Solar Radiation Geometry

Definations:
(a) Solar altitude angle(α):
Altitude Angle is the angle between the Sun‘s rays and
projection of the Sun’s rays on the horizontal plane
(b) Zenith angle(θz):
It is Complementary angle of Sun‘s Altitude angle
It is a vertical angle between Sun‘s rays and line perpendicular
to the horizontal plane through the point i.e. angle between the
beam and the vertical
Θz=(π/2)-α
(c) Solar Azimuth Angle(γs):
It is the solar angle in degrees along the horizon east or west of
north
or
It is the horizontal angle measured from north to the horizontal
projection of sun‘s rays.
(d) Declination(δ):
It is the angle between a line extending from the centre of the
Sun and center of the earth and projection of this on earth‘s
equatorial plane.
The declination is given by the formula
Declination is the direct consequence of earth‘s tilt and It would vary between 23.5o on June 22 to –
23.5o on December 22. On equinoxes of March21 & Sept22 declination is zero.

(e) Meridian:
Meridian is the imaginary line passing through a point or place on earth and north and south poles of
the earth‘.
(f) hour angle(ω):
Hour angle is the angle through which the earth must turn to bring meridian of the point directly in
line with the sun‘s rays. Hour angle is equal to 15o per hour.
(g) slope(β):
Angle between the collector surface with the horizontal plane is called slope(β).
(h) surface azimuth angle(γ):
Angle between the normal to the collector and south direction is called surface azimuth angle(γ)
(i) Solar Incident angle(θ):
It is the angle between an incident beam radiation falling on the collector and normal to the plane
surface
Day Length:
At the time of sunset or sunrise the zenith angle θz=90o , we obtain sunrise hour angle as

Local Solar Time(Local Apparent Time (LAT):

Local Solar Time can be calculated from standard time by applying two corrections. The first
correction arises due to the difference in longitude of the location and meridian on which standard
time is based. The correction has a magnitude of 4minutes for every degree difference in longitude.
Second correction called the equation of time correction is due to the fact that earth‘s orbit and the
rate of rotation are subject to small perturbations.
Thus,
Local Solar Time=Standard time± 4(Standard time Longitude-Longitude of the location)+(Equation
of time correction)
Example 1:
Determine the local solar time and declination at a location latitude 230151 N , longitude 770301E at
12.30 IST on june 19. Equation of Time correction is = -(110111).
Solution:
The Local solar time=IST-4(standard time longitude longitude of location)+Equation of time correction.
=12h30‘-4(82030‘-77030‘)-1‘01‖
=12h8‘59‘‘
Declination δ can be calculated Cooper‘s Equation
i.e,

Example 2:
Instruments used for measuring solar radiation:
Pyranometer:
A pyranometer is an instrument which measure’s either global or diffuse radiation falling on a horizontal surface over a
hemispherical field of view. A sketch of one type of pyranometer as installed for measuring global radiation is shown in the
following figure.

Pyranometer consists of a black surface which heats up when

exposed to solar radiation. It’s temperature increases until the
rate of heat gain by solar radiation equals the rate of heat loss by
convection, conduction and radiation. The hot junctions of
thermopile are attached to the black surface, while the cold
junctions are located under a guard plate so that they do not
receive the radiation directly. As a result an emf is generated.
This emf which is usually in the range of 0 t0 10mv can be read,
recorded or integrated over a period of time and is a measure of
global radiation.

1.Black surface, 2. Glass domes ,

3. Guard plate 4. Leveling screws,
5.mounting plate, 6. Grouted bolts,
7.platform.
The pyranometer can also be used for measurement of diffuse radiation. This is done by mounting it at the center of a semi
circular shading ring. The shading ring is fixed in such a way that it’s plane is parallel to the plane of path of sun’s daily
movement across the sky and it shades the thermopile element and two galss domes of pyranometer at all the times from
direct sun shine. Consequently the pyranometer measures only the diffuse radiation received from the sky.
Pyrheliometer:
This is an instrument which measures beam radiation falling on
a surface normal to the sun’s rays. In contrast to a pyranometer,
the black absorber plate (with hot junctions of a thermopile
attached to it) is located at the base of a collimating tube. The
tube is aligned with the direction of the sun’s rays
with the help of a two-axis tracking mechanism and alignment
indicator. Thus the black plate receives only beam radiation and
a small amount of diffuse radiation falling within the acceptance
angle of the instrument.
The Following figure shows a pyrheliometer.

1.tube blackened on inside

surface,
2.baffle, 3.Alignment indicator,
4. Black absorber plate
5.thermopile junctions
6.two-axis tracking mechanism
Sun Shine Recorder

The duration of bright sun shine in a day is measured by means of a sunshine recorder shown in fig2.3 the
sun’s Rays are focused by a glass sphere to a point on a card strip held in a groove in a spherical bowl
mounted concentrically with the sphere. Whenever there is bright sunshine, the image formed is intense
enough to burn a spot on the cord strip. Though the day as the sun moves across the sky, the image moves
alone the strip. Thus, a burnt trace whose length is proportional to the duration of sunshine is obtained on the
strip. A photograph of the instrument is shown in plate 3 (bottom).
Solar Collectors
A solar collector is a device for collecting solar radiation and transfer the energy to fluid passing in contact with it.
Utilization of solar energy requires solar collectors. These are generally of two types.
(i) Non- concentrating (or) flat plate solar collector.
(ii) Concentrating type solar collector.
In a non-concentrating type the area of the absorber is equals the area of the collector and since
the radiation is not focused, the maximum temp achieved in this type is about 100° C. on the other
hand in a concentrating type the area of the absorber is very small (50-100 times) as compared to
the collector area. This results in less loss of heat and also since the radiation is focused to a point
or a line the maximum temp achieved is about 350°C.
Flat plate collectors (non-concentrating)
Where temperatures below about 90oC are adequate as they are for space and service water heating flat plate
collectors, which are of the nonconcentrating type, are particularly convenient. They are made in rectangular
panels from about 1.7 to 2.9 sq.m, in area, and are relatively simple to construct and erect. Flat plates can collect
and absorb both direct and diffuse solar radiation, they are consequently partially effective even on cloudy days
when there is no direct radiation. Flat plate solar collectors may be divided into two main classifications
based on the type of heat transfer fluid used.

A) Liquid collector
B) Air collector
In the casing insulator is provided at the bottom to
check conductive heat transfer. Mineral wool, glass
wool, fibre glass, asbestos thermocol etc. are used as
insulator. Above the insulator the absorber plate is
fixed. The absorber plate is made of good conducting
material like aluminum or copper. It is coated black to
increase its absorption property. Usually the black
coating is done by chemical treatment. Selective
coatings which allow for maximum absorption of
radiation and minimum amount of emission are applied
on to the absorber plate. The underside of the plate
consists of absorber tubes which run along the length
of the plate. These plates are also made of the same
material as that of the absorber plate. Through these
tubes the heat absorbing medium (water) is circulated.
This medium will absorb the heat from the plates and
the tubes and its temp increases. This medium will
absorb the heat from the plates and the tubes and its
temp increases. This way solar energy is collected as
heat energy. Above the absorber plate glass covers are
provided.
Liquid heating Flat Plate Collector
Liquid heating flat plate collectors are used for heating water and nonfreezing
aqueous solutions.
There are many flat-plate collector designs, but most are based on the
principle shown in fig 2.4. It is the plate and tube type collector. It basically
consists of a flat surface with high absorptivity for solar radiation called the
absorbing surface. Typically a metal plate, usually of copper, steel or
aluminum material with tubing of copper in thermal contact with the plates are
the most commonly used materials. The absorber plate is usually made from
a metal sheet 1 to 2 mm in thickness, while the tubes, which are also of metal,
range in diameter from 1 to 1.5cm. They are soldesed, brazed or clamped to
the bottom of the absorber plate with the pitch ranging from 5 to 15 Cm, In some designs, the tubes are also in
line and integral with the absorber plate. The primary function of the absorber is to absorb maximum radiation
reaching it through the glazing, to lose maximum heat upward to the atmosphere and down ward through the
back of the container and to transfer the retained heat to the working fluid. Black painted absorbers are
preferred because they are considerably cheaper and good absorbers of radiation. Heat is transferred from the
absorber plate to a point of use by circulation of fluid (usually water) across the solar heated surface. Thermal
insulation of 5 to 10cm. Thickness is usually placed behind the absorber plate to prevent the heat losses from
the rear surface. Insulation materials is generally mineral wool or glass wool or fiber glass.
Concentrating collectors: These are the solar collectors where the radiation is focused either to a point
(focal point of the collector) or along a line (focal axis of the collector). Since the radiation is focused,
the η of concentrating collector is always greater than that of non-focusing or FPC.
This is because of the following reasons,
1) In case of focusing collector the area of the absorber is many times smaller than that of the area of
the collector. Where as in a non-concentrating type the area of the absorber equals area of the
collector. Hence here the loss of absorbed radiation is more compared to the concentrating type.
2) In a concentrating collector since the radiation is focused, its intensity is always greater than that
in the non-focusing type. Because of these reasons the concentrating collectors are always used for
high temp applications like power generation and industrial process heating.
Cylindrical Parabolic Concentrator:
It consists of a cylindrical parabolic through reflector and a metal tube receiver at its focal line as
shown in figure above. The receiver tube is blackened at the outside surface to increase absorption. It
is rotated about one axis to track the sun. The heat transfer fluid flows through the receiver tube,
carrying the thermal energy to the next stage of the system. This type of collector may be oriented in
any one of the three directions: East-West, North-South or polar. The polar configuration intercepts
more solar radiation per unit area as compared to other modes and thus gives best performance. The
concentration ratio in the range of 5-30 may be achieved
from these collectors.
Hemispherical Bowl Mirror Concentrator:
It consists of hemispherical fixed mirror, a tracking absorber and supporting structure, as shown
in Figure. All rays entering the hemisphere after reflection cross the paraxial line at some point
between the focus and the mirror surface. Therefore, a linear absorber pivoted about the center of
curvature of the hemisphere intercepts all reflected rays. The absorber is to be moved so that its
axis is always aligned with solar rays passing through the center of the sphere. This requires two-
axis tracking. The absorber is either driven around a polar axis at a constant angular speed of 15
degrees/hour or adjusted periodically during the day. This type of concentrator gives lesser
concentration, owing to spherical aberration, than that obtained in paraboloidal concentrator.
Mirror-Strip Reflector. In another kind of focusing.collec tor, a number of plane or slightly curved (concave) mirror strips
are mounted on a flat base. The angles of the individual mirrors are such that they reflect solar radiation from a specific
direction on to the same focal line (Fig. 3.7.3). The angles of the mirrors must be adjusted to Sun
allow for changes in the sun's elevation, while the focal line (for collector bipe) remains in a fixed position. Alternatively,
as mentioned for parabolic trough collectors, the mirror strips may be fixed and the collector pipe moved continuously
so as to remain on the focal line.
 Fresnel Lens Collector. In addition to the reflecting cotrec tors described above, a
refraction type of focusing collectors has been developed. It utilizes the focusing effect of
a Fresnel lens, as representedin cross-section in Fig. 3.7.4.

In this collector a Fresnel lens, which consists of fine, linear grooves

on the surface of refracting material (generally optical quality plastic)
on one side and flat on the other side, is used. The angle of each
groove is designed to make the optical behavior similar to a spherical
lens. The beam radiation, which is incident normally, converges on
focal line, where a receiver tube is provided to absorb the radiation.
A concentration ratio of 10-30 may be realized which yields
temperatures between 150-3000C.

The absorber pipe is usually enclosed in a glass (Pyrex) jacket in order to decrease
thermal losses by convection and radiation. The space between the pipe and the
jacket is sometimes evacuated to reduce convection losses. The diameter of the
glass jacket may be about 5 cm and that of the absorber pipe about 3 cm. The
annulus between this pipe and the plug may be as little as 2.5 mm wide.
Point Focusing Collector (Paraboloidal Type).
A paraboloidal dish collector brings solar radiation to a focus at a
point actually a small central volume. (Fig. 3.7.7). A dish 6.6 m in,
diameter has been made from about 200 curved mirror segments
forming a paraboloidal surface. The absorber, located at the focus,
is a cavity made of a zirconium-copper alloy with a black chrome
selective coating. The heat-transport fluid flows into and out of the
absorber cavity through pipes bonded to the interior. The dish can
be turned automatically about two axes (up-down and left-right) so
that the sun is always kept in a line with the focus and the base
(vertex) of the paraboloidal dish. Thus, the sun can be fully tracked
at essentially all times.
When a parabola is rotated about its optical axis a
paraboloidal surface is produced. Above figure shows the
details of this type of collector. Beam radiation is focused
at a point in the paraboloid. This requires two axis
tracking. It can have concentration ratio ranging from 10
to few thousands and can yield temperature up to 3000oC.
Paraboloidal dish collectors of 6-7m in diameter are
commercially manufactured.
Flat-plate collector augmented
The simplest type of concentrating collector is the mirror-
boosted, flat plate collector. It consists of a flat plate facing south
with mirror attached to its north and south edges
(Fig.Mirror3.7.9). If the mirrors are set at the proper angle, they
reflect solarradiation on to the absorber plate.Thus, the latter
receives reflected radiation in addition to that normallu falling on
it. The mirror cutoff part of the scattered radiationthat would
otherwise have reachedthe absorber plate, and only part ofthe
scattered radiation falling on the mirrors will be reflected
ontothe absorber. Thus the concentraMirrorFlat plate
collectorFig. 3.7.9.
Due to practical difficulty in manufacturing a large mirror in a single piece
in cylindrical parabolic shape, long narrow mirror strips are used in this
concentrator. The concentrator consists of fixed mirror strips arranged on a
circular reference cylinder with a tracking receiver tube as shown in Figure
above. The receiver tube is made to rotate about the center of curvature of
reflector module to track the sun. The image width at the absorber is ideally
the same as the projected width of a mirror element; the concentration ratio
is approximately the same as the number of mirror strips.
Compound Parabolic Concentrator (CPC). The CPC (orVinston Collector) is a
trough-like arrangement of two facing parabolic mirrors (Fig. 3.710). Unlike the
single parabolic trough reflector described earlier, the CPC non focusing, but solar
radiation from many directions is reflected toward the bottom of the trough.
Because of this characteristic; a large proportion of the solar radiation, including
dif- fuse (scattered) radiation, entering the trough opening is collected (and
concentrated) on a small area. In addition to collecting both direct and diffuse
radiation.
Compound Parabolic Concentrator consists of two parabolic mirror
segments, attached to a flat receiver. The segments are oriented
such that the focus of one is located at the bottom end point of the
other in contact with the receiver. It has a large acceptance angle
and needs to be adjusted intermittently. Rays in the central region
of the aperture reach the absorber directly whereas, those near the
edges undergo one or more reflections before reaching the absorber.
The concentration ratio achieved from this collector is in the range
of 3-7.
Central Tower Receiver:
In central tower receiver collector, the receiver is located at the top of a tower. Beam radiation is
reflected on it from a large number of independently controlled; almost flat mirrors, known as
heliostats, spread over a large area on the ground, surrounding the tower. Thousands of such
heliostats track the sun to direct the beam radiation on the receiver from all sides. The heliostats,
together act like a dilute paraboloid of very big size. Concentration ratio of as high value as 3,000 can
be obtained. The absorbed energy can be extracted from the receiver and delivered at a temperature
and pressure suitable for driving turbines for power generation. The schematic view of central tower
receiver is shown in figure above.
Central Receiver Systems (Tower Power Plant)Principle and Working. In this system as already stated, the incoming solar
radiation is focused to a central receiver or a boiler mounted on a tall tower using Fig. (5.5.4) thousands of plane
reflectors, which are steerable about two axes and are called heliostats. A schematic view of an electric power plant using
gas turbine or gas turbine power plant working on Brayton gas power cycle is shown in Fig. (5.5.5). The mirrors are
installed on the ground and are oriented so as to reflect the direct beam radiation into an absorber or receiver (boiler)
which is mounted on the top of a tower located near the centreof the field of mirrors to produce high temperature. This
make it possible to position the boiler in the field of view of all mirrors, at all hours
the day. Beam radiation incident on boiler absorbed by black pipes in which working fluid circulates and is heated. The
working fluid is allowed to drive a turbine and produce mechanical energy. The turbine which is coupled to an alternator
produces electrical energy. As in manythermodynamics conversion, the heat sink is provided. A suitable heat storage is
also provided to supply the heat energy during the periods of cloudiness.
 solar pond
A solar pond is a mass of shallow water about 1 or 2 metres deep with
a large collection area, which acts as a heat trap. It contains dissolved
salts to generate a stable density gradient. Part of the incident solar
radiation entering the pond surface is absorbed throughout the depth
and the remainder which penetrates the pond is absorbed at the black
bottom. If the pond were initially filled with fresh water, the lower
layers would heat up, expand and rise to the surface. Because of the
convective mixing and heat loss at the surface, only a small
temperature rise in the pond could be realized. On the other hand,
convection can be eliminated by initially creating a sufficiently strong
salt concentration gradient. In this case, thermal expansion in the
hotter lower layers is insufficient to destabilize the pond. With
convection suppressed, the heat is lost from the lower layers only by
conduction. Because of the relatively low conductivity, the water acts
as an insulator and permits high temperature (over 90oC) to develop in
the bottom layers. At the bottom of the pond, a thick durable plastic
liner is laid. Materials used for the liner include butyl rubber, black
polyethylene and hypalon reinforced with nylon mesh. Salts like
magnesium chloride, sodium chloride or sodium nitrate are dissolved
in the water, the concentration varying from 20 to 30 percent at the
bottom to almost zero at the top.
Thus a solar pond has three zones with following salinity with depth :
(i) Surface convective zone or upper convective zone(0.3–0.5 m), salinity < 5%.
(ii) Non-convective zone 1 to 1.5 m, salinity increases with depth.
(iii) Storage zone or lower convective zone1.5 to 2 m, salinity - 20%
In the above classification of zone, a solar pond of 2 meter depth is considered for illustration, whereas depth may vary
from 1 to 2 metres. At the bottom is the storage zone, which is typically one or two metres deep but can be as little as half
a metre, or as much as several metres deep. The surface convective zone usually has a small thickness, around 10 to 20
cm. It has a low, uniform concentration which is close to zero, as well as a fairly uniform temperature, which is close to the
ambient air temperature. The non-convective zone is much thicker and occupies more than half the depth of the pond.
Both concentration and temperature increase with depth in it. It serves mainly as an insulating layer and reduces heat loss
in the upward direction. This part acts as a thermal storage as some of the heat collection also takes place in this zone.
The lower convective zone or storage zone is comparable in thickness to the non-convective zone. Both the
concentration and temperature are nearly constant in this zone. It serves as the main heat collection as well as thermal
storage medium. The deeper the zone, the more heat is stored. The lowest zone traps heats for the long periods,
damping the effects of daily and even seasonal change. This capacity for low cost storage is one of the chief advantages
of salt-gradient solar ponds; they can be tapped for energy at night as well as during the day.
Solar pond electric power plant
Hot water can be extracted from a solar pond
without disturbing the concentration gradient. This
is achieved by installing the water outlet at the same
height as the water inlet. Hot "brine can be
withdrawn and cool brine returned in a laminar flow
pattern because of the presence of density gradient.
For small or model ponds, heat exchangers
consisting of pipes can be placed in the hot lower
layers, but this entails not only the initial installation
cost but this continued pumping losses associated
with the heat transfer fluid. Thermal energy from
solar pond is used to drive a Rankine cycle heat
engine. Hot water from the bottom level of the pond
is pumped to the evaporator. Where the organic
working fluid to vaporized (Refer Fig. 4.3.3). The
vapour flows under high pressure to the turbine and
thereby expanding through the turbine wheel and the electric generator linked to it. The vapour then travels to the
condenser where cold water from the cooling tower condense the vapour back it to a liquid. The liquid is pumped back
to the evaporator where the cycle is repeated. A 2000 sq.m solar point equipped with a 20 kW engine has been
constructed in Australia.
Applications of Solar Ponds.
(1) Heating and Cooling of Buildings. Because of the large heat storage capability in the lower convective zone of the
solar pond, it has ideal use for heating even at high latitude stations and for several cloudy days.
(2) Production of Power. A solar pond can be used to generate electricity by driving a thermo-electric device or an organic
Rankine cycle engine-a turbine powered by evaporating an organic fluid with a low boiling point. The conversion
efficiency is limited due to its low operating temperatures (70-100°C).
(3) Industrial Process Heat. Industrial process heat is the thermal energy used directly in the preparation and of
treatment of materials and goods manufactured by industry. From the calculations it was concluded that for crop drying
and for a paper industry, for which economics have been determined, the heat from solar pond is highly competitive with
oils and natural gas.
(4) Desalination. The low cost thermal energy can used to desalt or otherwise purify water for drinking or irrigation.
Multi-flash desalination units along with a solar pond is an attractive proposition for getting distilled water because the
multi-flash desalination plant below 100°C which can well be achieved by a solar pond. The cost of distilled water appears
to be high for industrialised countries but can be used in developing countries where there is a shortage of potable water.
Moreover this type of desalination plant produces five times more distilled water than the conventional basin type solar
still.
(5) Heating animal housing and drying crops on farm. Low grade heat can be used in many ways on farms, which have
enough land for solar ponds. Several small demonstration ponds in Ohio, Iowa and Illinois have been used to heat green
houses and hog barns.
(6) Heat for biomass conversion. Site built solar ponds could provide heat to convert biomass to alcohol or methane.
While no solar ponds have been used for this purpose, it is an ideal coupling of twor enewable-energy technologies.
WATER HEATING SOLAR SYSTEM
A natural circulation system is shown in Fig. 5.2.1. It consists of a titled collector with transparent
cover glasses, a separate highly insulated water storage tank, and well insulated pipes connecting the
two. The bottom of the tank is at least 1ft the top of the collector, and no auxiliary energy is required
to circulate water through it. The density difference between the hot and cold water thus provides the
driving force for the circulation of water through the collector and the storage tank. Hot water is drawn
off from the top of the tank as required and is replaced by cold water from the service system. As long
as the sun shines the water will quietly circulate, getting warmer. After sunset, a thermosiphon system
can reverse its flow direction and loss heat to the environment during the night. The thermosiphon
system is one of the least expensive solar hot-water systems and should be used whenever possible.
Such heaters can be used extensively in rural areas, where
electricity is expensive and there is little danger of freezing.
SOLAR HEATING OF BUILDING:
A sunspace is any enclosed space, such as a green house or sun porch, with a glass wall on the
south side. A sunspace may be attached (or built on) to a thick south wall of the building to be heated
by the sun. Vents near the top and bottom of the wall, as in Fig. 5.3.1, permit circulation through the
main building of the heated in the sunspace. Heat storage is provided by the thick wall, a concrete or
masonry floor, water containers, and other materials in the sunspace. Thus, an attached sunspace
system combines features of direct gain and storage wall concepts.
 SOLAR DISTILLATION:
Potable or fresh water is one of the fundamental
necessities of life for a man. Industries and
agriculture also require fresh water without which
they cannot thrive. Man has been dependent on
rivers, lakes and underground
water reservoir to fulfill his need of fresh water.

A simple basin type solar still consists of a shallow blackened basin filled with saline or brackish
water to be distilled. The depth of water is kept about 5-10 cm. It is covered with sloppy transparent
roof. Solar radiation, after passing through the roof is absorbed by the blackened surface of the
basin and thus increases the temperature of the water. The evaporated water increases the moisture
content, which gets condensed on the cooler underside of the glass. The condensed water slips down
the slope and is collected through the condensate channel attached to the glass. The construction is
shown in figure above.
SOLAR PUMPING:

The solar pump is not much different from a solar heat engine working in a low temperature cycle.
The sources of heat is the solar collector, and sink is the water to be pumped. A typical solar powered
water pumping system is shown in above Fig.5.9.1. The primary components of the system are an
array of flat-plate collectors and an Rankine engine with an organic fluid as the working substance.
During operation a heat transfer fluid flows through the collector arrays. Depending upon the
collector configuration, solar flux and the operating conditions of the engine, the fluid will be heated
in the collector to a higher temperature, the solar energy which is thus converted to the thermal
energy. The fluid flows into a heat exchanger, due to temperature gradient, and comes back to the
collector. This water yields its heat to an intermediate fluid in the boiler. This fluid evaporates and
expands in the engine before reaching the condenser, where it condenses at low pressure. The
condenser is cooled by the water to be pumped. The fluid is then reinjected in the boiler to close the
cycle. The expansion engine or rankine engine is coupled to the pump and it could of course be
coupled to an electric generation.
SOLAR COOKING:
Thermal energy requirements for cooking purpose forms a major share of the total energy consumed,
especially in rural areas. Variety of fuels like coal, kerosene, cooking gas, firewood, dung cakes and
agricultural wastes are being used to meet the requirement. Fossil fuel is a fast depleting resource and
need to be conserved, firewood for cooking causes deforestation and cow dung, agricultural waste etc.
may be better used as a good fertilizer. Harnessing solar energy for cooking purpose is an attractive
and relevant option. A variety of solar cookers have been developed, which can be clubbed in four
types of basic designs: (i) box type solar cooker, (ii) dish type solar cooker (iii) community solar cooker,
and (iv) advance solar cooker.
The construction of a most common, box type solar cooker is
schematically shown in figure above. The external dimensions of
a typical family size box type cooker are 60x60x20 cm. This
cooker is simple in construction and operation. An insulated box
of blackened aluminium contains the utensils with food material.
The box receives direct radiation and also reflected radiation
from a reflector mirror fixed on inner side of the box cover hinged
to one side of the box. The angle of reflector can be adjusted as
required. A glass cover consisting of two layers of clear window
glass sheets serves as the box door. The glass cover traps heat
due to the greenhouse effect. Maximum air temperature obtained
inside the box is around 140-1600C. This is enough for cooking
the boiling type food slowly in about 2-3 hours.
SOLAR FURNACE

The principle of the solar furnace is outlined in Fig.5.10.1. A number of heliostates are arranged in
terraces on a slopping surface so that, regardless of the sun‘s position, they always reflect solar
radiation in the same direction onto a large paraboloid reflecting collector made up of many fixed
mirrors attached to the face of a structure. The collector then brings the radiation to a focus within a
small volume. In figure a heliostat type furnace with horizontal optical axis is shown which is
comparatively convenient and widely used in large furnaces. The most desirable mirror is that
obtained by grinding and polishing a glass plate into an optical flat, aluminizing or silvering by
vacuum evaporation, and cooling with a suitable film. The change of elevation and that of azimuth
can be obtained by the rotation of frame about a horizontal axis and about a vertical axis respectively.
In order to rotate the frame, hydraulic or electric driving is used which is coupled with a servo system
or a time system for sun following. The other method is to use many heliostats to convey the solar
radiation into a concentrator.
PHOTOVOLTAIC CELLS:
A PVC is one which converts photons into voltage
or light energy to electricity. The materials used
for this is silicon which has 4 free valence e-s in
its outermost cell. When the silicon is doped with
phosphorous or arsenic having 5 valence e-s in
the outer most cell it forms an n-junction‘ 4 e-s of
phosphorous with 4 e-s of silicon and one
negative charged electron is left out in the n-
junction‘. Similarly the p-junction‘ is formed by
doping silicon with boron having 3 valance e-s in
its outermost cell to create positively charged hole
which attracts negatively charged electron from n
to p junction through external load of cell.
The direct conversion of solar energy in to electrical energy by means of the photo voltaic effect, that is the
conversion of light (or other electromagnetic radiation) in to electricity. The photo voltaic effect is defined as the
generation of the electromotive force as a result of the absorption of ionizing radiation energy conversion
devices which are used to convert sun light to electricity by the use of the photo voltaic effects are called solar
cells. A single converter cell is called a solar cell or more generally, a photo voltaic cell, and combination of such
cells, designed to increase the electric power out put is called a solar module or solar array.
Photo voltaic cells are made of semi conductors that generate electricity when they absorb light. As photons are
received, free electrical changes are generated that can be collected on contacts applied to the
surface of the semi conductors.
The best known applications of photo voltaic cells for electrical power generation has been is spacecraft, for
which the Silicon cell is the most highly developed type.
solar cells have also been used to operate irrigation pumps, navigational signals high way emergency call
system, rail road crossing warnings, automatic meteorological stations, etc; in location where access to utility
power lines is difficult.
A variety of PV system configurations have been developed and deployed for rural applications such as drinking
water supply, street lighting irrigation water pumping and for operation of electronic equipment’s. Government of
India is sponsoring, a program for Popularizing solar lighting, solar water pumping etc;
A PV System typically consists of 3 basic components:

PV cells - Electricity is generated by PV cells,

Modules - PV cells are wired together to form sealed, or encapsulated, unit of convenient size for
Arrays – Groups of panels make up an array.
 Basic Photovoltaic System for Power Generation

It permits solar generated electrical power to be

delivered to a local load. It consists of:

(i) Solar Array, large or small, which converts

the insolation to useful DC electrical power.

(ii) A Blocking Diode which lets the array-generated power flow only toward the battery or grid. Without a blocking diode
the battery would discharge back through the solar array during times of no insolation.

(iii) Battery Storage, in which the solarly generated electric energy may be stored.

(iv) Inverter converter, usually solid state which converts the battery bus voltage to AC of frequency and phase to match
that needed to integrate with the utility grid. Thus it is typically a DC, AC inverter.It may also contain a suitable output step
up transformer, perhaps some filtering and power factor correction circuits and perhaps some power conditioning, i.e.
circuitry to initiate battery charging and to prevent over charging. Power conditioning may be shown as a separate system
functional block. This block may also be used in figure shown to function as a rectifier to charge the battery from the utility
feeder when needed and when no insolation was present.
(V) Appropriate Switches and Circuit Breakers, to permit isolating parts of the system, as the battery. One would also
want to include breakers and fusing protection (not shown) between the inverter output and the utility grid to protect
both the photovoltaic system and the grid.
Advantages :
(i) Direct room temperature conversion of light to electricity through a simple solid state device.
(ii) Absence of moving parts.
(Iii) Ability to function unattended for long periods as evidence in space programme.
(iv) Modular nature in which desired currents, voltages power levels can be achieved by mere integration.
(v) Maintenance cost is low as they are easy to operate.
(Vi) They do not create pollution.
(vii) They have a long effective life.
(viii) They are highly reliable.
(ix) They consume no fuel to operate as the sun's energy is free.
(x) They have rapid response in output to input radiation changes; no long-time constant is involved, as on thermal
systems, before steady state is reached.
(xi) They have wide power handling capabilities from microwatts to kilowatts or even megawatts when modules are
combined into large area array. Solar cells can be used in combination with power conditioning circuitry to feed power into
utility grid.
(xi) They are easy to fabricate, being one of the simplest of semiconductor devices.
(xiii) They have high power to weight ratio, this characteristic is more important for space applications than terrestrial,
may be favourable for some terrestrial applications. The roof loading on a house top-covered with solar cells, for example,
would be significantly lower than the comparable loading for a conventional liquid solar water heaters.
(xiv) Amenable to on site installation i.e. decentralized or dispersed power; thus the problem of power distribution by
wires could be eliminated by the use of solar cells at the site where the power is required
(xv) They can be used with or without sun tracking, making possible a wide range of application possibilities.

• Their principal disadvantages are their high cost, and the fact that, in many applications, energy storage is required
because of no insolation at night. Efforts are being made world-wide to reduce costs through various technological
innovations.
I-V characteristics of a solar cell:
PV cells can be modeled as a current source in parallel with a diode. When there is no light present
to generate any current, the PV cell behaves like a diode. As the intensity of incident light
increases, current is generated by the PV cell
When light impinges on the junction, electron hole pairs are created at a constant rate providing an electrical current flow
across the junction. The net current is thus the difference between the normal diode current and light generated current.
Simplified equivalent circuit for the cell is shown in Fig. 5.6.3. The internal series resistance R, is mostly due to the high
sheet resistance of the diffused layer which is in series with the junction.
The light generated current acts as a constant current source supplying the current to either the junction or a useful load
depending on the junction characteristic and the value of the external load resistance. The net current J is given by

The internal voltage drop in a cell can usually be minimized, and for ideal cell Rs may be assumed equal to zero i.e. Rs, = 0.
With these corresponding J-V plot is given in Fig. 5.6.4. Open circuit voltage Voc for the ideal cell is then given by
SOLAR ENERGY STORAGE SYSTEMS:
1. Thermal Storage. Energy can be stored by heating, melting or vaporization of material, and the energy becomes available
as heat, when the process is reversed. Storage by causing a material to rise in temperature is called sensible heat storage.
Storage by phase change, the transition from solid to liquid or from liquid to vapour is another mode of thermal storage,
known as latent heat storage, in which no temperature change is involved. It in possible for both sensible and latent heat-
storage to occur in the same material, as when solid in heated, then melted, then raised further in temperature.
(a) Sensible heat storage. Sensible heat storage involves a material that undergoes no change in phase over the
temperature domain encountered in the storage process.
Water storage. The most common heat transfer fluid for a solar system is water, and the easiest way to store thermal
energy is by storing the water directly in a well insulated tank.
• It is an inexpensive, readily available and useful material to store sensible heat.
• It has high thermal storage capacity.
• Energy addition and removal from this type of storage is done by medium itself, thus eliminating the temperature
drop between transport fluid and storage medium.
• Pumping cost is small.
Pebble bed storages
Pebble bed storages has been used in the solar houses or with hot air collector system. For sensible heat storage with air
as the energy transport mechanism, rock, gravel, or crushed stone in a bin has the advantage of providing a large cheap
heat transfer surface. Its thermal capacity, however is only about half that of water, and the bin volume will be about 3
times the volume of a water tank that is heated over the same temperature interval. Water is superior because of its lower
material cost and lower volume required per unit of energy stored.

The complete schematic of power plant

storage system is shown in Fig. 16.7.1.2, in
which storage takes place circulating
some of the hot primary coolant through
the storage medium and returning the
cooled primary coolant from the bottom
of the store tank back to the receiver for
reheating.
(b) Latent heat storage (phase change energy storage)
In this system, heat is stored in a material when it melts and extracted from the material when it freezes. Materials that
undergo a change of phase in a suitable temperature range may be useful for energy storage if the following criteria can
be satisfied:
(i) The phase change must be accompanied by high latent heat effect.
(ii) The phase change must be reversible number of cycles without degradation
(iii) The phase change must occur with limited super cooling
(iv) Means must be available to contain the material and transfer heat into it and out of it.
(v) The cost of materials and its containers must be reasonable
(vi) Its phase change must occur close to its actual melting temperature.
(vii)The phase change must have a high latent heat effect, that is, it must store large quantities of heat.
The material must be available in large quantities.
One way solar power storage can be accomplished is by using a battery bank to store the electricity generated
by the PV solar power system. A battery solar power storage system is used in a grid-tied PV system with
battery backup and stand-alone PV systems.

The major components of a battery solar power system are...

•Charge Controller: Prevents the battery bank from overcharging by interrupting the flow of electricity from
the PV panels when the battery bank is full.
•Battery Bank: A group of batteries wired together. The batteries are similar to car batteries, but designed
specifically to endure the type of charging and discharging they'll need to handle in a solar power system.
•System Meter: Measures and displays solar PV systems performance and status.
•Main DC Disconnect: A DC rated breaker between the batteries and the inverter. Allows the inverter to be
quickly disconnected from the battery bank for service.

TYPES OF SOLAR BATTERY

There are four main types of battery used in connection with storing electricity from solar power systems.
Below is a summary of the various technologies currently commercially available and links to further
information on each type.
1) Lead acid
Boring perhaps. Ugly and bulky definitely. But also dependable, tried and tested. Lead acid
batteries have been taking Aussies off-grid for decades. But they are rapidly being eclipsed
by other technologies with longer warranties and lower pricing as solar battery storage
becomes more popular.

2) Lithium-ion
Lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries are evolving in leaps and bounds as the electric car industry
drives their development. Spearheaded by the brilliantly marketed Tesla Powerwall,
lithium-ion batteries are looking to become the most popular choice for on-
grid solar battery storage for the foreseeable future.

3) Flow
Flow batteries are a relatively new entrant to the battery storage marketplace (though their
technology has been around for many years).
They are called flow batteries because they have a water based solution of zinc-bromide
sloshing around inside them. At the moment only a few companies are producing flow
batteries for the residential market, the most prominent of which is Redflow, an Australian-
based
4) Sodium Nickel Chloride

Sodium nickel chloride technology is yet another competitor to the

dominant lithium-ion storage technology. In Australia, GridEdge is
producing their Quantum battery which, offers a range of environmental
and safety benefits due to its unique battery
Mechanical Energy Storage
Pumped hydroelectric storage. Electric power in excess of the immediate demand is used to pump water from a supply
(e.g., like, river, or reservoir) at a lower level to a reservoir at a higher level. When the power demand exceeds the supply,
the water is allowed to flow back down through a hydraulic turbine which drives an electric generator. The overall
efficiency of the pumped storage, that is, the percentage of electrical energy used to pump the water is recovered as
electrical energy is about 70%. The pumped hydroelectric storage is the most economical means presently available to
electric utilities. Hence solar and wind energy in electrical form can be used by this system. There is relatively few suitable
sites where there is a water supply at a lower level and a reservoir can be constructed at a higher level, but the use of
natural or excavated underground caverns or excavated underground caverns as lower reservoirs, now being developed,
should greatly increase the number of possible sites. This method of solar energy storage has the advantage of avoiding
the intermittent inherent to solar energy and of producing a.c.power directly. In this scheme, water acts only as the
working fluid, once the initial volume of water is secured, the only flow needed would be that necessary to make up for the
loss of water by evaporation (and seepage). Therefore, the scheme does not have to be near large bodies of water.
The principle behind pumped hydro a simple and follows the law of potential energy (PE) that is, the raising of mass to an
elevation, height or head H. It is given by
(ii) Compressed Air Storage. Another alternative, for possibly storing energy in future solar-electric system is to store the
energy in a volume of compressed air. A wind turbine, for example, could be created which would directly pump air into a
suitable pressurized storage tank. Then later when the wind is not blowing the energy stored in the air could be utilized to
drive an air turbine, whose shaft would then drive a generator, thus supplying the needed electric power when the wind is
not blowing. Compressed air storage may also be applicable to other solar-electric conversion systems.
iii)Flywheel storage.
A flywheel driven by an electric motor during off peak hours stores mechanical (rotational) energy as its speed is
increased. The rotation of the flywheel can be used to operate a generator to produce electricity when required. The
same machine serves as both a motor, when electricity is supplied, and as a generator, when the armature is rotated by
the flywheel. Flywheel could conceivably be used for electric utility peaking units, for a storage of solar and wind energy,
and for vehicle propulsion. The energy recovery efficiency is estimated to be up to 90 per cent. Practical Flywheel
systems for such uses are being developed. The basic idea of flywheel energy storage, sometimes referred to as a 'super
flywheel, is to accelerate a suitably designed physical rotor to a very high speed in a vacuum, as via an electric motor, at
which state high energy storage densities are achieved. The energy is stored as kinetic energy, most of which can be
electrically regained when the flywheel is run as a generator as stated above.
5. Electromagnetic energy storage (or energy storage via superconducting magnets).
Electromagnetic energy storage requires the use of superconducting materials these materials (metals and
alloys) suddenly lose essentially all resistance to the law of electricity when cooled below a certain very low
temperature. If maintained below this temperature a superconducting metal (or alloy) can carry strong
electric currents with little or no loss, Useful super con ducting materials available commercially are a niobium
titanium alloy at temperatures below - 263°C and a compound of niobium and tin below-255°C.An
electromagnetic field such as is produced by an electric current flowing through a wire (or wire coil), can store
energy. Under ordinary conditions, losses result from the resistance of the wire, and energy must be supplied
continuously to maintain the current. But if the wire coil were made of a super conducting material and kept at
the required low temperature, resistance losses would be very small and, once initiated, an electric current
would remain almost constant. Electrical energy supplied as direct current to the wire coil would then be
stored in the electromagnetic field. By attaching the coil to a load, the stored energy could be recovered as
electrical energy (direct cut rent). This is the basis of the superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage (SMES)
system under study of or possible eventual use in electric utility load levelling and/or peaking applications.
A number of problems are associated with superconducting storage. They include the operation and
maintenance of a cryogenic (i.e., low temperature refrigeration) plant for producing the liquid helium
required for the very low superconductivity temperature. Furthermore, special structures would be
needed to withstand the strong magnetic field of an SMES unit. It appears at present that super-
conductivity storage would, at best, be economical only in large installations. On the whole SMES is rated
as being a promising but long term prospect for energy storage