
object) and an amusing companion (object-predicative). On this complex transitive
interpretation, there are only two participants, Max and Bill; an amusing companion merely
attributes a property to Bill. The distinction in meaning between (a) and (b) – and hence the
ambiguity – and the different functions of Bill and an amusing companion is all accounted for
simply by the difference in sub-categorisation feature attached to the V. which are for and to be.’
ROBERTS (2012:77).

1.6. Prepositional verb group

As ROBERTS (2012:77), assumes ‘Prepositional verbs are called ‘prepositional’ because they
can only be complemented by a PP. In this, they contrast with [intens] verbs, which can be
complemented by NP, AP or PP. Furthermore, each [prep] verb generally demands that the head
of that PP be one particular preposition – for example, we have glance [at NP], not *glance [to
NP], and refer [to NP], not *refer [at NP]’.
 INTRANSITIVE – ‘[intrans]’: Subject – direct object
(S) (dO)
DITRANSITIVE – ‘[ditrans]’: Subject – V- indirect object – direct object
Or: (S) (iO) (dO)
Subject –V-direct object –indirect object
(S) (dO) (iO)

INTENSIVE - ‘[intens]’: Subject – V- subject-predicative

(S) (sP)
COMPLEX - ‘[complex]’: Subject – V-direct object – object- predicative
(S) (dO) (oP)
PREPOSITIONAL - ‘[prep]’: Subject –V-prepositional complement
(S) (PC)
Source: ROBERTS (2012). Analysing sentences. An introduction to English syntax, 3rd ed, pp 77.