1.

STUDY OF MICROWAVE COMPONENTS AND INSTRUMENTS

AIM
To become familiar with microwave components and instruments available
in the laboratory

INSTRUMENTS/EQUIPMENTS
(1) Reflex klystron power supply
(2) Gunn power supply,
(3) VSWR meter
(4) Slotted Line section
(5) Frequency Meter
(6) RF Generator

OBJECTIVES
 Note relevant Technical specifications of the instruments
 Study position and functions of the front panel controls of the equipment
 Know basic principle of operation and functional block diagram of the instrument.
 Limitations and handling of the equipment
 Various options provided on the front panel.
 Know initial settings of controls of the equipment before switching on the supply.
 Precautions to be taken while carrying out the measurements

COMPONENTS/DEVICES
Attenuator, Circulator, Isolator, wave-guide twist, bend, Magic tee, Directional
Coupler, Matched termination, PIN Modulator, Crystal Detector, Reflex Klystron
tube, Gunn diode, different types of antennas available.

OBSERVATIONS
 Identify the components/devices
 Study basic principle of operation of devices and components
 Know typical application of each component.
 Identify the E field and H field mode patterns of the devices.

PRECAUTIONS
 Beam voltage should not exceed 250V
 Reflected voltage should not exceed 270V
 Fan should be operated to reduce the heat for reflex klystron
 Every 20 minutes switch of the supply and set the initial conditions.
 Carefully follow the specifications of the device and equipment.

RESULT:
Studied various microwave components and devices.
2. STUDY OF CHARACTERISTICS OF REFLEX KLYSTRON TUBE

AIM
To study the Characteristics of the reflex klystron tube and to determine its
electronic tuning range.

EQUIPMENT

(1) Klystron power supply SKPS-610

(2) Klystron Tube 2k-25 with klystron Mount XM-251
(3) Isolator XI- 621
(4) Frequency Meter XF-710
(5) Variable Attenuator XA-520
(6) Detector Mount XD-451
(7) Wave Guide Stand XU-535
(8) VSWR Meter SW-215
(9) Oscilloscope
(10) BNC Cable

BLOCK DIAGRAM

Fig: SET UP FOR REFLEX KLYSTRON TUBE

THEORY

The Reflex Klystron makes the use of velocity modulation to transform a

continuous Electron beam into microwave power. Electrons emitted from the
cathode are accelerated & passed through the positive resonator towards negative
reflector, which retards and, finally, reflects the Electrons and the electrons turn
back through the resonator. Suppose an RF-field exists between the Resonators; the
electrons travelling forward will be accelerated or retarded, as the voltage at the
Resonator changes in amplitude. The accelerated electrons leave the resonator at an
increased velocity and the retarded electrons leave at the reduced velocity.

2
 The electrons leaving the resonator will need different time to return due to change
in velocities. As a result, returning electrons group together in BUNCHES pass
through the grid at such a time that the electrons are slowed down by the voltage
then energy will be delivered to the resonator; and Klystron will oscillate. Fig
shows the relation ship between out put Power, frequency and reflector voltage. The
dimensions of resonant cavity primarily determine the frequency. Hence, by
changing the volume of resonator, mechanical turning of klystron is possible. Also
a small frequency change can be obtained by adjusting the reflector voltage. This is
called Electronic Tuning.

PROCEDURE

A. Carrier wave operation

 Connect the components and equipments as shown in the fig

 Set the variable Attenuator at the minimum at position.
 Set the mod switch of Klystron Power supply at CW position, beam voltage control
knob to fully anticlock wise and reflector voltage control knob to fully clockwise
and the Meter switch to OFF position.
 Rotate the knob of frequency meter at one side fully.
 Connect the D.C microampere meter with Detector.
 Switch ON the klystron power supply, VSWR Meter and cooling fan for the
klystron tube.
 Switch on the beam voltage knob and rotate it clockwise slowly up to 250V meter
reading and observe beam current should not increase more than 30mA.
 Change the reflector voltage slowly and verify the current meter the voltage for
reading maximum deflection in the meter.
 Turn the plunger of klystron Mount for the maximum output.
 Rotate the knob of frequency meter slowly and stop at that position, where the
lowest out put current on multi meter. Read directly the frequency meter reading
between two horizontal lines and vertical marker.
 Change the reflector voltage and read the corresponding current and frequency for
each reflector voltage.

B. Square wave operation

 Connect the equipments and components as show in fig

 Set micrometer of variable attenuator around some position.
 Set the range switch of VSWR meter at 40db position. Input selector switch to
crystal impedance position, meter switch to normal position.
 Set mod selector switch to AM –MOD position. Beam voltage control knob to fully
anticlockwise position.
 Switch ON the klystron power supply, VSWR meter and cooling fan.
 Switch ON the beam voltage switch and rotate the beam voltage knob clockwise up
to300vdeflection in meter.
 Keep the AM-MOD amplitude knob and AM-FRE knob at the mid –position.
 Rotate the reflector voltage knob to get deflection in VSWR meter.
 Rotate the AM-MOD amplitude knob to get the maximum output in VSWR meter

3
  Maximize the deflection with frequency knob to get the maximum output in VSWR
meter.

 If necessary, change the range switch of VSWR meter 30dbto50db if the deflection
in VSWR meter is out of scale or less than normal scale respectively. Further
variable attenuator is used for setting up the particular position by reducing the
output.
 Determine the oscillator frequency as described in the earlier setup.

C. Mode study on oscilloscope

 Setup the components and equipments as shown in fig.

 Keep the position of variable attenuator at min. attenuation position.
 Set mode selector switch to FM- MOD position, FM amplitude and FM frequency
knob at mid position keep the beam voltage knob fully anti-clockwise and beam
switch to OFF position.
 Keep the time /division scale of oscilloscope around 100HZ frequency measurement
and volt/div. to lower scale.
 Switch ON the klystron power supply and oscilloscope.
 Switch ON beam voltage switch and set beam voltage to 250V by beam voltage
control knob.
 Keep amplitude knob of FM modulator to maximum position and rotate the
reflector voltage knob anticlockwise to get modes as shown in fig. on the
oscilloscope.
 Klystron tube can be seen on oscilloscope by changing the reflector voltage and
amplitude of FM modulation, any mode of klystron tube can be seen on
oscilloscope

OBSERVATIONS

Beam Voltage VB =
Beam Current IB =
Resistance R = 1Ω

Tabular Form

Voltage(VR) Current(I) Power =I2 R

4
PRECAUTIONS

 Beam voltage should not exceed 250V

 Reflected voltage should not exceed 270V
 Fan should be operated to reduce the heat for reflex klystron
 Every 20 minutes switch of the supply and set the initial conditions.
 Carefully follow the specifications of the devices and equipment.
MODEL GRAPHS:

Output Power
(MW)

40 -

20-

-50 -100 -150 -250

Reflector voltage

Frequency
Change (MHz)

50 -

0
Reflector voltage

-50 -

RESULT:

The characteristics of Klystron tube are observed on oscilloscope

5
VIVA QUESTION

1. What element of the reflex klystron replaces the output cavity of a normal klystron?

2. When the repeller potential is constant, what property of the electron determines
how long it will remain in the drift space of the reflex klystron?

3. The constant-speed electrons of an electron bunch in a reflex klystron must remain

in the repeller field for what minimum time?

4. If the constant-speed electrons in a reflex klystron remain in the repeller field for 1
3/4 cycles, what is the mode of operation?

5. Debunching of the electron bunches in the higher modes of a reflex klystron has
what effect on output power?

6. What limits the tuning range around the center frequency of a reflex klystron in a
particular mode of operation?

6
 3. FREQUENCY AND WAVELENGTH MEASUREMENT
OF A SIGNAL

AIM
To determine the frequency and wave length of a signal in a rectangular wave guide
working in TE10 Mode

EQUIPMENT

(1) Klystron power supply SKPS-610

(2) Klystron Tube2k-25 with klystron Mount XM-251
(3) Isolator XI- 621
(4) Frequency Meter XF-710
(5) Variable Attenuator XA-520
(6) Slotted section XS-651
(7) Wave Guide Stand XU-535
(8) VSWR Meter SW-215
(9) Oscilloscope
(10) Matched termination XL-400
(11) Movable short XT-481
(12) BNC Cable

BLOCK DIAGRAM

Fig : SET UP FOR FREQUENCY AND WAVELENGTH MEASUREMENT

THEORY

For dominant TE10 mode rectangular wave-guide λo , λg and λc are related as below

1 1 1
 
 2
0  2
g  2c
7
 where λo is free space wavelength
λg (guide wavelength) = 2(d1~d2)
λc ( cutoff wavelength)
For TE10 mode λc =2a where „a‟ is broad dimension of wave guide

PROCEDURE

 Set up the components and equipment as shown in fig. above.

 Set the variable Attenuator at the minimum attenuation position.
 Keep the control knobs of VSWR Meter as bellow:
Range - 50db
Input switch - crystal low impedance
Meter switch - Normal position
Gain - Mid position
 Keep the control knobs of klystron power supply as bellow
Beam Voltage - OFF
Mod switch - AM
Beam voltage knob - fully anticlockwise
Reflector Voltage - fully clockwise
AM amplitude knob - Around fully clockwise
AM Frequency knob - Around mid
 Switch ON the klystron power supply, VSWR meter and cooling fan.
 Switch ON the beam voltage switch and rotate the beam voltage knob clockwise up
to 200v deflection in meter.
 Keep the AM-MOD amplitude knob and AM-FREQ knob at the mid –position.
 Rotate the reflector voltage knob to get deflection in VSWR meter.
 Rotate the AM-MOD amplitude knob to get the maximum output in VSWR meter
 Maximize the deflection with frequency knob to get the maximum output in VSWR
meter
 Tune the probe for maximum deflection in VSWR meter
 Tune the frequency meter knob to get a „dip‟ on the VSWR meter scale and note
down the frequency directly from the frequency meter
 Replace the termination with movable short and detune the frequency meter
 By moving the probe along the slotted line vary the deflection on VSWR meter.
 Move the probe to a minimum deflection position. Note and record the probe
position
 Move the probe to next minimum position and record the probe position again
 Calculate guide wavelength as twice the distance between two successive minimum
positions obtained as above
 Measure the wave guide inner broad dimension „a‟ which will be around 22.86 mm
for X-band
 Calculate frequency by following equation
C
f 
0
Where, velocity of light, C = 3 x 108 meter/sec

8
OBSERVATIONS

1. Frequency from Frequency meter f1 = ________

2. Cut off Wavelength λc =2a =__________ ( a=22.86mm broad dimension of wave guide)
3. Guided Wavelength λg = 2 (d1~d2) d1= _________ d2= _______
(d1 & d2 found from movable short)
1 1 1
4. Free space Wavelength  
 2
0  2
g  2c
5. Practical Frequency f  C
0
1
6. f ~ f

PRECAUTIONS

 Beam voltage should not exceed 250V

 Reflected voltage should not exceed 270V
 Fan should be operated to reduce the heat for reflex klystron
 Every 20 minutes switch of the supply and set the initial conditions.
 Carefully follow the specifications of the devices and equipment.

RESULT: The frequency and wave length in a rectangular working in TE10 mode are
measured.

Frequency (f )= ___________

Wavelength (λ0)=___________

VIVA QUESTIONS

1. How are wavelength measured?

2. How do you measure wavelength in a compression wave?

3. What is the units of measure for wavelength?

4. What is frequency and how is it measured?

5. What is the frequency of waves measure in?

9
 .4. DETERMINATION OF VSWR OF A GIVEN LOAD

AIM
To determine the standing wave ratio and reflection coefficient

EQUIPMENT

(1) Klystron power supply SKPS-610

(2) Klystron Tube 2k-25 with klystron Mount XM-251
(3) Isolator XF- 621
(4) Frequency Meter XF-710
(5) Variable Attenuator XA-520
(6) Slotted line XS-565
(7) Tunable probe XP-655
(8) Wave Guide Stand XU-535
(9) VSWR Meter SW-215
(10) SS Tuner XT-441
(11) Movable short/Termination XL-400

BLOCK DIAGRAM

SET UP FOR VSWR MEASUREMENT

THEORY

The electromagnetic field at any point of transmission line may be considered as the
sum of two traveling waves the incident wave, which propagates from the source to
the load and the reflected wave, which propagates towards the generator. The
reflected wave is set up by reflection of incident wave from a discontinuity in the
line or from the load impedance. The superposition of two traveling waves gives
rise to a standing wave along the line. The maximum field strength is found where
the waves are in phase and minimum where the two waves add in opposite phase.
The distance between two successive minimum (maximum) is half the guide
wavelength on the line. The ratio of electric field strength of reflected and instant
wave is called reflection coefficient.
The voltage standing wave ratio (VSWR) is defined as ratio between maximum and
minimum field strength along the line
10
 Hence VSWR denoted by S is as follows
E MAX E  Er
S  i
E MIN Ei  E r
Reflection coefficient, ρ is
Er Z L  Z 0
 
Ei Z L  Z 0
where ZL is the load impedance and Zo is characteristic impedance
The above equation gives following equation

Reflection Coefficient
S 1

S 1
PROCEDURE

 Set up the components and equipment as shown in fig .

 Set the variable Attenuator at the minimum at position.
 Keep the control knobs of VSWR Meter as bellow:
Range - 50db
Input switch - crystal low impedance
Meter switch - Normal position
Gain - Mid position
 Keep the control knobs of klystron power supply as bellow
Beam Voltage - OFF
Mod switch - AM
Beam voltage knob - fully anticlockwise
Reflector Voltage - fully clockwise
AM amplitude knob - around fully clockwise
AM Frequency knob - Around mid
 Switch ON the klystron power supply, VSWR meter and cooling fan.
 Switch ON the beam voltage switch and rotate the beam voltage knob clockwise up
to 200v deflection in meter.
 Rotate the reflector voltage knob to get deflection in VSWR meter.
 Rotate the AM-MOD amplitude knob to get the maximum output in VSWR meter
 Maximize the deflection with frequency knob to get the maximum output in VSWR
meter
 Tune the probe for maximum deflection in VSWR meter
 By moving the probe along the slotted line the deflection will change.

A. Measurement of low and medium VSWR

 Move the probe along the slotted line to get maximum deflection in VSWR meter.
 Adjust the VSWR meter gain control knob or variable attenuator until the meter
indicates 1.0 on normal VSWR scale.
 Keep all the control knobs as same, move the probe to next minimum position. Read
the VSWR on scale.
 Repeat the above step for changing of SS tuner probe depth and record the
corresponding SWR.
 If the VSWR is between 3.2 and 10 change the range db switch to next higher
position and read the VSWR on second VSWR scale of 3 to 10.
11
 B. Measurement of High VSWR (Double Minimum method)

 Set the depth of SS tuner slightly more for maximum VSWR.

 Move the probe along with slotted line until a minimum is indicated.
 Adjust the VSWR meter gain control knob and variable attenuator to obtain a
reading of 3 db in the normal db scale (0 to 10 db) of VSWR meter.
 Move the probe to the left on slotted line until full-scale deflection is obtained on 0
to 10dB scale. Note and record the probe position on slotted line let it be d1.
 Repeat the step 3 and then move the probe right along the slotted line until full-scale
deflection is obtained on 0-10dB normal db scale. Let it be d2.
 Replace the SS tuner and termination by movable short.
 Measure the distance between two successive minimum positions of the probe.
Twice this distance is guide wavelength λG.
 Compute SWR from the following equation:
g
SWR 
 (d 1 ~ d 2 )

Ema
Emi

STANDING WAVE

output

√2 Vmin

d1 d2 probe position

PRECAUTIONS

 Beam voltage should not exceed 250V

 Reflected voltage should not exceed 270V
 Fan should be operated to reduce the heat for reflex klystron
 Every 20 minutes switch OFF the supply and set the initial conditions.
 Carefully follow the specifications of the devices and equipment.

RESULT : The Low, Medium and High VSWR of the given set up is measured

Low VSWR = _____________

Medium VSWR = ____________
High VSWR = ______________

12
VIVA QUESTIONS

1. Does VSWR vary with line length?

2. Can the magnitude of the reflection coefficient (ρ) be greater than 1?
3. Can VSWR be negative?
4. Is there a the minimum length of transmission line required on either side of the VSWR
meter for valid readings?
5. Is the characteristic impedance of the sampler line section important?
6. What is an acceptable VSWR?

13
 5. UNKNOWN IMPEDANCE MEASUREMENT
USING SMITH CHART
AIM
To measure the unknown impedance by using smith chart.

EQUIPMENT

(1) Klystron power supply –SKPS-610

(2) Klystron Tube2k-25 with klystron Mount-XM251
(3) Isolator XF- 621
(4) Frequency MeterXF-710
(5) Variable Attenuator XA-520
(6) Slotted line XS 565
(7) Tunable probeXP655
(8) Wave Guide StandXU-535
(9) VSWR MeterSW-215
(10) SS Tuner XT441
(11) Movable short/Termination XL-400

BLOCK DIAGRAM

Fig: SET UP FOR UNKNOWN IMPEDANCE MEASUREMENT

THEORY

The impedance at any point on a transmission line can be written in the form R+jX
For comparison SWR can be calculated as
S  (1  R ) (1  R )
Where Reflection co-efficient R  (Z  Z 0 ) (Z  Z 0 )
Z0 is the Characteristic impedance of wave-guide at operating frequency & Z is the
load impedance. The measurement is performed in the following way, the unknown
device is connected to the slotted line and the position of one minimum is
determined. The unknown device is replaced by movable short to the slotted line.
14
 Two successive minima positions are noted. The twice of the difference between
two minima positions will be the guide wavelength. One of the minimums is used as
reference for impedance measurement. Find the difference of reference minima and
minima position obtained from unknown load. Let it be „d‟. Take a smith chart,
taking 1 as center, draw a circle of radius equal to S. Mark a point on circumference
of smith chart towards load side at a distance equal to d/λ. Join the center with this
point. Find the point where it cut the drawn circle. The co-ordinates of this point
will show the normalized impedance of load.

PROCEDURE

 Set up the components and equipment as shown in fig.

 Set the variable Attenuator at the minimum at position.
 Keep the control knobs of VSWR Meter as bellow:
Range - 50db
Input switch - crystal low impedance
Meter switch - Normal position
Gain - Mid position
 Keep the control knobs of klystron power supply as bellow
Beam Voltage - OFF
Mod switch - AM
Beam voltage knob - fully anticlockwise
Reflector Voltage - fully clockwise
AM amplitude knob - around fully clockwise
AM Frequency knob - Around mid
 Switch ON the klystron power supply, VSWR meter and cooling fan.
 Switch ON the beam voltage switch and rotate the beam voltage knob clockwise up
to 200v deflection in meter.
 Rotate the reflector voltage knob to get deflection in VSWR meter.
 Rotate the AM-MOD amplitude knob to get the maximum output in VSWR meter
 Maximize the deflection with frequency knob to get the maximum output in VSWR
meter
 Tune the probe for maximum deflection in VSWR meter
 Tune the frequency meter knob to get a „dip‟ on the VSWR meter scale and note
down the frequency directly from the frequency meter
 Keep the depth of the S.S Tuner to around 3-4mm and lock it.
 Move the probe along the slotted line to get maxim deflection.
 Adjust VSWR meter gain control knob and variable attenuator until the meter
indicates 1.0 on the normal db SWR scale.
 Move the probe to next minima position and note down the SWR „S0‟ on the scale.
 Also Note down the probe position, let it be d
 Replace the termination with movable short and detune the frequency meter
 By moving the probe along the slotted line. Vary the deflection on VSWR meter.
Move the probe to a minimum deflection position. Note and record the probe
position
 Move the probe to next minimum position and record the probe position again.
Calculate guide wavelength as twice the distance
d
 Calculate
g

15
OBSERVATIONS

Frequency from Frequency meter f1 = _____________

Low VSWR(S0) = _____________
First Minima d= ______________
d1= __________________
d2= __________________
Guided Wavelength λg = 2 (d1~d2) = _________
d/ λg = ________________

From Graph:

Normalized Load Impedance (ZL)N= R ± jX

Characteristic Impedance Zo=377 * (b/a) * ( λg/λo )
C
f 
0
For TE10, b=10.06mm(Narrow wall dimension of a rectangular waveguide)
a=22.86mm(Broad wall dimension of a rectangular waveguide)
ZL=(ZL)N * Zo

PRECAUTIONS

 Beam voltage should not exceed 250V

 Reflected voltage should not exceed 270V
 Fan should be operated to reduce the heat for reflex klystron
 Every 20 minutes switch of the supply and set the initial conditions.
 Carefully follow the specifications of the devices and equipment.

RESULT: The unknown impedance using smith chart is measured

Unknown Impedance =______________

VIVA QUESTIONS

1. What are the applications of the smith chart

2. What does SS mean in SS-tuner

3. What is the relation between the reflection coefficient and the load impedance

4. Name few scales on the radial axis of the smith chart

5. What type of load it represents if the load is in the positive half of the smith chart

16
 6. STUDY OF V-I CHARECTERISTICS OF GUNN DIODE
AIM
To study the V-I Characteristics of given Gunn diode

EQUIPMENT

(1) Gunn Power Supply

(2) Gunn Oscillator XG-11
(3) Isolator XI-621
(4) Frequency Meter XF-710
(5) Matched Termination XL-400

BLOCK DIAGRAM

Fig: SET UP FOR THE STUDY OF V-I CHARACTERISTICS OF GUNN

OSCILLATOR

PROCEDURE

 Set the components as shown in the fig.

 Keep the control knobs of Gunn power supply as bellow
Meter Switch - OFF
Gunn bias knob - Fully anticlockwise
Pin bias knob - Fully anticlockwise
Pin mode frequency - Any position
 Set the micrometer of Gunn oscillator for required frequency of operation
 Switch ON the Gunn power supply.
 Measure the Gunn diode current corresponding to the various Gunn bias voltages
through the digital panel meter and meter switch. Do not exceed the bias voltage
above 10 volts
 Plot the voltage and current reading on the graph as shown in fig.
 Measure the threshold voltage, which corresponds to maximum current.

READINGS

Frequency(GHz) Micrometer Reading(mm)

12.4 5.65
12.2 6.15
12 6.65
17
 11.8 6.86
11.6 7.50
11.4 7.75
11.2 8.44
11 9.14
10.8 9.50
10.6 10.07
10.4 10.79
10.2 11.48
10 12.26
9.8 13.10
9.6 14.11
9.4 15.17
9.2 16.29

OBSERVATIONS
Micrometer reading =
Frequency=

Voltage(V) Current(mA)

PRECAUTIONS

 Gunn bias not exceed 10V

 Fan should be operated to reduce the heat for Gunn oscillator
 Every 20 minutes switch of the supply and set the initial conditions.
 Carefully follow the specifications of the devices and equipment.

MODEL GRAPH

I (mA)

Threshold
Current(Ith)

Threshold V (Volts)
Voltage(Vth)
V-I CHARACTERISTICS OF GUNN OSCILLATOR

18
RESULT: Gunn Diode V-I Characteristics are observed.

VIVA QUESTIONS

1. Why Gunn diode and IMPATT diode are not common microwave devices?

2. Difference between Gunn diode and PIN diode?

3. What does diode mean ?

4. What are regions of operation in Gunn diode?

5. Explain different modes of operation in Gunn diode.

19
 7. DETERMINATION OF HORN ANTENNA POLAR PLOT

AIM
To measure the polar pattern and the gain of a wave guide horn antenna.

EQUIPMENT

(1) Gunn Power Supply GS-610

(2) Gunn Oscillator XG-11
(3) PIN Modulator XM-55
(4) Isolator XI-621
(5) Variable Attenuator XA-520
(6) Detector Mount XD-451
(7) VSWR Meter
(8) Radiation Pattern XTB-105
(9) Standard gain Horn XH-541
(10) E-Plane bends XB771
(11) Wave guide Stand XU-535
(12) Frequency Meter XF-710
(13) Cooling Fan CF-205

BLOCK DIAGRAM

Fig: SET UP FOR HORN ANTENNA PATTERN MEASUREMENT

THEORY

If a transmission line, propagating energy is left open at one end. In case of

rectangular wave-guide this antenna presents a mismatch of about 2 and it radiates
in many directions. The match will improve if the open wave-guide is a horn shape.
The radiation pattern of antenna is a plot of field strength of power intensity as a
function of the aspect angle at a constant distance from the radiating antenna. An
antenna pattern is of course three-dimensional but for practical reasons it is
normally presented as two-dimensional pattern in one or several planes. An antenna
pattern consists of several lobes the main lobe, side lobes, and back lobe. The major
power is concentrated in the main lobe and it is required to keep the power in the
side lobes and back lobe as low as possible. The power intensity at the maximum in

20
 the main lobe compared to the power intensity achieved from an imaginary omni
directional antenna (radiating equally in all directions) with the same power fed to
the antenna is defined as gain of the antenna.

3dB beam width

 This is the angle between two points on a main lobe where the power intensity is
half the maximum power intensity. The antenna pattern measurement is always
done in far field region.
 For field pattern is achieved at a minimum distance of 2D 2 0 (for rectangular horn
antenna) where D is size of the broad wall of horn aperture  0 is free space
wavelength.
 It is also important to avoid reflection; antenna measurement is done at outdoor
ranges or in anechoic chambers made of absorbing materials.
 Antenna measurements are mostly made with unknown antenna as receiver;
therefore several methods are there to measure the gain of antenna one method is to
compare the unknown antenna with standard gain antenna with known gain.
Another method is to use two identical antennas. One as a transmitter and other as
receiver and from following formula the gain can be calculated.

Pt G1G 2 4s Pr
Pr  , G=
4s 
2
0 Pt
where Pt is transmitted power Pr is received power G1, G2 is gain of the transmitting
and Receiving antennas respectively, S is the radial distance between two antennas.
and  0 is free space wavelength
 If both transmitting and receiving antenna are identical having gain G then
P  G2
Pr  t 0 2
4s 
 In the above equation Pt, Pr, S and can be measured and gain can be computed. As
from the above equation it is not necessary to know the absolute value of Pt and Pr
only ratio is required, which, can be measured by VSWR meter

PROCEDURE

 Assemble the components and equipments as shown in figure

 The reading on thr rotary scale should indicate 0◦ when the horns are in line.
 To avoid disturbing reflections make sure that no conducting objects are closer to
the propagation path.
 Set the variable attenuator at minimum attenuation position.
 Switch on the KPS, turn the beam switch to ON.
 Keep the beam voltage knob at minimum position.
 Keep the modulation switch of klystron in square wave.
 Set the attenuator for proper square wave of sufficient amplitude.
 Varying repeller voltage set the Klystron at its maximum mode.
 Vary the frequency meter in order to get dip in the output waveform.
 Calculate the distance between the transmitter and receiver horn antenna.
 Turn the receiving horn in steps of 5◦ from 0◦ to 360◦ and note down the
corresponding the voltage levels from CRO.

21
  Plot the radiation pattern of the antenna on polar plot of the antenna on polar graph
sheet. This gives H-Plane pattern of antenna.
OBSERVATIONS

Beam Voltage(VB)= ________________

Beam Current(IB)= _________________
Repeller Voltage(VR)= _______________
Diameter (D)= ___________ (broad wall of horn aperture)
Dip Frequency(f0) λ0=C/f0

Where C= Velocity of Light

Range®= 2D 2 0 =________________

PRECAUTIONS

 Beam voltage should not exceed 250V

 Reflected voltage should not exceed 270V
 Fan should be operated to reduce the heat for reflex klystron
 Every 20 minutes switch of the supply and set the initial conditions.
 Carefully follow the specifications of the devices and equipment.

TYPICAL ANTENNA PATTERN

RESULT: The polar pattern and Beam width of wave guide horn
antenna is measured

22
A QUESTIONS

1. What is horn?

2. In order to function properly, a horn antenna must be a certain minimum size .What
is it?

3. Where are Horn antennas commonly used ?

4. Why we use horn, rather than a dipole antenna or any other type of antenna, at the
focal point of the dish

5. Mention few application of Horn antenna

6. What is the use of the horn shaped structures at the end of the waveguide

23
 8. DETERMINATION OF PARAMETERS OF
DIRECTIONAL COUPLER
AIM
To study the function of a multihole directional coupler by measuring the following
parameters
a) The coupling factors b) the directivity of coupler.

EQUIPMENT

(1) Klystron power supply –SKPS-610

(2) Klystron Tube2k-25 with klystron Mount-XM251
(3) Isolator XF- 621
(4) Frequency MeterXF-710
(5) Variable Attenuator XA-520
(6 MHD Coupler
(8) Wave Guide StandXU-535
(9) VSWR MeterSW-215
(10) Detector mount
(11) Movable short/Termination XL-400

BLOCK DIAGRAM

Klystron Klystron Isolator Variable Frequency Detector

Power Supply Mount XI 621 Attenuator Meter Mount
SKPS 610 XM 251 XA 520 XF 710 XD 451

2 Matched
Termination
XL 400
1
MHD
Coupler 3 Detector
Mount
XD 451
Y X
3
Matched VSWR
Termination Meter
1 XL 400 SW 115
MHD
Coupler Yd
2 Detector Z
Mount
XD 451

3
Detector
Mount
2 XD 451
MHD
Coupler 1
Matched
Termination
XL 400

Fig: SET UP FOR STUDY OF MULTIHOLE DIRECTIONAL COUPLER

24
PROCEDURE

Measurement of coupling factor, insertion loss and Directivity:

 Set the equipment as shown in figure.
 Energize the microwave source for particular operation of frequency.
 Remove the MHD coupler and connect the detector mount to frequency meter
 Set any reference level of power on VSWR meter with the help of variable
attenuator, gain control knob of VSWR meter and note down the reading.
 Insert the directional coupler as shown in fig with detector to auxiliary port 3 and
matched termination to port 2 with out changing the position the position of variable
attenuator and gain control knob of VSWR meter.
 Note down the readings of VSWR meter on the scale with the help of range dB
switch is required, Let it be Y.
 Calculate coupling factor which will be X-Y in db.
 Now carefully disconnect the detector from oscillating port 3 and matched
termination. From port 2 without disturbing the setup.
 Connect the matched termination to the auxiliary port 3 and detector to port2 and
measure the reading on VSWR let it be Z.
 Compute insertion loss = X-Z in db.
 Repeat the step from 1 to 4.
 Connect the directional coupler in the reverse direction i.e. port 2 to frequency
meter size; matched termination to port 1 and detector mount to port 3, without
changing the position of the variable attenuator and gain control, knob of VSWR
meter.
 Measure and note down the reading on VSWR meter .let it be YD.
 Compute the directivity as Y- YD.
 Repeat the same for other frequency and Note down the corresponding values from
CRO.

PRECAUTIONS

 Beam voltage should not exceed 250V

 Reflected voltage should not exceed 270V
 Fan should be operated to reduce the heat for reflex klystron
 Every 20 minutes switch of the supply and set the initial conditions.
 Carefully follow the specifications of the devices and equipment.

OBSERVATIONS
INPUT X-(Port1) =
OUT PUT Y-(Port 31) =
OUT PUT Z-(Port 21) =
OUT PUT Yd-(Port 32) =
C=Coupling factor = IX-YI =
Insertion loss = IX-ZI=
I=Isolation = IX- Yd I =
Directivity= IY- Yd I= I-C=

RESULT :Directivity, Coupling factor and Insertion loss of the Directional coupler are
determineDirectivity=
Coupling factor=
Insertion loss=
25
VIVA QUESTIONS

1. What is the primary purpose of a directional coupler?

2. How far apart are the two holes in a simple directional coupler?

3. What is the purpose of the absorbent material in a directional coupler?

4. In a directional coupler that is designed to sample the incident energy, what

happens to the two portions of the wavefront when they arrive at the pickup probe?

5. What happens to reflected energy that enters a directional coupler that is designed to
sample incident energy?

26
 9. STUDY OF ANTENNA TRAINER KIT
AIM: To arrange the trainer kit and perform the functional checks

APPARATUS:

1) Antenna Trainer
2) Motorized Antenna Unit
3) Receiving Unit Mast
4) RF detector
5) RPP 2661A (S/W)
6) Dual Probe/BNC Cable

BLOCK DIAGRAM:

Transmitting Receiving
Antenna Antenna

Antenna Trainer Motorized RF Detector

ST 2261 RF Antenna Unit ST 2261
Generator ST 2261A

THEORY:

 Antenna impedance (Za): It is defined as the ration of input voltage to input current
(or) Za= (Vi / Ii )Ω
 Za =Ra+jXa , Here, the reactive part Xa results from fields surrounding the antenna.
The resistance part Ra is given by Ra = Rl +Rr .
Rl represents losses in the antenna.
Rr is called radiation resistance
Radiation resistance Rr is defined as fictitious or hypothetical resistance that would
dissipate an amount of power equal to the radiated power
Rr= Power radiated / I2rms
 Directional characteristics: These are also called radiation characteristics these are of
two types
a) Field strength pattern: It is the variation of absolute value of field strength
as a function of θ. E Vs θ is called field strength pattern
b) Power Pattern: It is the variation of radiated power with θ.

27
 Effective length of Antenna (L eff): It is equal to the length of an equivalent linear
antenna which radiates the same field strength as the actual antenna and the current is
constant throughout the length of linear antenna. Effective length of an antenna is
always less than actual length.
 Radiation Intensity: It is defined as the power radiation in the given direction per unit
solid angle
RI= r2 P = Ύ2 E2 / η (watt / unit solid angle)
 Directive gain: It is defied as the ratio of intensity of radiation in a specified
direction to the average radiation intensity
 DirectivityD: It is defied as the ratio of the maximum radiation intensity to the
average radiation intensity
 Power gain: it is defined as the ratio of 4π times the radiation intensity to the total
input power
gp = 4π(RI)/Wt
 Antenna Efficiency : It is defined as the ratio of radiated power to the input power
Η = Wr/Wt = Wr/(Wr+W )= gp/gp
 Affective Area :
Ae= (λ2 / 4π) gd (m2)
 Antenna Equiva lent Circuit : It is a series Ra , La and Ca
 Antenna Bandwidth: It is defined as the range of frequencies over which the antenna
maintained its characteristics and parameter like gain, front to back ratio.
 Front to Back Ratio: It is defined as the ratio of radiated power in the desired
direction to the radiated power in the opposite direction.
 Polarization: It is defined as the electric vector of the EM wave produced by an
antenna.

PROCEDURE:

 Place the main unit on the table and connect power chord.
 RF generator: Adjust level potentiometer to middle position.
 Modulation generator: Select Switch to „INT‟ position and adjust level
potentiometer to the middle position.
 Install transmitting mast, place it beside the main unit and connect it is to main
with „RFOUT‟ using a BNC cable of 25” long.
 Install receiving mast and keep it at some distance from the transmitter mast.
 Place RF detector unit beside the receiving mast and connect it to the receiving
mast and connect it to the receiving mast using a BNC to BNC cable of 25” long.
 Keep the base of the transmitting mast such that the „0‟ position of goniometer
should be directed towards the RF detector and also align the masker of the mast with
„0‟ position
 Install folded dipole antenna on transmitting mast. Keep its direction towards,
receiving mast by rotating it in clock wise direction.
 Switch on the main unit and check the display in DPM of directional coupler. It
will show some reading according to the level knob at starting

28
 Connect a 7.5V adapter to RF detector unit, switch it „ON‟ Keep the level knob at
middle position, it will show some reading according to level knob at starting (incase
of overloading reduce it by level potentiometer of RF detector.)
 Now vary the F.S adjust potentiometer of directional coupler to make the display
reading 100 μ amp. And then adjust the level of RF detector to show ¾th reading of
main unit display.
 Rotate the transmitting antenna between 0 to 360 and observe the display at RF
detector. The variations reading indicates that transmitter and receiver are working and
radiation pattern is formed.

RESULT: The trainer kit is arranged and the functional checks are performed.

29
 10.RADIATION PATTERN OF 3 ELEMENT
YAGI-UDA FOLDED DIPOLE
AIM: To observe the radiation pattern of Yagi-Uda 3-element folded dipole.

APPARATUS:

1) Antenna Trainer
2) Motorized Antenna Unit
3) Receiving Unit Mast
4) RF detector
5) RPP 2661A (s/w)
6) Dual Probe/BNC Cable
7) Yagi-Uda 3-element folded dipole

BLOCK DIAGRAM:

Transmitting Receiving
Antenna Antenna

Antenna Trainer Motorized RF Detector

ST 2261 RF Antenna Unit ST 2261
Generator ST 2261A

Director

Balun enclosure

Active element

Reflector

Fig: Yagi-Uda 3-element folded dipole

30
THEORY:

A Yagi-Uda antenna is familiar as the commonest kind of terrestrial TV antenna to

be found on the roof top of houses. It is usually used at frequencies between 30MHz and
3GHz or a wavelength range of 10m to 10cm. The rod length each and the spacing of the
element are about 1/3 of wavelength. There are three kinds of elements (or rods) mounted
on a longitudinal connecting bar or rod. Its doesn‟t matter if this connecting rod conducts as
it is oriented at right angles to currents in the elements, end to the radiating electric field it
supports little or no current and doesn‟t contribute to radiation. The three types of elements
are the driven element, reflector (3) and directors only the driving element is connected to
the feeder the either elements coupled to the transmitter power through the local
electromagnetic fields which induce currents in them. The driven element is often a folded
dipole which by itself would have a driving point impedance of about 300Ω to the feeder
but it is reduced by the shunting effect of other elements so a typical Yagi-Uda has driving
point impedance in the range 20-90Ω. The maximum gain of a Yagi-Uda antenna is limited
to an amount given approximately by the gain of a dipole (1.66) times the total number of
elements

PROCEDURE:

 Mount Yagi-Uda 3 element folded dipole antenna on the top of transmitting

antenna.
 Main Unit: Place the main unit on the table and connect power chord.
RF generator: Adjust level potentiometer to middle position.
Directional coupler: Select the switch to „FSADJ; potentiometer to middle position
 Install transmitting mast and keep it at some distance from the receiver mast.
 Install receiving mast and keep it at some distance from the transmitter mast
 Place RF detector unit beside the receiving mast and connect it to the receiving
mast using a BNC to BNC
 Keep the base of the transmitting mast such that „0‟ position of goniometer
should be directed towards the RF detector and also align the marker of the mast
with „0‟ position.
 Install detector antenna on the RX mast, keep its direction towards the
transmitter mast by rotating it in counter clock wise direction.
 Install folded dipole antenna on the transmitter mast keep its direction towards
the receiver mast by rotating it in counter clock wise direction.
 Switch on the main unit and check the display in DPM of directional coupler. It
will show some reading according to its level knob at starting.
 Connect a 7.5V adapter to the RF detector unit, switch it ON and keep the level
knob at middle position. It will show some reading according to its level knob at
starting (Incase of over loading, reduce it level potentiometer of a RF detector.)
 Now vary the RF‟s adjust the potentiometer of directional coupler to make the
display reading 100µA and then adjust the level of RF detector to show the ¾
reading of the main unit display.
 Rotate the transmitting antenna between 0o-360o and observe the display at RF
detector. The variation in reading indicates that the transmitter and receiver are
working and radiation patterns formed.
31
OBSERVATIONS
Beam width=
Maximum Gain=
Side lobe Angle=
Angle(θ) Power(dB) Current (µA)

GRAPH:

Now do plot the polar graph for the transmitting antenna, start tracking the reading
at the interval of 5o to 10o and note the reading of RF detection display.

RESULT:

Hence the radiation pattern of 3 element Yagi-Uda element has been observed and
plotted.
Beam Width=
Maximum Gain=
Sidle lobe angle=

VIVA QUESTIONS

1. What is the length of the director when compared to the driven element?

2. What should be the distance between the two directors in Yagi- Uda?

3. Mention few applications of Yagi Uda element?

4. Is yagi uda antenna a narrow band or a broad band element . Why?

5. Explain the importance of the folded dipole in the Yagi- Uda array?

32
 11.RADIATION PATTERN OF 5 ELEMENT
YAGI-UDA FOLDED DIPOLE
AIM: To observe the radiation pattern of Yagi-Uda 5-element folded dipole.

APPARATUS:

8) Antenna Trainer
9) Motorized Antenna Unit
10) Receiving Unit Mast
11) RF detector
12) RPP 2661A (s/w)
13) Dual Probe/BNC Cable
14) Yagi-Uda 5-element folded dipole

BLOCK DIAGRAM:

Transmitting Receiving
Antenna Antenna

Antenna Trainer Motorized RF Detector

ST 2261 RF Antenna Unit ST 2261
Generator ST 2261A

Directors

Balun enclosure

Active element

Reflector

Fig: Yagi-Uda 5-element folded dipole

33
THEORY:

A yagi-uda antenna or array is a directional antenna consisting of a driven element

and additional parasitiic element. The reflector element is slightly longer (5%) than driven
dipole and the directors are shorter. This designa has an increase in directionality and gain
compared to a simple dipole. Highly directional antennas like yagi-uda are referred to as
„Beam antennas‟: due to high gain, but over a rather narrow band width. The lengths of
directors are smaller than of the reflectors according to an eloborate design procedure. The
elements are usually parallel in one plane, supposed on a single crossbar in one plane,
supported on a single croos bar known as boom. The driven element typically a λ/2 dipole
or forlded dipole is directly excited. All the elements are considered parastic and they
reradiate power which thet receive from the driver element. The parastic element can be
considered as a dipole with a gap at its centre, feed point, now instead of attaching the
antenna to the lead, we connect it to short circuit which reflects all of the incident power
1800 out of phase.

PROCEDURE:

 Mount Yagi-Uda5-element folded dipole antenna on the top of transmitting antenna.

 Main Unit: Place the main unit on the table and connect power chord.
RF generator: Adjust level potentiometer to middle position.
Directional coupler: Select the switch to „FSADJ; potentiometer to middle position
 Install transmitting mast and keep it at some distance from the receiver mast.
 Install receiving mast and keep it at some distance from the transmitter mast
 Place RF detector unit beside the receiving mast and connect it to the receiving
mast using a BNC to BNC
 Keep the base of the transmitting mast such that „0‟ position of goniometer
should be directed towards the RF detector and also align the marker of the mast
with „0‟ position.
 Install detector antenna on the RX mast, keep its direction towards the
transmitter mast by rotating it in counter clock wise direction.
 Install folded dipole antenna on the transmitter mast keep its direction towards
the receiver mast by rotating it in counter clock wise direction.
 Switch on the main unit and check the display in DPM of directional coupler. It
will show some reading according to its level knob at starting.
 Connect a 7.5V adapter to the RF detector unit, switch it ON and keep the level
knob at middle position. It will show some reading according to its level knob at
starting (Incase of over loading, reduce it level potentiometer of a RF detector.)
 Now vary the RF‟s adjust the potentiometer of directional coupler to make the
display reading 100µA and then adjust the level of RF detector to show the ¾
reading of the main unit display.
 Rotate the transmitting antenna between 0o-360o and observe the display at RF
detector. The variation in reading indicates that the transmitter and receiver are
working and radiation patterns formed.

34
OBSERVATIONS

Beam width=
Maximum Gain=
Side lobe Angle=
Angle(θ) Power(dB) Current (µA)

GRAPH:

Now do plot the polar graph for the transmitting antenna, start tracking the reading
at the interval of 5o to 10o and note the reading of RF detection display.

RESULT:

Hence the radiation pattern of 5 element Yagi-Uda element has been observed and
plotted.
Beam Width=
Maximum Gain=
Sidle lobe angle=

VIVA QUESTIONS

1. What is the length of the reflector when compared to the driven element?
2. What are the pro and cons or 5 element Yagi-Uda antenna when compared to 3 element
Yagi-Uda antenna
3. Arrange the lengths of the reflector ,director and driven element in an order
4. If a dipole is used as a feed element in the Yagi- Uda array then than what is the
impedance of the dipole element?

35